aquatic ecosystems of the far north of ontarionicholasjones/aquatic... · 4/ fish communities 16...

Ministry of Natural Resources

Aquatic Ecosystems of the Far North of OntarioState of Knowledge

Aquatic Ecosystems of the Far North of OntarioState of Knowledge

T.R. MarshallMarshall Consulting179 Windsor StreetThunder Bay, ONP7B [email protected]

N.E. JonesOntario Ministry of Natural ResourcesRiver and Stream Ecology LabTrent University, DNA Building2140 East Bank DrivePeterborough, ONK9J [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4435-6513-4 (CD-ROM)© 2011, Queen’s Printer for Ontario

T.R. Marshall & N.E. Jones

Contact Information

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Marshall, Terry R., 1951- Aquatic ecosystems of the far north of Ontario [electronic resource] : state of knowledge

Includes bibliographical references.Electronic resource on CDROM.Also available on the Internet.Issued also in printed form.ISBN 978-1-4435-6513-4

1. Aquatic ecology—Ontario, Northern. 2. Ecosystem management—Ontario, Northern.3. Fishes—Ecology—Ontario, Northern. I. Jones, Nick, 1971- . II. Ontario. Ministry of Natural Resources. Applied Research and Development Branch.

QH541.5.W3 M37 2011 557.6097131 C2011-964031-7

© 2011 Queens Printer for OntarioPrinted in Ontario, Canada

ISBN 978-1-4435-6513-4 (CD-ROM)

Copies of this publication are available from:Ministry of Natural Resources Far North Branch5520 Hwy 101 EastP.O. Bag 3020 South Porcupine, ONP0N 1H0Fax: (705) [email protected]

For more information about this and other Far North Information and Knowledge Management projects, visit:http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FarNorth/index.html

http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FarNorth/index.html

IMinistry of Natural Resources

Aquatic Ecosystem Assessment–State of Knowledge

prefaceThe Far North Information and Knowledge Management (IKM) Plan is a proactive effort to provide, apply, and improve our best current information and knowledge in support of community based land use planning in the Far North of Ontario. This paper reports on the present state of knowledge of aquatic ecosystems within that vast and wet geography. It represents an important and timely synthesis of information ranging from internal government reports captured from Ministry of Natural Resources district offices to peer-reviewed scientific reports spanning a sparsely populated geography that is 42% of the province’s land mass.

This report is subdivided into six sections: the aquatic landscape; inventory, assessment and knowledge; fish communities; use and management of fisheries; threats to aquatic ecosystems; and information needs and recommendations. There are also a number of appendices containing data on the Patricia inventory, water-quality assessment, aquatic habitat inventory, species distribution maps, fish collections sites, commercial fisheries, and tourism.

The information contained within this state of knowledge report will be useful in assisting First Nation communities and resource planners. While the report identifies what we currently understand about the Far North aquatic ecosystems, it also identifies areas where we require further information. Direction is also provided for pursuing future science and inventory work that could inform community based land use planning. The report provides important background information and serves as a literature review to guide other aquatic ecosystem projects linked to the Far North IKM Plan.

Community based land use decisions for the Far North will be made jointly by First Nation communities and Ontario. Thus, the type of “Western Science” information contained within this report would ideally be applied when combined with Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge of the land.

Steve McGovern Aquatic Ecosystems Team Leader Ministry of Natural Resources Northeast Science and Information

IIMinistry of Natural Resources


Support for this project was provided by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources’ Far North Branch under the Information and Knowledge Management Far North Cataloguing Project. The authors would like to thank Fritz Fischer and Sarah Quesnelle and District Staff in Red Lake, Sioux Lookout, Geraldton, Hearst, and Cochrane for their considerable efforts in locating, scanning, and documenting the grey literature cited throughout this report. Chris Chenier identified new records of species occurrence, and he and Mark Sobchuk provided information on tourism and commercial fishing activity in the north. Critical review and comments on the manuscript were provided by Nigel Lester, Mark Sobchuk, Steve McGovern, Chris Chenier, Helen Ball, Warren Dunlop, Kim Armstrong, Sandra Orsatti, Brian Grantham, and Paul Sampson. Thanks also are given to Far North staff Jane Toppozini for leading the Far North Cataloguing Project, and Susan Thorne and Lauren Toppozini for report editing, design, and layout.

acknowledgements

III

CONtENts

preface I

acknowledgements II

1/ IntroductIon 1

2/ the aquatIc landscape 32.1 Climate 32.2 Physiographic Ecoregions 52.3 Lakes and Drainage Systems 5

3/ Inventory, assessment, and knowledge 83.1 Patricia Inventory 83.2 Northern Ontario Water Resources Studies 103.3 West Patricia Land Use Plan 113.4 Aquatic Habitat Inventory 123.5 Moose River Basin Studies 143.6 Broadscale Monitoring Program (Inland Lakes) 153.7 Other Information Sources 15

4/ fIsh communItIes 164.1 History of Fish Collections 184.2 Common Species and Those of Special Interest 194.3 Species of Rare or Questionable Status 204.4 Species of Concern Due to Expanding Ranges 21

5/ use and management of fIsherIes 235.1 Subsistence Fisheries 235.2 Commercial Fisheries 255.3 Recreational Fisheries (Tourism) 275.4 Fisheries Management 29

6/ threats to aquatIc ecosystems 316.1 Habitat Alterations 316.2 Aquatic Invasive Species 326.3 Overharvest of Fish Stocks 326.4 Climate Change 32

7/ InformatIon needs and recommendatIons 34

8/ appendIces 36

9/ references 37

1Ministry of Natural Resources


The Far North is a vast and unique part of Ontario. It covers more than 42% of the province, stretching from Manitoba in the west, to James Bay and Quebec in the east, with its southern boundary roughly following the 51st parallel. It exhibits affinities with global environments of the southern subartic, with similar climatic characteristics and biological resources as those found in Alaska, northern Europe, and Siberia. Water is everywhere, comprised of countless lakes, endless kilometres of rivers, and a myriad of fens, bogs, marshes and swamps (Riley 2011). The boreal forest stretching across this region is the largest contiguous intact forest remaining in the world (Lee et al. 2006).

The Far North of Ontario is one of the most sparsely populated regions south of the arctic in Canada and is currently home to about 24,000 people. The area is largely ecologically intact and all-weather roads and rail transportation are limited. Aircraft are the primary means of access, except for a limited network of winter roads and waterways, which continue to be the main transportation corridors for those living in the area. This remoteness has meant minimal attention has been given to resource inventories, except those features of potential economic value to outside business interests.

Fish communities in this part of Ontario are among the most unaltered in North America and their habitat is, for the most part, still pristine. Subsistence, commercial, and recreational fisheries are known to exert considerable pressure on some of the larger lakes and rivers, but these pressures are generally quite localized, often adjacent to First Nations communities. Smaller waterbodies across vast portions of the region are lightly fished, if at all.

Still, change is occurring and there are new pressures for development. The Wildlife Conservation Society Canada has published a comprehensive report on the status of, and threats to, fish communities of Ontario’s north (Browne 2007). It provides a detailed review of the distribution, ecology, and status of the primary fish species. In addition, it includes a summary of the impact of resource extraction and development on fish, related to forestry, hydroelectricity (dams), mining, and road access. Browne (2007) also offers policy and research recommendations for fish conservation and management.

Another recent and very relevant document examines the status and trends of fish and aquatic resources within the Hudson Plains ecozone (McGovern and Vukelich 2009). Although the boreal shield area to the south is not part of this analysis, this report provides a vast amount of information on human influences within this large region of Northern Ontario and identifies data gaps and science needs.

The goal of this project was to provide a comprehensive review of the current state of MNR’s knowledge of aquatic resources in the Far North, applicable to the entire planning area. To do this, we’ve built on the work of Browne (2007) and McGovern and Vukelich (2009), while incorporating data and information from many other sources. As a first step, we performed an exhaustive search of MNR archives for information related to historic inventory programs, research studies, and district assessment work. All relevant material was documented and source documents were scanned into PDFs.

1/ IntroductIon

WetlandsRiley_2011



We begin by describing the Far North in terms of its physiography and climate. This is followed with an overview of information sources, ranging from early fisheries programs to more recent aquatic studies. We then describe what is known about the fish communities, providing a definitive species list for this area and distributional maps for each taxon. Also discussed are rare species, species of special interest, and species in the process of expanding their range. Next, we identify the different fisheries resource users, map the locations of their activities, and provide estimates of the annual harvest attributable to each. Lastly, we discuss threats to the aquatic resources of the Far North and offer suggestions as to what additional information and research is required to address these.

