Appendix 1 – Transmission ElectronMicroscopy in Virology: Principles, PreparationMethods and Rapid Diagnosis

Hans R. Gelderblom

Formerly, well-equipped virology institutes possessed many different cell culture

types, various ultracentrifuges and even an electron microscope. Tempi passati?Indeed! Meanwhile, molecular biological methods such as polymerase chain reac-

tion, ELISA and chip technologies—all fast, highly sensitive detection systems—

qualify the merits of electron microscopy within the spectrum of virological

methods. Unlike in the material sciences, a significant decline in the use of electron

microscopy occurred in life sciences owing to high acquisition costs and lack of

experienced personnel. Another reason is the misconception that the use of electron

microscopes is expensive and time consuming. However, this does not apply to

most conventional methods. The cost of an electron-microscopic preparation, the

cost of reagents, contrast and embedding media and the cost of carrier networks are

low. Electron microscopy is fast, and for negative staining needs barely 15 min

from the start of sample preparation to analysis. Another advantage is that

a virtually unlimited number of different samples can be analysed—from

nanoparticles to fetid diarrhoea samples.

A.1 Principles of Electron Microscopy and MorphologicalVirus Diagnosis

In transmission electron microscopy, accelerated, monochromatic electrons are

used to irradiate the object to be imaged. This leads to interactions: the beam

electrons are scattered differentially by atomic nuclei and electron shells, losing

some of their energy. After magnification through a multistage lens system,

a 1,000-fold higher resolution is obtained with a transmission electron microscope

than with a light microscope (2 nm vs. 2 mm) owing to the much shorter wavelength

of electrons in comparison with visible light. Hence, in contrast to light microscopy,

transmission electron microscopy is capable of visualizing even the smallest

viruses. Scanning electron microscopy depicts surfaces, but no internal structures.

Even though confocal laser scanning light microscopy can localize individual

viruses, the fluorescence signal does not image the particle. However, identification

S. Modrow et al., Molecular Virology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20718-1,# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

949

of viruses and description of virus–cell interactions frequently require structural

information in high resolution, as can be supplied only by electron microscopy.

Electron microscopes are also used in the diagnosis of viral diseases: although

a modern diagnostic laboratory allows high sample throughput, it requires a clinical

diagnosis and pathogen-specific reagents. By contrast, electron microscopy “illu-

minates,” after rapid and simple contrasting, and provides a high-resolution “open

view” of the finest structures in a sample. Thereby, every pathogen is rendered

visible also in the case of multiple infections or unknown pathogens, or agents that

have never been considered by the clinician, and even genetically engineered

organisms. Infectious agents exhibit constant morphological characteristics such

as size, shape, subunits, perhaps an envelope, surface projections or protrusions and

specific nature of the interaction with the host cell. These criteria help to assign the

object in question to a specific pathogen family. Although the morphological

diagnosis “viruses of the herpesvirus family” does not indicate the viral species,

as a “family diagnosis” it gives the clinician or epidemiologist—along with the

previous clinical history—a rapid perspective on the action required, e.g. antiviral

therapy, quarantine or vaccination. If the pathogen family is ascertained, if neces-

sary, even a “fine diagnosis” by molecular methods or by immune electron micros-

copy can be significantly accelerated. Independence from pathogen-specific

reagents is a great advantage for diagnosis of infections, epidemics and bioterrorism

hazards, but also in the characterization of laboratory products and biological

preparations, vaccines, therapeutic antibodies and in the frequently neglected

internal quality assurance.

A disadvantage of electron microscopy is that it has a very narrow field of view,

owing to the very high magnification; therefore, high particle concentrations are

required for detection (more than 105 particles per millilitre). Samples with particle

concentrations below this threshold need to be effectively and rapidly enriched

before use. Furthermore, electron microscopy does not allow high-throughput

analyses. The examiner must be concerned only with one preparation for at least

20 min before it can classify it as “negative.”

A.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy: Thin PreparationsAre Required

In preparations with a layer thickness of more than 80 nm, the imaging electrons are

scattered several times; the consequences are loss of image sharpness and informa-

tion. The necessary thinner specimens are obtained after embedding the samples in

resin (Epon) in ultrathin sections or by negative staining of particle suspensions.

Both methods result de facto in a resolution of 2 nm. Viruses are biological

macromolecules which consist essentially of light atoms with low mass density.

In the transmission electron microscope, they appear highly transparent and with

low contrast. Detailed and contrast-rich images can be obtained by absorption and

scattering of electrons only at high mass density of the objects, as can be created by

negative or positive staining (Fig. A.1).

950 H.R. Gelderblom

Negative staining requires particle suspensions, as they can be directly prepared

from swab samples from patients, cell culture supernatants, disrupted cells, pulver-

ized tumours, urine, serum or stool samples, bacterial colonies and bioterrorism-

suspected “powder.” In principle, any organic or inorganic material is suitable if it

can be resuspended. Rough cell debris is removed by low-speed centrifugation.

The sample is then stained (Fig. A.2). Usually, a copper grid (carrier network) is

placed on a drop of the suspension. The grid carries a stable and very electron

transparent plastic carrier film with regularly dispersed holes. After short

Fig. A.1 Preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Principle of ultrathin-section

and negative-contrast TEM using the example of a herpesvirus. The upper half shows the ultrathinsection of a specimen embedded in Epon. For this purpose, in vitro infected cells were fixed with

glutaraldehyde, incubated with heavy metal salts, dehydrated and finally embedded in resin. The

hardened samples were cut in an ultramicrotome into 50-nm-thick specimens, treated again with

contrast medium and analysed by TEM. The following viral structures can be recognized from

outside to inside: the viral envelope as a lipid bilayer with glycoprotein protrusions, a moderately

contrasted tegument, the hexagonal viral capsid and deep inside the viral DNA complex. Heavy

metal salts are also used as contrast media in negative staining (lower half) (see Fig. A.2). In this

case, the short exposure leads only slightly to chemical bonds. The viral components are trans-

parent, they appear bright, negatively contrasted against the dark, electron-dense contrast medium,

and we can recognize the fragile envelope of a herpesvirus with its glycoprotein processes and

inside the contrast-medium-filled capsid with capsomeres and a typical diameter of 100 nm

Appendix 1 – Transmission Electron Microscopy in Virology 951

adsorption, the sample excess and interfering ions are removed with filter paper and

the grid with the adsorbed material is placed for a few seconds on the contrast

medium, which consists of a 0.5–4.0 % heavy metal salt solution with high mass

density, such as phosphotungstic acid or uranyl acetate. Excess contrast medium is

removed from the “contrasted” grid, briefly air-dried and is then prepared for

electron-microscopic examination. The dried, electron-dense contrast medium

coats the “transparent” structures on the carrier network and renders visible surface

details with very high resolution—comparable to the X-ray contrast technique.