The report is organized into the following sections:

• The aquatic landscape Its climate, its ecozones, and its drainage systems • Inventory, assessment, and knowledge Previous work done and the types of data collected • Fish communities Species occurrence and distribution • Users of the resource Who the fish harvesters are and how much they take • Threats to aquatic ecosystems Overfishing, invasive species, habitat alterations, and climate change • Information needs and recommendations What we need to know to better manage the resource

Appendices to the report include maps of fish species distribution along with data tables documenting the locations and chronology of fish collections; reports and data related to historic inventory and assessment studies (Patricia Inventory, Northern Ontario Water Resources Studies, West Patricia Land Use Plan, and Aquatic Habitat Inventory); commercial fishery quota information; and locations of tourism operations in the Far North.



2/ the aquatIc landscapeThe Far North of Ontario experiences a great variation in climate, in terms of both temperature and precipitation. It is comprised of two physiographic ecoregions, each with very distinct surface features. A number of the province’s largest drainage systems are contained within its boundaries.

2.1 clImate

This region is characterized by a continental subarctic climate with long cold winters and brief warm summers. Hudson Bay moderates the temperature of the lowlands during summer but the effect diminishes in winter when the bay is ice-covered. The mean daily temperature in January varies from -25 to -20°C following a north–south gradient (Chapman and Thomas 1968). In the summer, this gradient shifts in a more north-easterly direction, with the coastal areas experiencing much colder mean July

Figure 2.1.1. Growing Degree Days > 5°C. Isopleths plotted using Ontario Climate Model (Mackey et al. 1996), based on mean temperature values from 1968–1988. Recent temperature norms are considerably greater, but follow a similar pattern.



temperatures than the inland areas near the Manitoba border (12°C versus 18°C). Growing degree days follow a similar pattern, decreasing in a north-easterly gradient (Figure 2.1.1). As such, the community of Pikangikum experiences warmer summers than that of Thunder Bay, despite being much further north.

Annual precipitation follows a different pattern, with the least amount recorded in the extreme northwest corner, and the greatest in the southeast (Chapman and Thomas 1968). Average annual precipitation is approximately 500 to 800 mm per year. Snow accounts for about one-third of the total precipitation, with winter accumulations averaging about 2000 mm, approximately half that experienced in the Great Lakes area to the south.

The spring break-up on major rivers tends to occur in late April or early May. Ice jams can raise river levels by 7 to 10 m during this period (Environment Canada 2005a). Ice jams are common here because most watersheds are oriented south to north. Headwaters areas in the south melt first but flow north-easterly into still frozen waters, resulting in a build-up of ice.

Figure 2.2.1. Ecozones of the Far North and MNR’s administrative regions.

http://ecozones.ca/english/zone/HudsonPlains/land.html



2.2 physIographIc ecoregIons

The Far North consists of two principal regions: the Boreal Shield ecozone and the Hudson Plains ecozone (Figure 2.2.1). The Boreal Shield portion is a vast area underlain with ancient Precambrian rock that was last scoured by retreating Wisconsin ice sheets 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. At this time, depositional and erosional processes created tens of thousands of lakes, ranging in size from small ponds to 62,000 ha, and varying in depth, transparency and shoreline complexity. The elevation and bedrock control of this region contributes to occasional steep stream gradients and deranged drainage patterns, resulting in complicated riverine systems. This overall richness of aquatic habitat has contributed to a diverse fish community (Ryder et al. 1964).

The Hudson Plains ecozone encompasses almost 25 percent of the province. It is a formerly submerged marine region, once covered by the continental ice sheet. This area is still undergoing isostatic rebound, with its raised beaches evident as a series of sandy ridges (Webber et al. 1970). It is the world’s third largest wetland, and its flat terrain, impervious soil, and poor drainage contribute to a myriad of muskegs, bogs, and connecting water. These features cover greater than 80 percent of the surface area of this region, while lakes and rivers account for less than 3 percent (Fahlgren 1985b). Few large lakes are present and these are generally quite shallow. Most of the countless small ponds and bogs freeze completely in the winter. River systems in this ecozone meander across low gradient alluvial valleys. A local anomaly is the metamorphic intrusion forming the Sutton Ridges (Figure 2.2.1). This upland was never inundated with saltwater, and its deeper lakes and swifter streams support a wider array of fish species.

The Boreal Shield ecozone falls almost totally within MNR’s Northwest Region, while most of the Hudson Plains ecozone is contained within the Northeast Region (Figure 2.2.1).

2.3 lakes and draInage systems

Rivers, lakes, and wetlands are predominant features of the landscape of the Far North, contributing more than half of the total surface area (Fahlgren 1985b). There are five major drainage basins (Table 2.3.1; Figure 2.3.1), with three of these, the Severn, Winisk, and Attawapiskat, falling entirely within the Far North boundary. The largest of these drainages is the Albany, of which the Kenogami River is a primary tributary. The watersheds of the three principal tributaries of the Moose River (the Missinaibi, Mattagami, and Abitibi rivers) fall largely to the south of the planning area.

Secondary drainages to James Bay include the Ekwan, Kapiskau, and Harricanaw rivers. Drainage systems of Hudson Bay (through Manitoba) extend to this area. The Bloodvein and Berens rivers flow into the Nelson River drainage, and to the north, the Echoing River flows into the Hayes River drainage.

All drainage systems follow natural flow patterns with the exception of the Albany River. Three large headwater areas of this river have been dammed and diverted to improve hydroelectric developments to the south (Figure 2.3.1). These include the Lake St. Joseph, the Ogoki Reservoir, and the Long Lake diversion, with a mean annual



diversion rate of 86, 113, and 45 m3/sec, respectively (Ghassemi and White 2007). Together, these have reduced the mean annual discharge of the Albany River by 17%.

While lakes are rare on the Hudson Plains, they are everywhere on the Boreal Shield. An accurate count of all waterbodies has yet to be made, although Cox (1978) provides preliminary estimates of moderate- to large-sized lakes. A recent inventory of waterbodies within Ontario’s Fisheries Management Zones (FMZ) (MNR 2008) indicates that 34% of the province’s lakes greater than 20 ha in area are found in FMZ 2, which is largely contained within the Far North (see Figure 5.4.2). Add to this the lakes and ponds occurring within the other northern FMZs and the vastness of this resource becomes very apparent.

The amount of flowing water is equally impressive. The mean annual outflow from the five major rivers flowing into James and Hudson Bay totals about 4500 m3/sec (Table 2.3.1); in comparison, this represents two-thirds of the outflow of the entire Great Lakes.

Figure 2.3.1. Primary and secondary drainages of the Far North, and the three diversions of the Albany River.



These northern rivers are ranked as among the world’s largest with the Severn and Albany rivers nearing 1000 km in length. The bulk of the provinces fresh water passes through these water courses.

Table 2.3.1. Major drainage basins of the Far North.

Drainage Basin Length Basin Area (km2)Mean Annual Discharge

(m3/sec)

severn 982 102,800 578*

Winisk 475 67,300 507*

Attawapiskat 748 50,200 626

Albany 982 135,200 1420

Moose 547 108,500 1370

*Values from Fahlgren (1985b), Plate 50; all other values from Natural Resources Canada (2008).

http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/rivers.html#bay



Four early MNR/Ministry of the Environment (MOE) programs which date back 25–50 years have contributed most of our knowledge of the fisheries and aquatic resources of the Far North. These programs, presented here in order of their timelines are the Patricia Inventory, the Northern Ontario Water Resources Studies, the West Patricia Land Use Plan, and the Aquatic Habitat Inventory.

More recently, extensive environmental impact studies have been undertaken in the Moose River Basin. Most of this area is not part of the Far North, but the work provides a rich knowledge base related to the form, function, and ecology of these northern rivers.

A new MNR initiative is the Broadscale Monitoring Program, designed to assess fish populations and their habitat across inland lakes of the province. If implemented as planned, it will provide the first opportunity in decades to learn more about fish species distribution in this part of Ontario, while also tracking changes in abundance.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) can provide a great deal of information, especially with regard to species occurrence and distribution within water courses at different times of the year, and spawning times and locations. However, collecting and assembling this information will be a massive undertaking and it is outside the scope of this report.