However, it can also penetrate into labile samples, facilitating the representation

of internal structures. Advantageous for a natural image is that viruses, like other

unstable biostructures, are closely enveloped, and thus are stabilized by the contrast

medium.

Thin specimens make possible, apart from negative staining, also the more

complex ultrathin-section technique. For this purpose, small blocks of solid tissues,

cell culture conglomerates or ultracentrifuge sediments (edge length under 1 mm)

are chemically fixed by aldehydes, and incubated with heavy metal salt solutions

(osmium, uranium, lead). The heavy metal salts bind to different groups in the

material and this results in high mass densities and high-contrast images even of

Fig. A.2 Negative staining procedure. Drops of the suspension to be examined, washer fluid and

contrast medium are applied from left to right in a horizontal row on an inert surface. Grids (in the

Petri dish) are placed on the sample using a pair of tweezers for 10 s or longer, are then washed

with drops of double distilled water and are finally stained with contrast medium for 10 s. After

excess contrast medium has been removed and subsequent air drying, the grids are well prepared

for TEM. (From Gelderblom 2003)

952 H.R. Gelderblom

internal structures, which become visible later. After dehydration, e.g. in an

ascending ethanol series, the samples are embedded in resin and cut in an ultrami-

crotome: sections with a thickness of 40–70 nm are restained with lead salts and

analysed by electron microscopy. The entire conventional preparation requires

4–5 days. In contrast, modern, rapid methods reduce the preparation time to

a few hours, but they still require considerably more effort and time than the

negative staining procedure.

A.3 Perspectives for Transmission Electron Microscopy inVirology Research

When promptness, high resolution and the “open view” of electron microscopy are

to be used reasonably in laboratory medicine and cell biology research, a “front-

line” application is required. Therefore, this method should be used together with

complementary techniques to increase its diagnostic value. An electron-

microscopic laboratory should also provide more services for other institutions.

Between services, routine research and basic research, there are a myriad of

worthwhile tasks. Such an open-use approach should inspire the next generation

of scientists, and ensure the long-term survival of electron microscopy within the

life sciences.

References

Gelderblom HR (2003) Elektronenmikroskopie im Methodenspektrum der Bioterrorismus-

Diagnostik. Bundesgesundheitsbl Gesundheitsforsch Gesundheitsschutz 46:984–988

Further Reading

Biel SS, Gelderblom HR (1999) Electron microscopy of viruses. In: Cann A (ed) Virus cell

culture – a practical approach, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 111–147

Deutsche Gesellschaft f€ur Elektronenmikroskopie (2012) DGE - work groups of the DGE. http://

www.dge-homepage.de/arbeitskreise_e.html

Gelderblom HR (2001) Elektronenmikroskopische Erregerdiagnostik. BIOforum 24:105–108

Gelderblom HR (2003) Elektronenmikroskopie im Methodenspektrum der Bioterrorismus-

Diagnostik. Bundesgesundheitsbl Gesundheitsforsch Gesundheitsschutz 46:984–988

Hazelton PR, Gelderblom HR (2003) Electron microscopy for rapid diagnosis of infectious agents

in emergent situations. Emerg Infect Dis 9:294–303

Kr€uger DH, Schneck P, Gelderblom HR (2000) Sixty years ago: Helmut Ruska and the visuali-

zation of viruses. Lancet 355:1713–1717

Laue M, Niederwohrmeier B, Bannert N (2007) Rapid diagnostic thin section electron microscopy

of bacterial spores. J Microbiol Methods 70:45–54

Robert Koch Institute (2012) RKI - consultant lab for diagnostic electron microscopy in infectious

diseases. http://www.rki.de/EN/Content/Institute/DepartmentsUnits/NRC/CONSULAB/

consulab_node.html

Appendix 1 – Transmission Electron Microscopy in Virology 953

Appendix 2 – Information on the“Prototypical Electron-Microscopic Portraits”of Individual Virus Families

Hans R. Gelderblom

Poliovirus type 1 (▶Sect. 14.1) as a prototype of the family Picornaviridae, grownin cell culture, purified by gradient centrifugation and represented by negative

staining with 2 % phosphotungstic acid (PTA). Picornaviruses are isometric, have

no envelope, are 28–30 nm in diameter and do not exhibit fine structures, even at

high resolution. Primary magnification � 60,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom,

Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Human astrovirus type 1 (▶ Sect. 14.2), the prototype of the family Astroviridae(Greek aster, “star”), grown in cell culture, purified by gradient centrifugation and

represented by negative staining with 1 % uranyl acetate. The isometric, non-

enveloped astroviruses are 27–30 nm in diameter, and occasionally show a clear,

star-shaped five- or sixfold symmetry. Primary magnification � 60,000, bar100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (▶ Sect. 14.3) as an example of the family

Caliciviridae (Greek kalix, “chalice”); partially purified particle suspension from

the liver of diseased rabbits, represented by negative staining with uranyl acetate.

The isometric caliciviruses have a diameter of 28–34 nm and have capsid struc-

tures, which can be used diagnostically: striking cup-shaped depressions in rabbit

haemorrhagic disease virus and sapoviruses. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Hepatitis E virus (▶Sect. 14.4), the prototype of the family Hepeviridae,prepared from the bile of a diseased patient after negative staining with PTA. The

isometric particles are 27–30 nm in diameter, and aggregated in vivo by the action

of the antibodies from the patient. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm.

(Kindly provided by B€arbel Hauroder, Central Institute of the Bundeswehr Medical

Service, Koblenz, Germany)

West Nile virus (▶Sect. 14.5) as a prototype of the family Flaviviridae, grownin cell culture, represented in ultrathin section. The spherical virus particles

are approximately 50 nm in diameter, have short glycoprotein processes and are

tightly enclosed by a lipid envelope. The dark-stained core of flavoviruses is

determined by the viral nucleic acid. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

S. Modrow et al., Molecular Virology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20718-1,# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

955

Sindbis virus (▶ Sect. 14.6) as a prototype of the family Togaviridae, grown in

cell culture, partially purified by gradient centrifugation and negatively contrasted

with uranyl acetate. The virus particles have a diameter of 60–70 nm. In the image,

some viruses have been penetrated by the contrast medium; viral glycoprotein

protrusions are also partially visible on the lipid envelope. Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Equine arteritis virus (▶ Sect. 14.7) grown in cell culture, represented in

ultrathin section as a representative of the family Arteriviridae. The virions are

rounded ovoid and have a diameter of 40–60 nm, are surrounded by a lipid envelope

and have a narrow electron-dense ribonucleoprotein core. Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

SARS-associated coronavirus (▶ Sect. 14.8) as a prototype of the family

Coronaviridae, grown in cell culture, without pre-treatment, represented after

negative staining with 2 % PTA. The virion is surrounded by a lipid envelope, is

90–140 nm in diameter and has striking, club-like surface processes (20 nm,

peplomers), which can be relatively easily released from the surface of the virus

particle by shedding (see the virion at the top right). Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Vesicular stomatitis virus (▶Sect. 15.1) as an example of the family

Rhabdoviridae (Greek rhabdos, “rod”, “stick”, or “staff”), grown in cell culture,

enriched and represented after negative staining with uranyl acetate. Animal rhab-

doviruses, unlike plant rhabdoviruses, are “bullet”-shaped particles that are flat-

tened at one end. They are 75 nm � 190 nm and have an envelope which is studded

with viral glycoprotein protrusions. The helically wrapped ribonucleoprotein core

resides inside—“like a beehive.” It has a diameter of 50 nm. Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Equine Borna disease virus (▶Sect. 15.2) as a prototype of the family

Bornaviridae, propagated in cell culture, represented in ultrathin section. The rotund

virions are 120 nm in diameter and mature by budding at the cell surface. They are

enclosed by an envelope containing glycoprotein protrusions of 7 nm in length.

Occasionally, thin strings of viral ribonucleoprotein complexes are recognizable

inside the virus. In addition to the 120-nm-diamter particles, the virus preparations

frequently also contain smaller, subviral particles of 75 nm in diameter. Primary

magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (Kindly provided by Kouichi Sano, Depart-

ment of Microbiology and Infection Control, Osaka Medical College, Japan)

Human parainfluenza virus 1 (▶ Sect. 15.3) as a prototype of the family

Paramyxoviridae, depicted in ultrathin section. Paramyxoviruses are released by

budding at the cell surface; they are round-polymorphic and very heterogeneous in

size (90–400 nm). Their envelope is densely occupied with viral glycoproteins (HN

and F proteins). Cross sections of viral ribonucleoproteins are recognizable inside

the virus, beneath the envelope (diameter 18–22 nm). Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Marburg virus (▶ Sect. 14.8) representing the family Filoviridae, grown in cell

culture, without pre-treatment and represented after negative staining with 2 %

PTA. The virus particles are clumped with cell debris. Their envelope contains

956 H.R. Gelderblom

glycoprotein projections; the helical ribonucleoprotein complex is located inside.

The diameter of filoviruses is 80 nm; their length can differ considerably: Marburg

virus is 700–800 nm long, whereas Ebola virus can reach up to 15 mm. Primary

magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute,

Berlin, Germany)

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (▶Sect. 16.1) representing the family

Arenaviridae (Latin arenosus, “sandy”), grown in cell culture. The release of

virus particles occurs by budding at the cell surface. The envelope of arenaviruses

carries glycoprotein protrusions and is flexible, so the released virus particles

appear pleomorphic. Arenaviruses incorporate cellular ribosomes during particle

assembly, and thus exhibit typical, high-contrast inclusions. Primary magnification

� 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Puumala virus (▶ Sect. 16.2), a member of the genus Hantavirus, representingthe family Bunyaviridae, grown in cell culture. The image shows the ultrathin

section of a virus-producing cell with accumulation of released particles. The

viruses are surrounded by an envelope, and have a diameter of 80–120 nm. The

ribonucleoprotein strands of their segmented genome are recognizable inside the

virus particles. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom,

Robert Koch Institute, Berlin).

Influenza A virus (▶ Sect. 16.3) as a prototype of the family Orthomyxoviridae.The image shows the ultrathin section of a virus-producing cell. The plump, ovoid

particles are 80–120 nm in diameter and carry HA and NA glycoprotein processes.

The matrix protein is located directly under the envelope as a moderately dark

layer. Some of the segmented ribonucleoprotein complexes can be observed inside.

Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch

Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Avian infectious bursal disease virus (▶ Sect. 17.1), representing the family

Birnaviridae, grown in cell culture, purified by gradient centrifugation and

represented by negative staining with uranyl acetate. The isometric particles are

60 nm in diameter, possess an envelope and reveal the typical capsomere structure

of their capsids. Primary magnification: �60,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom,

Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Human rotaviruses (▶ Sect. 17.2) partially purified from a stool specimen and

shown by negative staining with uranyl acetate. Rotaviruses are a subfamily of the

family Reoviridae; the actual reoviruses are 80 nm in diameter and thus markedly

larger. Rotaviruses are 70 nm in diameter and have two isometric protein capsids

that lie one above the other. They occasionally show an external, spoke-shaped

zone around a large inner hub (a wheel-like structure, hence their name from the

Latin rota, meaning “wheel”). For most virus particles only in the surface is

revealed by the contrast medium; however, the isometric core can occasionally be

seen because here uranyl acetate is infiltrated into the virion. Primary magnification

� 60,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Human immunodeficiency virus 1, a lentivirus as a prototype of the family

Retroviridae (▶ Sect. 18.1). The image shows the ultrathin section of a virus-

producing T cell with different viral maturity stages. The viruses are about

Appendix 2 – Information on the “Prototypical Electron-Microscopic Portraits” 957

120 nm in diameter, and have a very fragile envelope. At the bottom right is a latebudding phase with only scarce interconnection of the virion to the host cell: the

viral envelope is densely covered with gp120 protein processes of 9–10 nm in

length. Beneath the envelope, the uncleaved Gag–Pol precursor protein and the

viral RNA form a 20-nm-thick, dark layer. Their cleavage by the viral protease

generates the Gag proteins of the mature virion and causes a massive morphological

transformation, and the virion become infectious. Mature lentiviruses (top left) havea conical core, which always contains two molecules of the viral ribonucleoprotein.

The glycoprotein projections of human immunodeficiency virus and other retrovi-

ruses are lost in a time- and temperature-dependent manner: this “shedding” leads

to loss of infectivity. Lentiviruses of humans and monkeys have lateral bodies

consisting of the structural proteins that are not required for remodelling. Primary

magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute,

Berlin, Germany)

Hepatitis B virus (▶ Sect. 19.1) represented by negative staining with PTA in

immune aggregates. The image shows three spherical virions with a diameter of

42–45 nm (Dane particles), which are coaggregated with a variety of non-infectious

HBsAg particles (20-nm particles, Australia antigen). The virions have a tight-

fitting envelope that surrounds the viral capsid (diameter 28–30 nm). The serum of

a hepatitis B infected patient was used for aggregation of hepatitis B virus and HBs

particles; cross-linking antibodies hide finer details. Primary magnification

� 60,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

BK polyomavirus (▶ Sect. 19.2), a human polyomavirus representing the family

Polyomaviridae. BK polyomavirus was imaged directly from the urine of an

immunosuppressive-treated patient after negative staining with uranyl acetate.

The virus particles are 45 nm in diameter and have no envelope. Their isometric

capsids consist of 72 pentameric capsomeres. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin)

Papillomavirus (▶Sect. 19.3) from a chicken tumour (chaffinch), representing

the family Papillomaviridae. The specimen originated from a biopsy, was isolated

by “rubbing” with sea sand and was directly depicted by negative staining

unpurified. These enveloped virus particles are isometric, have a diameter of

55 nm and consist of 72 pentameric capsomers. Primary magnification � 40,000,

bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Fowl adenovirus 2 (▶ Sect. 19.4) as an example of the family Adenoviridae,highly purified by gradient centrifugation and represented by negative staining with

uranyl acetate. Adenoviruses are 75–80 nm in diameter; their non-enveloped

capsids clearly show their perfect icosahedral symmetry and their structure made

up of capsomers, which, depending on the position in the capsid, have different

properties (a total of 240 hexon and 12 penton capsomers per virion). The pentons

are located at the 12 vertices of the icosahedron, and each penton base is associated

with a rigid-fibre protein with a terminal knob. These fibres are anchored in poultry

adenoviruses and several human adenoviruses in double form on the penton base.

Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch

Institute, Berlin, Germany)

958 H.R. Gelderblom

Equine herpesvirus 1 (▶ Sect. 19.5) from the family Herpesviridae, representedin ultrathin section. The image shows six virus particles in cross section. They are

approximately 180 nm in diameter, but are in different planes, sometimes only

peripherally sliced, and thus do not show all the known structural components of

herpesviruses. The envelope carries a dense crown of glycoprotein processes.

Below the envelope is the moderately electron-dense viral tegument layer, and

further inside is the viral capsid (diameter 100 nm), which contains the highly

electron-dense viral DNA genome. Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm.

(H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Murine ectromelia virus (▶ Sect. 19.6), an orthopoxvirus as an example of

the family Poxviridae, grown in cell culture and represented by negative staining.

Like variola and vaccinia viruses, ectromelia viruses are cuboid. Their dimensions

are 250 nm � 350 nm and they have short crests on their surfaces. On the basis of

these morphological criteria, orthopoxviruses can easily be distinguished from the

smaller, ovoid parapoxviruses by rapid electron-microscopic diagnosis. Primary

magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute,

Berlin, Germany)

African swine fever virus (▶Sect. 19.7) is the sole member of the family

Asfarviridae, represented in ultrathin cryosection. The four virus particles show

different stages of maturity: the left virion is still in the process of being released

from the cell by budding. The virus particles have a diameter of 200 nm and are

isometric. Around the dense DNA-containing core, they exhibit a multilayer structure

consisting of a protein capsid located between two lipid envelope membranes.

Primary magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (Kindly provided by German Andres,

Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa, Madrid, Spain)

Porcine parvovirus (▶Sect. 20.1) as prototype of the family Parvoviridae,grown in cell culture, partially purified by gradient centrifugation and depicted

after negative staining with uranyl acetate. The naked, isometric viruses are 25 nm

in diameter and were occasionally penetrated by the contrast medium. Primary

magnification � 40,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute,

Berlin, Germany)

Porcine circovirus 1 (▶Sect. 20.2) representing the family Circoviridae, grownin cell culture, purified by gradient centrifugation and represented by negative

staining using 1 % uranyl acetate. Porcine circoviruses are 17–18 nm in diameter,

constituting the smallest autonomously replicating mammalian viruses. They are

considerably smaller than avian circoviruses: chicken anaemia virus has a diameter

of 22–25 nm and, in contrast to porcine circoviruses, has a clear capsid structure.

Primary magnification � 60,000, bar 100 nm. (H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch

Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Scrapie-associated fibrils (Chap. 21) purified and enriched roughly 10,000-fold

from brains of scrapie-infected hamsters, represented by negative staining with 1 %

uranyl acetate. The slightly “twisted” glycoprotein fibrils are proteinase K resistant

and also characteristic of other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

in humans and animals. Primary magnification � 31,500, bar 100 nm.