3.1 patrIcIa Inventory

The Patricia Inventory began in 1959, as was jointly sponsored by the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests (ODLF) and the Indian Affairs Branch of the Department of Citizenship and Immigration of Canada. Its purpose was to assess the economic potential of Northern Ontario’s fisheries resources. R.A. Ryder’s pivotal paper describing the morphoedaphic index as a tool to evaluate potential fish production (Ryder 1965) was unquestionably the most notable product to come out of this exercise.

The focus of this program was the commercial fishing industry, particularly as an economic impetus to First Nation communities. There was a need to understand what the harvest potential of the region was in relation to current allocations and what the impediments were to increasing the commercial production. At the time, there was a reduction in the air support required to service the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line, and a desire by commercial airlines to maintain their business through other means, such as the transport of fish.

Sioux Lookout served as the primary base for field work, which began in 1959 and continued until the mid 1960s. The field studies were quite diverse, including fish inventories (Ryder et al. 1964), lake and stream surveys (Ryder 1959), limnological studies (Ryder 1961), and a multi-lake creel census (ODLF 1961). In keeping with the commercial fish focus, there were also studies on the effectiveness of fishing gear (Penney 1966) and parasite (Triaenophorus) investigations related to the marketability of lake whitefish (Armstrong 1961).

3/ Inventory, assessment, and knowledge



Select lakes were also sampled for phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthos (the latter reported as oligochaetes, mollusks, insects, and crustaceans). These samples provide some pre-development baseline information for this part of Ontario.

The bulk of the fieldwork was focused on fish population assessments of 15 large- to medium-sized lakes with a commercial fishing history. All are located within the Boreal Shield ecozone with the exception of Sutton Lake (Figure 3.1.1). An intensive gill-netting program1 was carried out on each lake for a minimum of two consecutive years (Table 3.1.1). Big Trout Lake, the largest lake in the region, was netted for six consecutive summers (134 net days). Catches were summarized by species number and weight for each lake, sampling date, and mesh combination (with the length of the mesh panel recorded). This database is provided in Appendix 1. Other data collections, field reports and project summaries related to the Patricia Inventory are provided in Appendix 2.

1 See Ryder et al. 1964 for details on netting gear.

Figure 3.1.1. Location of Patricia Inventory study lakes.



Table 3.1.1. Sampling schedule for the Patricia Inventory fisheries studies, indicating the number of netting days per year for each lake.

Lake 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

Attawapiskat 74 32

Big trout 27 17 21 20 28 21

Deer 18 19

Finger 5 21 30

Magiss 6 7

Nikip 42 24

North Caribou 18 17

Petownikip 7 6

sakwasa 9 6

sachigo 34 56

sandy 18 49

st. Joseph 24 39

sutton 21 16

Winisk 31 47

Wunnumin 57 32

3.2 northern ontarIo water resources studIes

The Northern Ontario Water Resources Studies (NOWRS) was a joint federal-provincial program that began in 1965 to study the water resources of Northern Ontario. In particular, this was directed at “. . . waters draining into James Bay and Hudson Bay in Ontario, to assess the quantity and quality of water resources for all purposes; to determine present and future requirements for such waters; and to assess alternative possibilities for the utilization of such waters locally or elsewhere through diversions.” (Roy 1979). A total of 70 lakes were sampled from 1970 to 1973.

The various field components were carried out by the Ontario Water Resources Commission (now Ontario Ministry of the Environment [OMOE]). These included the development of a hydrometric network and gathering of hydrologic data, along with the evaluation of hydrogeologic conditions, water quality, and sediment studies at select sites within these northern watersheds.

In select lakes, water quality sampling was broadened to include the determination of phytoplankton and zooplankton counts, and chlorophyll a concentrations. An analysis of lake sediment chemistry and heavy metal concentrations in surface waters was also carried out in these lakes (Roy 1979).

All reports, data, and maps associated with this study are included in Appendix 3.



3.3 west patrIcIa land use plan

The West Patricia Land Use Plan (WPLUP) was developed over a five-year period beginning in 1977 (MNR 1982a). Its purpose was to identify and help resolve conflicting demands (e.g., tourism, timber harvesting, trapping, commercial and subsistence fishing) on the region’s natural resources. The planning area was the Boreal Shield ecozone of the Far North, extending south to latitude 50° in some locations (Figure 3.3.1). The plan was reviewed and completed in 1982, but it was never implemented.

At the time, a forestry company (Reed Limited) was proposing the development of an integrated forest-products complex in the Red Lake area that would require wood from the extensive unallocated timber stands to the north. There were many environmental concerns related to this development, along with social and economic issues. This controversy led to the creation of the Royal Commission on the Northern Environment in 1977 (Fahlgren 1985a). One product of the Commission was the publication of North of 50°: an atlas of far northern Ontario (Fahlgren 1985b). With its more than 200 maps and

Figure 3.3.1. Approximate boundaries of the West Patricia Land Use Plan (pink shading).



plates, this thematic atlas provides a somewhat dated but excellent reference source for this region.

As a part of the WPLUP planning process, background documents were prepared for each of the resource areas (e.g., forestry, fish, wildlife, and tourism). To assist with this, a fisheries team was assembled to report on the status of knowledge regarding sport fish, commercial fish, bait fish, and aquatic habitat in general. This team operated from 1978 to 1980.

This was largely a synthesis exercise and field studies associated with the fisheries program were quite limited. However, creel surveys were carried out on a number of West Patricia lakes in 1978 (Edwards et al. 1980). In the same year, the water quality of 255 lakes in the northern portion of the region was analyzed through a Hydrolab helicopter survey (MacRitchie 1979). An ancillary study collected total phosphorus and chlorophyll a samples from 134 lakes and related these parameters to potential fish production of the region (Ryan 1980).

A total of 16 fisheries technical reports were produced describing these field studies and other fisheries-related data syntheses. These reports are contained in Appendix 4.

3.4 aquatIc habItat Inventory

The Aquatic Habitat Inventory (AHI) was commonly referred to as the “lake survey program”2. It was a long-running MNR field initiative that began in 1968, peaked in the 1970s, and was brought to a close in 1988. A total of 9885 waterbodies3 were surveyed during this period, contributing much of what is currently known about aquatic habitat and fish species distribution across the province. However, the program was biased towards the most heavily utilized lakes and those closest to urban centers, with much less attention given to lakes of Northern Ontario (Figure 3.4.1). In addition, lakes known to support game fish were more likely to be selected for survey (Minns 1986).

There were two aspects of the AHI program: 1) the assessment of fish species representing both the large fish and small fish communities; and 2) a general description of the aquatic habitat. Large fish were sampled using overnight gill nets sets while small fish were collected using a variety of gear: minnow traps, dip nets, seine nets, electrofishing, and on some occasions, even rotenone. The habitat component consisted of bathymetric surveys, temperature and oxygen profiles, and some basic water chemistry. Field methods are described in Dodge et al. (1984).

In the Far North, a total of 308 waterbodies were surveyed between 1972 and 1986 (Figure 3.4.2). Prior to 1977, the selection of survey lakes was quite subjective (Eckersley et al. 1979). Most of these were of immediate interest to MNR, primarily due to heavy exploitation pressure attributable to commercial or sport fishing. In addition, there was a southern distributional bias due to the added expense of flying crews to more northerly sites.

2 A stream survey program was also a component of the AHI, but its focus was primarily on southern Ontario waters. 3 Two hundred and eighty-two of these lakes were actually surveyed prior to 1968, with the earliest surveys dating back 1957.

Standard methods were not followed during this early period and the aquatic habitat data are often lacking.



In 1977, funding was increased and there was a burst of activity during the next three years (114 lake surveys were completed in 1978 alone) (Figure 3.4.2). During this period, a more representative lake selection strategy was implemented. The details are provided in Eckersley et al. (1979).

A database of the Far North AHI is provided in Appendix 5.

Figure 3.4.1. Distribution of 9885 waterbodies sampled across Ontario as part of the Aquatic Habitat Inventory.



Figure 3.4.2. Schedule of Aquatic Habitat Inventories in the Far North.

3.5 moose rIver basIn studIes

Over the past two decades, there has been a considerable amount of information collected related to fish and aquatic habitat in the various sub-basins of the Moose River drainage (the Missinaibi, Mattagami, and Abitibi rivers). Much of this work was driven by environmental concerns related to hydroelectric development, pulp mill discharges, and mining activity. While these developments are located largely to the south (Figure 2.3.1), their impacts are felt downstream, within the Far North area.

To determine what these impacts might be, a multi-agency program was developed to model cumulative effects assessment using fish populations. Various field studies were carried out from 1991 to 1999 and a technical report was published which summarized the findings (Munkittrick et al. 2000).



Part of this work was funded by MNR’s Environmental Information Partnership (EIP), which was formed as an Ontario government response to issues raised by First Nations with Ontario Hydro’s hydraulic development plan for the Moose River Basin (EIP 1999). The EIP operated from March 1995 to April 1999 with its main goal to develop an information management system for the basin. A report by Vukelich (2006) summarizes the knowledge that was acquired by the EIP, along with the planning exercise for the Mattagami River System Water Management Plan.

The Moose River Basin Information Management System (MR BIMS) was a product of the EIP exercise. It is a catalogue of all information holdings related to the basin. It contains over 9,400 records, many of which have a fisheries or aquatic theme.

3.6 broadscale monItorIng program (Inland lakes)

Initiation of the inland lakes Broadscale Monitoring Program (BsM) in 2008 represents a opportunity to learn a great deal more about the fisheries resources of the north. This program is part of a new approach to recreational fisheries management in Ontario (MNR 2005). Lakes within different Fisheries Management Zones of the province will be sampled in five-year intervals to assess trends in fish populations, fish habitat, and the effectiveness of fisheries regulations.

This will be accomplished through an intensive field program that uses standardized gill net surveys to determine the status of both the small and large fish communities (MNR 2008). Fish populations will also be benchmarked through genetic and contaminant sampling. Zooplankton sampling and in some cases benthic sampling will augment the biotic component of the program. Fish habitat will be assessed through bathymetric and water quality surveys.

A second component of the program will be to monitor exploitation pressure across the various regions. In most of Ontario this will be done through aerial surveys of fishing activity. For the Far North, methods may vary, as it may be more effective to track the harvest through the involvement of the tourism industry and First Nations.

The first round of provincial sampling began in 2008, with lakes in the Far North slated for inventory in 2011 and 2012. Following this a status report will be produced, then a second round of sampling will begin.

3.7 other InformatIon sources

A thorough search was made to uncover other unpublished sources of information archived in northern MNR district and regional offices. These included such items as annual district fish and wildlife reports, stocking information, map products, and studies carried out by First Nations, Ontario Hydro, and mining companies or their consultants. All relevant material has been documented and digitized and is housed in a searchable database. Metadata for this information can be found in the Far North Catalog4.

4 Contact: Far North IKM Project Coordinator, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, P.O. Bag 3020, South Porcupine, Ontario P0N 1H0.



Our knowledge of fish distribution in the Far North is still in its infancy. Most collections were made decades ago and little work has been done in the past 25 years to augment these records. In general, we know something about the fish communities of most of the large lakes of the region, although these studies were usually quite preliminary. We know little about what species are present in the thousands of small- to moderate-sized waterbodies, or their distribution within thousands of kilometers of rivers and streams.

Records of occurrence exist for 50 species (Table 4.0.1.), although this number is arguably lower (see discussion below). Figure 4.1.1. illustrates the location of sites where sampling has occurred to date; individual species maps are included in Appendix 6.

Table 4.0.1. Freshwater fish species recorded within the Far North. Records of occurrence indicate the number of unique waterbodies and sites within river systems that samples were collected. Maps of these locations can be found in Appendix 6. The species list was compiled by merging some additional MNR records with the Fish Species Distribution Data System5 and including some early observations from Ryder et al. (1964).

Common Name MNR Code scientific NameRecords of Occurrence

sturgeons acipenseridae

Lake sturgeon 031 acipenser fulvescens 28

trouts Salmonidae (Salmoninae)

Lake trout 081 Salvelinus namaycush 41

Brook trout 080 Salvelinus fontinalis 31

Arctic char 079 Salvelinus alpinus 3

Whitefishes Salmonidae (Coregoninae)

Cisco 093 Coregonus artedi 139

Blackfin cisco 097 Coregonus nigripinnis 2

shortjaw cisco 100 Coregonus zenithicus 3

Lake whitefish 091 Coregonus clupeaformis 178

Round whitefish 102 Prosopium cylindraceum 8

Mooneyes Hiodontidae

Goldeye 151 Hiodon alosoides 8

Mooneye 152 Hiodon tergisus 4

5 The Fish Species Distribution Data System is an MNR database created in 1991 that documents fish species occurrence in Ontario from records dating back to 1910. This database was used to produce the checklist published by Mandrak and Crossman (1992). The Canadian Museum of Nature, Royal Ontario Museum, and MNR Aquatic Habitat Inventory provided the source records for Northern Ontario.

4/ fIsh communItIes




Pikes esocidae

Northern pike 131 esox lucius 330

Minnows Cyprinidae

Fathead minnow 209 Pimephales promelas 48

Bluntnose minnow 208 Pimephales notatus 6

Lake club 185 Couesius plumbeus 106

Creek chub 212 Semotilus atromaculatus 1

Fallfish 213 Semotilus corporalis 3

Emerald shiner 196 Notropis atherinoides 84

spottail shiner 201 Notropis hudsonius 256

Blacknose shiner 200 Notropis heterolepis 114

Common shiner 198 luxilus cornutus 12

Mimic shiner 206 luxilus volucellus 80

Golden shiner 194 Notemigonus crysoleucas 4

Pearl dace 214 Margariscus margarita 50

Northern redbelly dace 182 Phoxinus eos 7

Finescale dace 183 Phoxinus neogaeus 17

Longnose dace 211 rhinichthys cataractae 63

Eastern blacknose dace 210 rhinichthys atratulus 2

suckers Catostomidae

Longnose sucker 162 Catostomus catostomus 74

White sucker 163 Catostomus commersonii 325

silver redhorse sucker 168 Moxostoma anisurum 9

shorthead redhorse sucker 171 Moxostoma macrolepidotum 37

Cods gadidae

Burbot 271 lota lota 110

sticklebacks gasterosteidae

Brook stickleback 281 Culaea inconstans 85

threespine stickleback 282 gasterosteus aculeatus 23

Ninespine stickleback 283 Pungitius pungitius 172

trout-perches Percopsidae

trout-perch 291 Percopsis omiscomaycus 143

sunfishes Centrarchidae

Rock Bass 311 ambloplites rupestris 10

smallmouth Bass 313 Micropterus dolomieu 1

Table 4.0.1. cont.




Perches Percidae

Yellow perch 331 Perca flavescens 277

Walleye 334 Sander vitreus 447

sauger 332 Sander canadensis 46

Iowa darter 338 etheostoma exile 72

Johnny darter 341 etheostoma nigrum 221

River darter 345 Percina shumardi 12

Logperch 342 Percina caprodes 86

sculpins Cottidae

Mottled sculpin 381 Cottus bairdi 90

slimy sculpin 382 Cottus cognatus 64

spoonhead sculpin 383 Cottus ricei 7

Fourhorn sculpin 387 Myoxocephalus quadricornis 10

4.1 hIstory of fIsh collectIons

The early history of fish investigations in the Far North was described by Ryder et al. (1964). Dymond and Scott (1941) and Radforth (1944) provided initial species lists, based largely on surveys carried out by the Royal Ontario Museum from 1938–1942. These were later enhanced through a number of studies initiated by the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests (now MNR). The first of these was the Pacific Salmon project, which examined the feasibility of introducing two species of Pacific salmon into these northern watersheds (Ryder et al. 1964). As part of this study, fish collections were made in 1957 and 1958 from various coastal sites and tributary waters of Hudson and James Bay. Following this, the Patricia Inventory (1959-1965) was initiated to assess the economic potential of the fisheries resources of this region. Many lakes and rivers were sampled through this period that contributed substantially to our knowledge of fish communities in inland lakes of the north.

The greatest advancement to species mapping in Ontario was MNR’s Aquatic Habitat Inventory. As part of this program, fish were collected from 308 lakes in the Far North from 1972 and 1986 (Figure 3.4.1). As with the earlier two initiatives, uncommon species were submitted to the Royal Ontario Museum for expert verification.

Until recently, there has been no other government program directed at improving our understanding of species distribution in this area. However, fish sampling related to other programs, such as brook trout disease evaluations carried out in the 1980s, added to this knowledge base. In addition, local knowledge of MNR field staff and stakeholders has contributed additional species records, largely related to sport fish.