(H.R. Gelderblom, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany)

Appendix 2 – Information on the “Prototypical Electron-Microscopic Portraits” 959

Glossary

Aetiology The theory of the causes; in medicine and epidemiology, aetiology is the

totality of factors that have led to a specific disease.

Agglutination Clumping (adhesion) of antigen-carrying particles, such as red

blood cells (hemagglutination), bacteria, viruses and viruses and infectious

agents complexed with antibodies.

Allergy (Greek allerıa, “foreign reaction”) The exuberant immune response to

certain normally harmless environmental substances (allergens). An allergy

manifests itself as a typical symptom caused by inflammatory processes.

Anamnesis (Greek anάmn�siB, “memory”) The history of a patient with regard to

his/her current afflictions.

Anergy Lack of immune response by switching off the immune response against an

antigen. Anergy is a permanent mechanism with which the immune system

prevents T lymphocytes from attacking the body’s own tissues. T cells mature

in the thymus during embryonic development. Autoreactive T lymphocytes,

which recognize the body’s own antigens, and thus would attack the body’s

own tissue, are generally eliminated. However, a few T cells reach the periphery

of the embryonic organism. If these cells bind to an antigen through their T-cell

receptor there, they become activated only in the presence of co-stimulatory

molecules. If these co-stimulatory signals are lacking, the T cell remains

permanently inactivated and inoperative.

Antigen A substance that is recognized as foreign by the immune system, such as

a protein, a carbohydrate structure or another chemical compound.

Antigenicity Recognizability of a protein or other substance by the immune

system. Even minor changes and variations in the amino acid sequence of

a protein can alter antigenicity, thus changing serological detection by

antibodies.

Apical The term means “located at the top” and is used to indicate the side of

a polarized cell which is located on the surface or in a lumen. The other side of

a polarized cell is referred to as the basolateral side.

Apoptosis Programmed cell death.

Apparent/inapparent (Latin apparere, “become visible”). Becoming visible or

invisible. The term is often used in connection with infections with or without

symptoms.

Arthralgia Joint pain.

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961

Arthritis Acute or chronic, specific or nonspecific joint inflammation, articular

rheumatism.

Atrophy Tissue shrinkage.

Arthropods Invertebrate, articulated animals having an exoskeleton, including

insects, millipedes, crabs, spiders, scorpions and mites.

Assembly See “Self-assembly” and “Viral assembly”.

Attenuated viruses Virus mutants with a weakened virulence which arise sponta-

neously or by continuous cultivation in cell culture. Infections with such viruses

are usually either without or with significantly weakened symptoms. Attenuated

virus strains are often used as vaccine viruses.

Autocrine Direct effect of a molecule (cytokine, hormone, growth factor, etc.)

released by a cell on the same cell, e.g. by binding to receptors on the cell

surface.

Basolateral The base of a polarized cell that is remote from the lumen in a cell layer

and its lateral portions; see also “Apical.”

Bilirubin Yellowish degradation product of haemoglobin which is coupled to

glucuronic acid in the liver, and is excreted through the bile into the intestine.

Bronchial lavage Lavation of the bronchial tree with isotonic solution for thera-

peutic or diagnostic purposes.

Bronchiolitis Inflammation of the bronchioles, i.e. the cartilage-free branches of

segmental bronchi.

Bronchitis Acute or chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane in the region

of large and medium-sized bronchi, i.e. the continuation of the trachea for

passage of air into the lungs.

Bronchopneumonia A focal pneumonia without reference to anatomical lung

limits. A common feature of inflammation foci, which can have various sizes

and development stages, is exudate-filled alveoli in the infiltrated lung regions.

Budding The process of releasing virus particles from cellular membranes by

extrusion or evagination.

Cap group (50-cap structure). 7-Methylguanosine modification of eukaryotic mes-

senger RNA (mRNA) molecules attached at the 50 end, which is linked to the

50-OH group of the next nucleotide by a 50–50 bond. This and the adjacent

nucleotide are modified by a methyl group at the 50-OH residue of the ribose.

Capsid Icosahedral or helical virus particle structure which is composed of

proteins.

Capsomers Protein components that make up the capsids, composing one or more

viral structural proteins.

Carcinoma Malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin.

Chaperone Catalysts of protein folding. Chaperones have the function of binding

specifically to other proteins and of preventing non-specific aggregation or

misfolding.

Cholestasis Extrahepatic bile congestion in the large intrahepatic or extrahepatic

bile ducts as a result of outflow obstruction, or with intrahepatic obstruction in

the bile canaliculi as a result of a metabolic disorder of liver cells that alters their

directional permeability (e.g. in viral hepatitis). It leads to an increase of the

962 Glossary

levels of bile acid and certain liver-specific enzymes in the blood (e.g. glutamyl-

transpeptidase and alkaline phosphatase).

Chorioretinitis Inflammation of the choroid (choroiditis) with secondary inflam-

mation of the retina (retinitis).

Cirrhosis Progressive chronic disease which leads to induration by fibrosis and to

a scarring contraction of an organ (usually the liver), resulting in death of

functionally active tissue (parenchyma) by connective tissue proliferation due

to chronic inflammation.

Co-infection The concurrent infection of a human or animal with another pathogen

(virus, bacterium, parasite, fungus).

Confluence Coalescence or merging of exanthemas and skin efflorescence.

Conjuntivitis Inflammation of the conjunctiva.

Contagious Tending to spread, infectious.

Contamination Infection/contagion of skin (hands), surfaces and objects by

contact with materials that (possibly) contain infectious agents.

Convulsions (Latin convolvere, “to curl,” “to roll together,” “to convolve”).

Repeated, serial and involuntary muscular contractions.

Croup A cough illness which particularly affects children aged between 6 months

and 3 years because their larynx is very narrow owing to the still immature

laryngeal development. During or as a result of infectious diseases, the mucous

membrane of the larynx and the vocal chord region becomes inflamed and

swells. In this way, the children develop respiratory difficulties and sticky

mucus additionally constricts the airways. The term “croup” originally referred

only to the cough that is associated with diphtheria.