Some additional fish inventory work has been done by resource development companies and their contractors to document background environmental information required for development proposals. Examples of these are studies done at the sites of the Musselwhite and Victor Diamond mines (AMEC 2004) as part of the environmental assessment process. Much more activity of this type is expected in relation to the

Table 4.0.1. cont.



Ring of Fire development and other mining proposals. Scientific Collectors Permits are required for the collection of fish samples for these studies and the new reporting requirements of these permits should further expand our knowledge of fish distribution, at least in these local areas. All additional records have been included in our database of fish collection sites (Appendix 7).

4.2 common specIes and those of specIal Interest

The fish occurrence records (Table 4.0.1.) suggest that walleye is the most common species in the Far North, although this is likely an artifact of the sampling design. Due to the great economic importance of walleye, both as a sport and commercial species, much effort has gone into documenting where it can be found. Other very common species are northern pike, white sucker, and yellow perch. If a more unbiased sampling scheme had been in place, these fish may have proven to be more ubiquitous than walleye, consistent with species dominance rankings described by Marshall and Ryan (1987) for lakes of this part of Northern Ontario.

Figure 4.1.1. Location of fish sampling sites in the Far North.



Other large-bodied species that frequently occur in the Far North of Ontario are lake whitefish, burbot, and cisco. The most prevalent members of the small fish community are spottail shiner, followed by johnny darter, ninespine stickleback, and trout perch.

Brook trout is a species of great economic and ecological interest that occurs extensively throughout this area. The limited number of occurrence records (Table 4.0.1.) reflects the fact that this species commonly resides in flowing waters. In general, less effort has gone into sampling these habitats and repeat observations up and downstream often go unreported.

Brook trout occur as both a stream dwelling and sea-run form. They are resident in almost all the large rivers in the Far North, however they appear to be absent from the upper reaches of the Severn and Attawapiskat rivers and in the Berens River in the southwest (Ryder et al. 1964; Browne 2007). Particular attention has been directed at the sea-run population from the Sutton River, with research studies examining the life history of this species (Steele 1986; Malette 1993).

There is also considerable interest in the distribution and abundance of lake sturgeon, largely due to its status as a threatened species throughout most of its range in Ontario and as endangered within the western Hudson Bay watershed which includes the Berens River drainage (COSEWIC 2006). Lake sturgeon are found in the main stem of all large rivers flowing into Hudson Bay, along with their major tributaries and connecting lakes (Browne 2007). Habitat loss due to barriers (e.g., hydroelectric dams) has been identified as a particular concern for this species, as it can eliminate access to spawning areas. Overexploitation has also been an issue in the past and may continue to be a concern related to some subsistence fisheries.

The Ecosystem Status and Trends report for the Hudson Plains ecozone (Environment Canada 2005b) provides a thorough review of the current status, trends, and human influences affecting lake sturgeon, lake trout, brook trout, lake whitefish, and cisco (McGovern and Vukelich 2009). Maps are included which detail the distribution of these species within lakes and rivers of the Hudson Bay Lowland.

4.3 specIes of rare or questIonable status

Misidentification and other potential data errors are always an issue when compiling a species list. Species listed in Table 4.0.1. that are rare or for which there is uncertainty of identification or location are discussed below.

Creek chub have been recorded from a single site (Pierce Lake) in the Far North. This lake is near the Manitoba border in the headwaters of the Hayes River system that drains directly into Hudson Bay. Scott and Crossman (1973) identify central Manitoba as the most northwesterly limit for this species, and state that creek chub are not found north of Lake Superior. This is a questionable record since no other reliable information exists.

Eastern blacknose dace have a distribution similar to creek chub (Scott and Crossman 1973). However, it was found at two sites in the Far North: Lake 666 in the Severn River drainage and Shamattawa Lake in the Winisk River drainage. These records are also

http://www.cosewic.gc.ca/eng/sct5/index_e.cfm



questionable. If valid, they represent a northerly range extension for this species of about 1000 km.

There was a single report of mooneye from the Moose-Abitibi river confluence, and Scott and Crossman (1973) questioned its validity. Seyler (1997) confirmed that mooneye range from the Abitibi and Fredrick House rivers downstream to the Moose River. Seyler (1997) also noted that goldeye occur in the slow moving, turbid sections of the same rivers. Goldeye also occasionally occur in turbid lakes in the extreme western part of the region and attempts were made in the late 1960s to expand their range through adult introductions (ODLF 1970).

Two early records exist for blackfin cisco (Deer Lake and Attawapiskat Lake) along with three for shortjaw cisco (Sandy Lake, Big Trout Lake, and Attawapiskat Lake). Classification of the C. artedi complex was an issue when the records were originally collected (Ryder et al. 1964), as it continues to be today. Genetic sampling is required for definitive verification.

Fallfish are another rare species, having been observed at two sites only, one at the mouth of the Abitibi River and the other in the lower reaches of the Harricanaw River. This species is known to occur in the James Bay drainage of Ontario and Quebec (Scott and Crossman 1973) so there is no reason to doubt the validity of these records.

Arctic char are also rare, but known to occasionally run up the rivers of Hudson Bay. Ryder et al. (1964) reported specimens collected from the lower reaches of both the Severn and Winisk rivers. In these estuarine areas, marine species such as capelin (Mallotus villosus) might also be expected to occur (Ryder et al. 1964). A single specimen of lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus) was collected downstream of Winisk at the mouth of the river in 1964.

4.4 specIes of concern due to expandIng ranges

Rock bass are native to the Far North of Ontario, but with a very limited distribution. In the early to mid 1970s this species was recorded in a number of lakes in the headwaters of the Berens River, part of the Nelson River drainage. Ryder et al. (1964) had earlier reported rock bass from this area, along with a single specimen from Lake St. Joseph, the headwaters of the Albany River. They speculated on the possibility of a glacial connection between these drainage systems (Nelson and Albany) that would have allowed this colonization. Until recently, these two locations defined the most northerly extent of this species in Ontario (Scott and Crossman 1973).

Rock bass have also been recorded from Minchin Lake on the Otoskwin River, within the Attawapiskat River drainage. More recently (2001), they were identified from Makokibatan Lake, several hundred kilometers downstream on the Albany River. This species is also found in lakes in Wabakimi Park and the Brightsand Waterway within the Ogoki River system, another branch of the Albany River. These additional records could represent a new understanding of their historic range or they could be evidence that rock bass are expanding their distribution northward, perhaps in response to a warming climate. If the latter is true, due to the profound impacts this species can have on littoral



fish communities (Vander Zanden et al. 1999, 2004a, 2004b), they might be considered an invasive species, at least at this regional scale.

Two other species of concern are rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax) and smallmouth bass (Vander Zanden et al. 1999, 2004a; Mercado-Silva et al. 2006). Both species have expanded their range significantly in northwestern Ontario in recent years and are expected to continue in their northerly advance.

Two specimens of rainbow smelt were captured in May 2011 in Wavy Creek, which flows into the estuary of the Moose River (C. Chenier, MNR, pers. comm.)6. It can be assumed that this is a result of the spread of the introduced Atlantic population of rainbow smelt that originated in northwest Ontario and moved downstream into the Nelson River and entered Hudson Bay in 1998. It is known that these fish have been moving down the Hudson Bay coast from this initial entry point (Stewart and Lockhart 2005).

Other than this occurrence, rainbow smelt have not yet been documented in the drainage systems of the Far North; however, they do occur in several lakes in the Geraldton area immediately to the south. One of these is Klotz Lake, where they are a common item in the walleye diet (Evan Armstrong, pers. comm.). This is a headwater lake to the Albany River, through the Flint and Kenogami rivers, and downstream colonization of this species could be expected. Rainbow smelt invasions can have diverse impacts, including reduced densities of young-of-the-year walleye (Mercado-Silva et al. 2007) and increased contaminant loads in top predators (Vander Zanden and Rasmussen 1996).

The first confirmed record of smallmouth bass in the Far North was a specimen recently angled from the Moose River in 2008 (C. Chenier, MNR, pers. comm.). Previously, they were known to occur only in the upper reaches of the Missinaibi and Mattagami Rivers within the Moose River Basin (Seyler 1997). In 2009, smallmouth bass were also caught at the Albany Forks (Albany-Kenogami junction) (S. McGovern, MNR, pers.comm.). Downstream colonization from these sources is highly probable, especially in light of recent climate change predictions for this species (Shuter et al. 1980; Sharma and Jackson 2008).

6 As they have been recorded in this estuarine location only, rainbow smelt can be considered a marine species and as such are not currently included in the list of freshwater fish species occurring in the Far North.



Fish are of great importance to those living in the Far North. Historically, they have provided the high quality protein necessary to sustain aboriginal families when other food resources were limited. They also offered an opportunity for many of the same families to realize an income through the trade and commercial sale of fish. The highly esteemed recreational fishery also attracts tourism, which provides employment opportunities and has significant economic spin-offs for northern communities.

5.1 subsIstence fIsherIes

The term ‘subsistence fisheries’ refers to non-commercial, local food fisheries, or more succinctly “what one lives on” (Berkes 1988). For the indigenous people of the Far North, fish have always been a staple source of protein, primarily as food for themselves, but also for their sled dogs and for trap bait7. Rogers (1972) provides a historic background of this use of fish through the past two centuries. In recent years dog teams have been replaced by snow machines and that has resulted in a reduced demand for fish for this purpose. However, fish flesh continues to be an important and often underestimated part of the Aboriginal diet (Hopper and Power 1991), with harvest occurring across large parts of their traditional territory (Berkes et al. 1995).

In the past, fish were captured through means such as fish traps, weirs, and spearing, but since the 1970s gill nets have become the gear of choice (Rogers 1972). Lake whitefish and walleye are the preferred species for consumption, followed by northern pike and suckers (Hopper and Power 1991). If caught, lake sturgeon and brook trout were considered a delicacy. The remainder of the catch (cisco, burbot, and suckers) was commonly scattered on shore to attract fur-bearing animals (Hopper and Power 1991).

Quantifying the subsistence fishery became a debated research topic that was addressed in a 1988 American Fisheries Society symposium (Berkes 1990). Across Canada, annual per capita estimates varied from 8 to 613 kg/yr of whole fish, clustered at about 60 kg/yr. Berkes (1990) concluded that Canada–wide the subsistence fishery consumes a significant amount of fish, amounting to minimally 10%, but probably closer to 33% of the total inland commercial fishery.

For First Nation communities in northwestern Ontario (Figure 5.1.1), Rogers (1972) estimated that as much as 0.9 kg/person/day of fish may have been required pre-1950 for all uses, but in the post sled-dog era this has been reduced to 0.23 kg/person/day. A more recent study supported by the Webequie band council examined fish consumption patterns in that community in 1988 (Hopper and Power 1991). They found the annual per capita consumption to be 118 kg round weight, equivalent to 0.21 kg/person/day of edible fish flesh.

If we were to assume that Webequie is representative of other First Nations communities and applied this consumption rate to current population figures (Statistics 7 Fish also have great importance in a cultural sense. Certain species are harvested at certain times of the year to honour tribal

traditions and clan associations. Also, significant events in the community such as the death of an elder or meetings with other tribal leaders may result in a community feast, which commonly involves fish. (M. Sobchuk, OMNR, pers. comm.).

5/ use and management of fIsherIes



Canada 2009), it may be possible that upwards of 250,000 kg of whole fish are being consumed in each of the larger northern communities. Summed across all communities (total population of 19,939), this equates to an annual harvest of 2,352,800 kg of fish within the Far North.

However, the Webequie fisheries estimates represent a somewhat dated look at a single community, and may not be representative of harvest practices today across the Far North. Protein from other wild sources such as moose, caribou and geese may be more prevalent in some communities, displacing the need for fish. Also, over the last few decades, a consistent supply of imported food products has reduced the dependency on traditional game.

Nevertheless, the populations of Far North Aboriginal communities are growing (Statistics Canada 2008) and have the potential of placing larger demands on the fishery. In particular, fisheries in proximity to larger Aboriginal communities may need attention to ensure sustainability. An understanding of harvest, both current, and historical is necessary to adequately inform local fisheries management decision making.

Figure 5.1.1 First Nation communities of the Far North scaled to their population size.



5.2 commercIal fIsherIes

Due to the remoteness and high cost of transportation, the commercial fishing industry was non-existent in this part of Ontario until the mid-1930s, except in a very local sense. At this time, market demand for lake sturgeon provided an opportunity for the development of fisheries at Pikangikum, Sandy Lake, and Wunnumin Lake (Rodgers 1972; Adams 1978). Sturgeon were also heavily fished in the Fort Hope area, with an anecdotal account of 30,000 pounds shipped out during a one-month period (D. Sayers. pers. comm., in Carlson 1979). Fish were transported to market by both tractor train and aircraft.

The 1950s saw a significant expansion in the industry. World War II had resulted in a greater demand and higher prices for fish products, and capital investments in the post-war era resulted in many improvements to the transportation sector (winter roads, aircraft, snow machines, outboard motors, etc.). In addition, there were incentives given to war veterans and First Nations people to encourage involvement in this activity (Adams 1978; Carlson 1979).

At this time, the preferred species shifted from lake sturgeon to lake whitefish, which became the mainstay of the industry, and to walleye, which generated the greatest revenue (Carlson 1979). Secondary species included northern pike, lake trout, and to a lesser degree, goldeye, suckers, and cisco (Rodgers 1972). In response to this shift in demand, attempts were made to expand the fisheries through introductions of more profitable species, such as goldeye in Sachigo Lake (ODLF 1970).

A licensing system was established in 1950 to control the gear used and to regulate the quantity of fish taken. Some licenses were issued to individuals, but others were assigned to First Nation communities (band licences) which allowed anyone to fish the quota and all to share in the revenue8. Through the 1950s and 1960s, commercial fishing grew to become the most important economic activity for many of these communities (Carlson 1979).

This trend began a reversal in the 1970s, perhaps precipitated by new mercury contaminant regulations that triggered closures or restrictions on a number of fisheries (ODLF 1972; Carlson 1979). In addition, some licences were withdrawn due to concerns of overexploitation of lake sturgeon (G. Deyne, MNR, pers. comm.). A provincial Freight Equalization Assistance Program was established in 1973 to help fishermen in northwestern Ontario meet the high costs of transporting fish and to encourage the harvest of under-utilized species (MNR 1974). Even so, the profit margin began a diminishing spiral due to high inflationary costs of capturing and transporting of fish, with freight costs at times exceeding the price paid for less valuable species (Carlson 1979). Finally, fewer young people appeared interested in learning this trade, and the number of fishermen declined within each band (Rodgers 1972). Together, these factors resulted in a reduction in fishing activity that continues to this day (Adams 1978).

8 It should be emphasized that commercial fishing licences, like trapping licences, mean more to First Nation families than simply a licence to harvest. These licences are perceived by many to represent the government’s acknowledgement of a family’s use of the resource within the fabric of the traditional use area. In recognition of the social and economic importance of this activity, there has been some relaxation in MNR’s commercial fish policy as it applies to use of licences in the Far North. (M. Sobchuk, MNR, pers. comm.)

http://www.archive.org/stream/ annualreportofmi1974ontauoft/annualreportofmi1974ontauoft_djvu.txt



There are currently 133 commercial fish licences issued in the Far North, associated with 120 unique waterbodies (Figure 5.2.1; Appendix 8). Most of these are First Nations band licences, with only two licences issued to non-First Nation individuals. Almost one half of these licences (64) are inactive, meaning that they have not been renewed and that no fishing is taking place. However, inactive licences have not been officially revoked, so reactivation may be an option in the future. Licences that are currently active may or may not be fished; the decision is tied to market condition and other factors. Areas fished by different bands are illustrated in Fahlgren (1985b; Plate 44).

Licence quotas were established following the guidance of two background reports of the Strategic Plan for Ontario Fisheries (SPOF) (MNR 1979; 1982b). SPOF Working Group Number Four (MNR 1979) outlined how the potential yield for all species could be determined using the MEI (Ryder 1965). SPOF Working Group Number Twelve (MNR 1982b) then provided the set of rules by which the total yield was to be partitioned amongst individual species. Figure 5.2.2 illustrates the potential fish harvest by species

Figure 5.2.1. Location of waterbodies in the Far North with commercial fish quota. Many of these licences are currently inactive and few lakes are being fished today.



across the Far North, as currently licensed. In reality, only a small fraction of these quotas have been harvested in recent years9. A breakdown of species quotas currently allocated to the various waterbodies is provided in Appendix 8.