Cull Government-ordered killing of individual animals or the entire animal population

of livestock without bleeding (see “Slaughter”) and with destruction of the

undamaged carcasses. This measure prevents spread of pathogens through blood

contact or aerosols. It is the usual process in the case of an outbreak of foot-and-

mouth disease (picornavirus infection) or classical swine fever (flavivirus infection).

Cytopenia (granulocytopenia, leucocytopenia, erythrocytopenia, lymphocytopenia,

monocytopenia, neutrocytopenia, thrombocytopenia) Reduction of the number of

the respective individual cells in the peripheral blood.

Degermination (sterilization). See “Disinfestation.”

Dermatitis Acute inflammation of the skin. It can be manifested by skin redness

(erythema), swelling (oedema), lymph secretion (exudation) and the formation

of blisters, crusts and scales (efflorescence).

Diagnosis (Greek diάgnos�, “examination” in the sense of distinction, decision,

knowledge). Diagnosis is, in the ambit of health care (medicine, nursing, phys-

iotherapy, psychology), the exact assignment of findings, diagnostic signs or

symptoms to a specific illness or to a set of symptoms in the sense of a syndrome.

The syndrome determined, together with the suspected cause and pathogenesis

of the disease, results in the diagnosis. Diagnosis is the assignment of phenom-

ena to a category and their interpretation.

Disinfection A procedure in which the number of infectious agents is reduced to

such an extent that an infection or its transmission can be excluded.

Glossary 963

Disinfestation (very rarely or hardly used in English in the German sense of

Entwesung). Extermination of harmful rodents (particularly mice and rats).

It plays an important role in control of epidemics, and is mandatory after culling

of a herd to prevent dissemination of pathogens by rodents.

Dyspnoea Breathlessness, respiratory distress, shortness of breath.

Efflorescence Noticeable change in the skin as a result of disease (“skin blossom”).

EmbryopathyDamage to the embryo before birth, e.g. by infectious diseases of the

mother.

Encephalitis Acute or chronic inflammation of brain tissue.

Encephalomyelitis Inflammatory alteration of the nerve tissue in the brain and

spinal cord.

Encephalopathy A non-inflammatory change of nerve tissue in the central nervous

system. Characteristic of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies such as

bovine spongiform encephalopathy.

Endemic Constantly increased incidence of infections in a confined region or

population. The prevalence of infection in this region/population (the incidence

of all cases of a particular infectious disease in a population at the time of

examination) remains largely the same, but is increased in relation to other

regions/populations. The relevant geographical area is referred to as the endemic

region.

Enteritis Acute or chronic inflammation of the small intestine.

Enterocytes By far the commonest cells of the epithelium of the small intestine,

responsible for the absorption of different substances from food. Enterocytes

have a characteristic apical brush-shaped membrane with microvilli. These

increase the surface area tremendously, and are the basis for absorption.

Envelope (viral envelope) External lipoprotein bilayer derived from cellular mem-

branes (plasma membrane, nuclear membrane, membrane of the endoplasmic

reticulum or the Golgi apparatus) in which the viral partially glycosylated

envelope proteins are incorporated. The viral envelope surrounds the capsid or

nucleocapsid as a membrane.

Enzootic Endemic occurrence of an infectious disease in animals.

Epidemic (Greek epid�mıa, “stay,” “arrival”) The temporal and spatial accumula-

tion of an infectious disease within a region and a human population. An

epidemic occurs when the prevalence, i.e. the number of infections and the

associated morbidity, increases in a given period. An endemic is the ongoing

frequent occurrence of a disease in a confined area.

Epidemic wave See “Panzootic.”

Epitope Structure accessible to the immune system (antigenic determinant). Epitopes

that are recognized by the variable domain of antibodies (immunoglobulins) are

mostly located on the surface of particles and macromolecules such as proteins.

They can be constituted by a region of a protein of four to six amino acids

(sequential epitopes) or by structural, folding-dependent parameters (structural

or discontinuous epitopes). Even protein modifications (such as sugars or

phosphates) are recognized by antibodies as epitopes. However, epitopes recog-

nized by T lymphocytes are peptide segments of proteins that form complexes with

964 Glossary

MHC proteins and are derived from protein structures which are not exposed on

the surface. These complexes are recognized by T-cell receptors.

Erythema Skin redness with a more or less distinct boundary. It arises as a result of

expansion and increased filling of blood vessels. It usually disappears under

pressure.

Exanthem Skin rash.

Exudation Release of certain portions of the blood through altered vessel walls into

adjacent tissue or into inner or outer surfaces of the body during inflammatory

processes.

Food and Agriculture Organization A special agency of the United Nations, with

headquarters in Rome (Italy), founded in Canada in 1945. It comprises 192

member countries today. It has the task of improving worldwide the production

and distribution of agricultural products in general and food in particular to

ensure human nutrition and to improve living standards. It establishes, inter alia,

the international standards for food safety.

Fulminant (Latin fulminans, “like a flash,” “glossy”) Commonly used in connec-

tion with infections associated with very severe symptoms.

Ganglion (ganglion nervosum) Nerve cells and fibres surrounded by a capsule and

with enclosing glial sheath cells, which are present as bulges along cranial

nerves and spinal nerves or as cholinergic switches within the autonomic

nervous system.

Gastroenteritis Acute or chronic inflammation of the small intestine.

Genotype The exact genetic configuration, i.e. the nucleotide sequence and the

individual set of genes that are present in the genetic information (genome) of

a virus. Distinguishable viral genotypes are characterized by a defined percent-

age of different nucleotides, which is usually determined specifically for each

virus type.

Genus Taxonomic category ranking below family and above species, and which

contains one or more species. Here, it is used to refer to virus classes (genera).

Glomerulonephritis Inflammatory alterations in the kidneys which affect the renal

glomeruli and tubules. This can lead to complete renal dysfunction. It is frequently

found in immune complex diseases, since the deposition of complexes in glomeruli

impairs the filtration processes.