5.3 recreatIonal fIsherIes (tourIsm)

Because of their remoteness, recreational fisheries in the Far North operate primarily through the resource-based tourism sector. Tourist outfitters have developed transportation networks (floatplanes, boat/canoe caches, etc.) and accommodation facilities (lodges, outposts cabins, tent camps) that are required to take part in this activity.

The tourist industry in this portion of the province began with the development of a number of main-base lodges during the late 1950s to mid 1970s (Hunt et al. 2002). Through the period of 1970 to 1985, many of these businesses expanded their 9 In 2005, only eight lakes in Ontario outside of the Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon were commercially fished for walleye and

northern pike. A total of 23,000 kg of walleye were harvested, with two northern lakes (Lake St. Joseph and Cat Lake) contributing 82% of the total (Browne 2007). Even with these fisheries in production, only 5% of the total commercial walleye quota allocated to the Far North was harvested that year.

Figure 5.2.2. Total commercial fish quota by species and licence status.



Figure 5.3.1. Location of tourism facilities in the Far North.

operations by building outpost camps on more remote lakes. Outfitters could then offer their guests different options: a stay in comfort with all the amenities at their main base lodge or a more rustic experience at one of their outpost camps, with the expectation of even better fishing. Today there are 190 tourist facilities operating in the Far North (Figure 5.3.1). A list of these facilities can be found in Appendix 9.

Tourism lodges and outposts on Crown Land are authorized under the Public Lands Act through leases or Land Use Permits (LUP). Conditions are attached to the LUP that, among other things, restrict the number of guests that can be accommodated at the site. This limit to occupancy is the primary means by which MNR manages these fisheries. Within the industry, this is referred to as “bed capacity.” The calculation is made by first determining the harvest potential for the waterbody, then dividing this by a factor that represents the mean annual harvest per unit of accommodation (bed) to arrive at the acceptable size of the facility (total number of beds).



The mean harvest by bed has been a topic of much debate between MNR and the tourism industry, with different models providing outputs which varied by as much as a factor of two. Armstrong et al. (1999) examined the efficacy of these various models within three regions in northwestern Ontario and provided updated harvest estimates. Based on this work, it was agreed that a “benchmark allocation” would be 100 kg walleye/bed/year in walleye-dominated lakes and 50 kg lake trout/bed/year in lake trout-dominated lakes in this part of the province. In lakes with multiple species, harvest would be estimated at 150 kg/bed of all species (MNR 2006).

The tourism industry in the Far North can currently accommodate around 1,900 guests at any given time (190 camps at ~10 beds each). Both walleye and northern pike are the target species at almost all sites, while lake trout occur as an added species in 17 lakes. Applying the multi-species harvest estimates (150 kg/bed) against this capacity suggests that this sector is responsible for an annual harvest of up to 285,500 kg for all species combined.

These numbers do not include the recreational harvest of brook trout. Brook trout is a highly esteemed species that attracts an elite group of anglers due to their size and abundance in this part of its range (Karas 2002). However, this fishery is fairly localized and the harvest of this species is not expected to add significantly to the total recreational harvest.

An additional source of recreational harvest that is not monitored is that of private fly-in day fishing. Activity of this type is thought to be minimal, but possibly increasing, and concentrated on the lakes along the southern boundary of this territory.

5.4 fIsherIes management

The estimate of potential harvest in the Far North is greater than 3.7 million kilograms for all species and fisheries combined. The subsistence fishery is thought to contribute the greatest portion of the harvest (about 60%) and the tourism sector the smallest (about 10%). The commercial fishery would contribute 30% of the total if all quota were fulfilled, but in recent years only a small percentage of this has been taken. There is a need to better understand harvest from each of these fisheries sectors.

The status of Ontario’s inland fisheries, including those of the Far North, have not been regularly monitored in the past. However, a field program has been recently implemented to answer this need, as part of A New Ecological Framework for Recreational Fisheries Management in Ontario (MNR 2005).

As a first step in this approach, 20 Fisheries Management Zones (FMZs) have been designated based on biological, climatic, and social factors (MNR 2005). The land base of the Far North falls within five of these zones (Figure 5.4.2). FMZ1 covers the remote and minimally populated region situated adjacent to Hudson Bay. The remainder of the Hudson Bay Lowland falls within FMZ3 and a portion of FMZ8 and includes three of the larger First Nations communities. FMZ2 encompasses almost the entire upland portion of the Far North and is by far the largest management zone in the province. It also includes the majority of First Nation communities. Approximately one-third of Ontario’s



lakes occur within this single FMZ (MNR 2008). A portion of FMZ4 also extends into the Far North in the Red Lake district.

Across Ontario, fisheries management plans are being developed for each FMZ. Advisory Councils, representing a wide range of stakeholders and First Nations,are assisting in the development of fisheries objectives and making recommendations for fisheries management strategies (MNR 2005). However, due to the size and sparsely distributed population of the Far North, a somewhat different model for First Nation and stakeholder involvement may be required.

A key component of this new management approach is the Inland Lake Broadscale Monitoring Program (BsM) which will sample fish populations, habitat variables, and assess fishing activity within each FMZ (MNR 2008). This assessment will be repeated over time providing a regular update of changes in such things as fish population health, fishing pressure, contaminant levels, aquatic invasive species, and habitat conditions. The first round of sampling began in the Far North will take place in 2011-2012.

Figure 5.4.1. Location of Fisheries Management Zones within the Far North planning area.



Fish communities in the Far North of Ontario are among the most unaltered in North America and their habitats are mostly pristine, but this could change in the near future as land and resource development occur. There are three current or pending issues to aquatic ecosystems over which we can exercise some level of local control: 1) habitat alterations related to resource extraction and development, 2) aquatic invasive species, and 3) overharvest of fish stocks. In addition, global climate change is expected to have varied and widespread impacts on the aquatic environment, to which we must be prepared to adapt.

6.1 habItat alteratIons

Both McGovern and Vukelich (2009) and Browne (2007) have provided a comprehensive review of how resource extraction and development may impact aquatic ecosystems in Northern Ontario. McGovern and Vukelich (2009) evaluated hydroelectric development10 and mining activities within the Hudson Plains ecozone. Browne (2007) discussed these resource areas as well, but also addressed concerns related to timber extraction (forestry) across the broader part of Northern Ontario.

Hydroelectric dams affect aquatic ecosystems in three primary ways: 1) they act as barriers to migration, blocking the movement of fish and other aquatic organisms; 2) they alter the flow, nutrient, sediment, and temperature regimes above and below the dams and possibly strand fish; and 3) the construction of reservoirs upstream of dams can result in erosion problems, loss of spawning areas, and increased methyl mercury uptake within the aquatic food chain (Stokes and Wren 1987).

Mining construction and operation can effect aquatic environments by: 1) increasing human access to surrounding lakes and rivers; 2) physically altering or destroying aquatic habitats; 3) releasing effluents into lakes and rivers from the mine and/or the ore processing facility; and 4) creating mine tailings (piles of waste rock and processing waste) that weather and leach metals and other contaminants into adjacent surface water and groundwater (Browne 2007).

Forestry also requires road development, which can result in fragmentation of aquatic habitat (e.g., poorly installed culverts), erosion and sedimentation, and increased fish harvest attributable to new access. In addition, logging activities expose soils, resulting in changes in water flow regimes, nutrient and sediment transfer, and increases in mercury levels in aquatic biota.

Renewable energy projects are actively being promoted in the north, as supported by Ontario’s new Green Energy Act (MOE 2009). These include the construction of biomass, wind, solar, and waterpower facilities along with the required transmission corridors. Each will result in some degree of alteration to terrestrial and aquatic habitat that may have negative impact on the biota that inhabit these sites.

10 All new hydroelectric developments in the Far North are subject to the Northern Rivers and Moose River Basin Commitments which restrict developments in the basins of the Albany, Attawapiskat, Winisk, and Severn Rivers to less than 25 MW and require proposals by First Nations communities or their partners (Ontario Power Authority 2008).

6/ threats to aquatIc ecosystems



6.2 aquatIc InvasIve specIes

Southern Ontario has a long history of dealing with various aquatic invasive species. Some of these species have continued their advance into new territory and are now occurring in Northern Ontario. The range expansion of smallmouth bass is one example of this in the Far North, with their recent appearance in the Moose and Albany River drainages. It is expected that rainbow smelt will soon make their way into the planning area through the Albany River system as will brown bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) in the Mattagami/Moose River (McGovern and Vukelich 2009). On the horizon are other aquatics organisms such as the spiny water flea (Bythotrephes longimanus), rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus), dreissenid mussels, and nuisance aquatic plants such as Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum).