Haematogenous Dissemination of pathogens into organs through the blood.

Haemorrhage/haemorrhagic Bleeding, associated with bleeding.

Heat/rut Rutting period in sows (heat, hogging) or cows (rutting, bulling). During

that period, animals exhibit striking behavioural changes, which indicate

increased sexual receptiveness or willingness to mate. Rut occurs at the begin-

ning of a sexual cycle, and is interrupted during pregnancy. A premature termi-

nation of pregnancy leads to a re-entry into oestrus, which is specifically

characterized by the German husbandry terms umrauschen (premature re-entry

or return into heat for a sow) and umrindern (premature re-entry or return into

the rutting period for a cow).

Helminths (Greek elmins, “worm”) General term for multicellular, endoparasitic

organisms (worms).

Glossary 965

Hepatitis Liver inflammation.

Herd immunity The existing protection against infectious disease in a population.

Hexon A protein surrounded by six neighbouring proteins in the faces of icosahe-

dral virus particles.

Humoral/humoral defence system Responses of the immune system related to

body fluids (especially serum) and mediated by their contents. It refers to the

non-cellular components of the immune system, i.e. particularly immunologi-

cally active molecules in the blood serum, e.g. immunoglobulins (antibodies).

Hydrops Pathological accumulation of fluid in body cavities or in the interstitial

space.

Hyperaemia Increased blood volume in part of the circulatory system or in the

organ circulation; e.g. the additional circulation in an organ.

Hyperplasia Abnormal enlargement of a tissue or organ caused by increased cell

division, and the associated extraordinary increase in the number of cells.

Hypertrophy Increase in the size of an organ or tissue by cell enlargement or by

cell swelling (e.g. by increased water influx) when the original number of cells is

maintained.

Iatrogenic (Greek iatros, “physician”) Infections and diseases transmitted by

physicians or through instruments used by them (surgical instruments, needles, etc.).

Icosahedron A regular polyhedron (particle) with 20 equilateral triangles as faces

and 12 vertices.

Icterus (jaundice) A symptom that occurs in several different diseases (e.g. hepa-

titis). It describes the yellowing of the skin, mucous membranes and the con-

junctiva of the eye caused by an increased concentration of bilirubin.

Immunoglobulins (antibodies) Proteins that are produced in vertebrates in

response to specific antigens (pathogen structures).

Immunosuppression (Latin supprimere, “suppress,” “repress,” “withhold”)

A reduction or repression of the body’s own immune defence mechanisms.

Immunosuppression can be caused by viral infections (e.g. by human immuno-

deficiency virus) or by the use of medication (e.g. by administration of cortico-

steroids, cyclosporine in organ or bone marrow transplantations and in the

treatment of autoimmune diseases). Furthermore, there are also hereditary

forms of immunodeficiency.

Incidence The number of new disease cases in a time unit.

Incubation period The time between infection (contact) with a pathogen and the

onset of disease symptoms.

Infarction Local tissue destruction (necrosis) caused by impaired circulation,

commonly as a result of acute vessel occlusion (thrombus).

Infection Attachment, penetration and proliferation of pathogens (viruses, bacteria,

fungi, parasites) in an organism (human, animal, plant). If the organism develops

disease symptoms during this process, then it is an infectious disease.

Inflammation Specific or non-specific immune responses to various noxious agents

(disease-causing agents, pathogens). Inflammations can be caused by chemical,

mechanical, electrical, radiological or biological agents. The latter include

infections with viruses, bacteria or parasites and their products. An inflammation

966 Glossary

is characterized by sequentially structured phases: vascular reaction, increased

vascular permeability, exudation, leucocyte migration (chemotaxis or phagocy-

tosis) and proliferation of connective tissue. Classic signs of inflammation are

redness, warmth, swelling, pain and restricted function.

Infiltration Pathologically increased, frequently localized penetration or migration

of normal, abnormal or foreign cells into certain regions of the body and/or

organs. It is generally associated with immunologically active cells that migrate

into the infected organs as a result of viral replication.

Inoculation Introduction or transmission of pathogens or cellular material (inocu-

lum) into an organism or a culture medium.

Interstitium/interstice Space between the body organs or tissues. It is usually

filled by (interstitial) connective tissue.

Keratitis Inflammation of the cornea.

Keratoconjunctivitis Inflammation of the cornea and the conjunctiva.

Latent infection Form of infection where the virus remains in the body after

primary infection without producing infectious viruses or causing disease symp-

toms. The virus can be stimulated to replicate by certain internal or external

stimuli, leading to recurrences of symptoms of primary infection. Latent infec-

tions are caused, for instance, by herpesviruses.

Leader Leader sequence at the beginning of proteins (leader peptide) or transcripts

(leader RNA).

Lesion Wound, injury or disruption of tissue structures in a living organism.

Lethality Number of deaths in proportion to the number of new disease cases in

a particular illness.

Limitation (of an infection) Delimitation of an infection or viral replication at the

entry site of the pathogen or at a specific organ, usually by the functions of the

immune system.

Lymphohaematogenic Dissemination of infectious agents into various organs via

the blood and/or the lymph fluid.

Mammillitis Inflammation of the nipple, or the teat in cattle.

Maternal immune protection Immune system of newborns based on antibodies

(immunoglobulins) that are transferred from the maternal circulatory system into

that of the foetus during pregnancy, and which remain detectable up to the age of

4–6 months in humans. IgA antibodies are also transferred to nursing infants by

colostrum and breast milk (enteral maternal immune protection).

Meningitis Inflammation of the membranes (meninges) of the brain and/or spinal

cord.

Meningoencephalitis Inflammation of the brain and/or spinal cord membranes

(meninges) concomitantly with inflammation of adjacent brain tissue.

Metastasis/tumour metastasis A secondary focus of disease (secondary tumour)

which is caused by spreading of single cells from a primary, usually persisting

focus of disease or tumour cells into other body regions.

MicroRNA See “RNA interference.”

Morbidity Number of diseases (such as a result of an infectious disease) in relation

to the total population in a given time span.