Global climate change has contributed to this northern shift in geographic range, with warmer annual temperatures providing more suitable habitat for species such as smallmouth bass (Shuter and Post 1990). However, humans assist in the process through the deliberate introduction of some species into lakes outside of their natural range (e.g., smallmouth bass) and the inadvertent introduction of others (e.g., rainbow smelt) (Vander Zanden et al. 2004b).

Best management practices and public education are tools that can be used to prevent, or at least delay, the introduction of undesirable species that may disrupt ecosystem function. A move in this direction is already underway. A ban on live baitfish (including rainbow smelt) has been in effect across a large part of this region (all of FMZ1 and much of FMZ2) for more than 20 years which may have helped reduce the spread of non-native fish species and other organisms.

6.3 overharvest of fIsh stocks

Although the Far North is a vast areas populated by relatively few people, fishing pressure can be great on some of the larger lakes and river segments. Subsistence use, commercial fisheries and tourism combine to place demands on these local fisheries.

Population growth evident in many northern communities (Statistics Canada 2008) is a recent concern, as it could translate into increased demands for traditional foods, including fish. Another factor is the desire by these communities to utilize fish resource as a vehicle for economic stability, which could mean re-activating commercial licences or building new tourism infrastructure. Also, road construction related to forestry and mining development could add to the fishing pressure within all the use sectors through improved access to the road networks to the south.

6.4 clImate change

The global effects of climate change will have varied and widespread impacts on the aquatic environment, with the greatest increases in both temperature and precipitation in the province expected to occur in the region adjacent to Hudson and James Bay (Chiotti and Lavender 2008; Dove-Thompson et al. 2011).

http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/stdprodconsume/groups/lr/@mnr/@climatechange/documents/document/stdprod_088243.pdf



Both water quality and water quantity will be adversely affected in these northern latitudes (Lofgren 2002). In northwestern Ontario, a three-week increase in the length of the ice-free season has already been noted (Schindler et al. 1990). The water balance is expected to change as increases in evapotranspiration are not necessarily met with adequate increases in precipitation. Decreased water renewal and warmer temperatures will amplify eutrophication and increase the rate of biogeochemical processes. Climate warming will decrease dissolved organic carbon concentrations which will allow deeper penetration of damaging ultraviolet radiation in lakes and rivers (Schindler 2001).

Summer habitats for cold stenothermic organisms like lake trout have been reduced and this pattern will likely continue (Schindler et al. 1990; Shuter et al. 2002), while other more warm-tolerant species such as smallmouth bass are expected to experience a rapid expansion in their northern distribution (Sharma et al. 2009). Chu and Fisher (2012) anticipate that all 1313 lakes in the North East Clay Belt will contain suitable smallmouth bass habitat by 2041, as opposed to the current 982 lakes. They also noted that under the Canadian Global Climate Model 3 B1 and A2 scenarios, the total walleye biomass may increase by 9% and 10% by 2100.

The Far North is already experiencing the effects of a changing climate, as evident by a major die-off of brook trout and white suckers in the warm shallow waters of the lower section of the Sutton River in 2001 (Gunn and Snucins 2010). Such events are likely to become more common in the future.

Overall, fish and invertebrate communities will restructure as the result of changes to competition and life cycles, and the invasions of many non-native species (Schindler 2001). Climate change will interact with, and may exacerbate, the effects of overexploitation, dams and diversions, habitat destruction, non-native species, and pollution to cause further stress to our native freshwater fisheries (Schindler 2001).



A common complaint of fisheries managers is a lack of information required to make sound decisions around resource management and planning issues. In no part of the province is this more true than in the Far North. Here, the most basic information is lacking, such as an inventory of how much water is present, what the characteristics of these lakes and rivers are, and what aquatic species inhabit them. The largest waterbodies frequently lack basic descriptors of fisheries habitat such as depth, transparency, and nutrient content of the water and the little data we have is quite dated. Even less is known about our northern rivers, even though they rank as among the world’s largest.

We recommend four mechanisms to address these deficiencies in knowledge and information:

1. Broad-scale monitoring of lakes2. Cooperative fisheries assessment and research unit3. Information management system for Far North aquatic data4. Research collaborative institute

MNR’s Broadscale Monitoring Program (MNR 2008) could provide much of this basic information, particularly for lakes on the Shield. If implemented at the five percent sampling rate originally proposed, a total of 341 lakes would be inventoried in the first five-year cycle in Fisheries Management Zone 2 alone. This would more than double the current number of lake surveys and provide a wealth of new information related to species distribution, fish habitat, contaminants, and fishing pressure. The knowledge base would continue to grow through each sampling cycle and would allow us to track the response of the lakes and fish communities to large-scale changes like climate warming and the more immediate pressures of development and access. However, the need for flowing waters information for the area would not be addressed. Perhaps some integration of large river monitoring with the broadscale monitoring of lakes could be considered for this part of the province.

A complementary approach may be required to ensure the timely collection of this vital background data, particularly with respect to rivers. Browne (2007) proposed the establishment of a Cooperative Fisheries Research and Assessment Unit for the roadless portion of the province that would partner First Nation, federal, provincial, and private interests. This unit would collect aquatic habitat information, map fish distributions, study fish biology, and assess population status throughout this area, addressing both broad-scale and local-scale needs related to both lakes and rivers. Browne (2007) suggested that in addition to government support, royalties be diverted from resource extraction activities to fund this unit.

A vast array of new information on lakes and rivers and their inhabitants will be collected during the upcoming years in the Far North. This information needs to be stored, shared, and made accessible through integration with existing provincial repositories

7/ InformatIon needs and recommendatIons



(e.g., Fishnet, Aquatic Resources Area layer of the Natural Resources and Values Information System [NRVIS]). This may require modifying these existing repositories or creating new systems. An important first step is to develop an information management plan for historic and new aquatic data for the Far North and ensure its timely implementation.

While monitoring programs will provide us with information about the distribution and abundance of aquatic species throughout the Far North, applied research is required to address more specific research questions. New scientific knowledge about the relationship between environmental change and the response of species, food web dynamics, and ecosystem function would allow resource managers to better plan for the future. McGovern and Vukelich (2009) provide a summary of science needs specific to the Hudson Plains area. Browne (2007) lists a number of research needs and recommendations applicable to the broader north.

These scientific studies may be carried out by a diverse group of researchers (e.g., MNR, universities, NGOs, First Nations, and private consultants), all of whom have an interest in furthering our understanding of Far North’s aquatic ecosystems. In other provinces and territories (e.g., Northwest Territories [NWT]) there are research institutes that help coordinate these diverse research interests (e.g., fish, wildlife, earth sciences, socio-economic knowledge). If such an institute existed in Ontario, it could act as a research portal to the Far North and provide critical logistical support such as assistance with transportation, lodging, and consultation with First Nation communities. It could also function as an information management portal, ensuring that the reports and data emanating from the various studies are placed in the proper repositories.

A model for this might be the Aurora Research Institute in Inuvik (Aurora Research Institute 2008). This institute came into being through territorial legislation enacted in 1988 that required the permitting of all research activities. As such, the Institute is responsible for:

• licensing and coordinating research in accordance with the NWT Scientists Act;

• promoting communication between researchers and the people of the communities in which they work;

• promoting public awareness of the importance of science, technology and indigenous knowledge; fostering a scientific community within the NWT which recognizes and uses the traditional knowledge of northern aboriginal peoples;

• making scientific and traditional knowledge available to people of the NWT; and

• supporting or conducting research which contributes to the social, cultural and economic prosperity of the people of the NWT.

While the Far North is the most unaltered part of the province, development is looming, and we must learn more about the aquatic resources contained within this area to properly manage them. Our recommendations would contribute to an expanding base of scientific knowledge that would, in turn, enable more informed and strategic approaches to resource management planning and decision making in this region.

http://www.nwtresearch.com/

http://www.nwtresearch.com/



Appendix 1: Patricia Inventory Database

Appendix 2: Patricia Inventory Field Reports and Data

Appendix 3: Northern Ontario Water Resources Studies

Appendix 4: West Patricia Fisheries Technical Reports

Appendix 5: Aquatic Habitat Inventory Database

Appendix 6: Species Distribution Maps

Appendix 7: Fish Collection Sites Database

Appendix 8: Commercial Fish Database

Appendix 9: Tourism Database

8/ appendIces



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