Glossary 967

Mortality Number of deaths (such as a result of an infectious disease) in relation to

the total population in a given period.

Mummification After death of a foetus during pregnancy, it may be “fossilized,”

remaining primarily in this form in the uterus, and may be delivered on schedule.

This is a typical symptom of parvovirus infection in pigs.

Myocarditis Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocardium).

Necrosis Local death of cells of a tissue in a living organism.

Needlestick injury Bleeding and non-bleeding puncture, cut or scratch injury

caused by medical personnel (physicians, nurses, laboratory personnel) with

needles, scalpels or similar objects which were contaminated with patient

blood or body fluids. Needlestick injuries are the commonest occupational

injuries of health-care workers. These injuries can lead to transmission of

infectious agents (e.g. human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus and

hepatitis C virus).

Neoplasm/neoplasia Formation of new tissue by abnormal growth of body tissues

owing to unregulated, autonomous and unrestrained cell proliferation.

Nosocomial (referring to hospital). Nosocomial infections are infections that can be

acquired in health-care service units, hospitals or similar establishments.

Notification In animal disease control, notification is mandatory for important,

especially contagious diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease. In such a case,

the suspicion of an outbreak must be reported to the veterinary authority. Even

animal owners are subject to this requirement. This process should make possi-

ble the immediate detection of an outbreak, and minimize the risk of dissemi-

nation of the disease.

Nucleocapsid Complex of capsid proteins and the viral genome (DNA or RNA).

Obligation to notify According to legislature in most countries, certain infections

are notifiable. In the case of viral infections, this means that detection of viruses,

suspicion of infection, illness or death caused by diseases which are mentioned

in the law should be reported to the respective authorities either personally or

anonymously. The treating physician as well as hospitals and laboratories are

obliged to report cases of such diseases.

Oedema (Greek oıd�ma, “swelling”) Discharge of fluid from the vascular system

and accumulation in the interstitial space. Oedema manifests itself as swelling of

the tissue with subcutaneous fluid accumulation or in specific organs (e.g.

pulmonary oedema, cerebral oedema).

Opportunistic pathogens/infection Viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites which

infect immunologically weakened organisms in order to spread very efficiently

in them. The state of immunosuppression may be genetically determined, may

be caused by infection with other pathogens (such as human immunodeficiency

virus) or may be caused by therapeutic measures (e.g. after organ transplants).

Outbreak-control vaccination (see “Ring vaccination”) A vaccination measure

which is undertaken after outbreak of a disease in a population and can be

regionally limited. Outbreak-control vaccination is required if the herd immu-

nity in a population has fallen below a certain percentage. Outbreak-control

vaccination is aimed at preventing further dissemination of the pathogen by

968 Glossary

inducing a rapid protective immunity among people who could come into

contact with it (neutralizing antibodies, etc.).

Pandemic Country- and continent-wide spread of an infectious disease.

A pandemic is not geographically confined to a particular region; this feature

distinguishes a pandemic from an epidemic.

Panzootic Pandemic spread of an infectious disease in animals.

Paracrine The immediate effect of a molecule (cytokine, hormone, growth factor)

released by a cell on neighbouring cells, e.g. by binding to receptors on their cell

surface.

Parenterally A general term for the way through which pathogens or substances

(drugs, injections, infusions) penetrate into the human or animal body,

circumventing the gastrointestinal tract, e.g. by intravenous (through a vein),

intra-arterial (by an artery), intramuscular (through a muscle) or intraperitoneal

(through the abdominal cavity) injection.

Parotid glands The largest of the salivary glands located anterior and inferior to the

ears.

Parotitis Inflammation of the parotid glands.

Pathogenicity The genetically determined ability of viruses (also bacteria or

parasites) to induce a disease in humans or animals.

Penton Viral protein associated with five neighbouring proteins at the vertices of

icosahedral particles.

Perinatal Refers to the period immediately before and after birth.

Peritonitis Localized or diffuse inflammation of the peritoneum (membrane lining

the abdominal cavity) which is usually associated with secretion and may lead to

ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity). It is a typical symptom of

a feline infectious peritonitis.

Persistent (Latin persistere, “to remain,” “to persevere”) Commonly associated

with infections during which the pathogen cannot be eliminated by the immune

system of the organism, remaining in the body for long periods and continuously

multiplying, even though frequently only with a low replication rate.

Petechiae Tiny, punctated skin or mucous membrane bleeding (capillary bleeding);

single efflorescence of the purpura.

Pharyngitis Inflammation of the pharynx.

Pharynx The “throat” or “gullet” as a common section of the trachea and oesoph-

agus. The pharynx is a muscle–mucosal tube which begins at the skull base and

leads into the oesophagus. It is an open connection to the nasal and oral cavities

and the larynx, and is accordingly divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx and

laryngopharynx.

Phylogenesis/phylogeny The evolutionary development and the genetic relation-

ship of all living organisms at all levels of biological taxonomy. Within the

frame of this book, it is mainly used for the relationships of viruses within

a family and the evolution of viral traits.

Planum nasolabiale The fusion of upper lip and nose in the muzzle of cattle.

Planum rostrale The fusion of the upper lip and nose to the front plate in the

muzzle of swine.

Glossary 969

Pleuritis/pleurisy Inflammation of the pleura.

Pneumonia Diffuse or focal inflammation of the lungs. Interstitial pneumonia is

a form of pneumonia in which the inflammatory exudate occurs especially in the

pulmonary interstitium, i.e. the connective tissue in the lungs.

Polykaryocyte See “Syncytium.”

Polyserositis Inflammation of serous membranes, such as the peritoneum or the

pleura. A typical symptom of feline infectious peritonitis, a coronavirus infection.

Prenatal Before birth, related to the child.

Prevalence Frequency of all cases of a particular disease in a population at the time

of examination.

Prodromal stage Preliminary phase to the actual disease, usually accompanied by

non-specific symptoms such as malaise, headache and fever.

Purpura Spontaneous, speckled petechial capillary bleeding in the skin, mucous

membrane and subcutaneous tissue (subcutaneous tissue). In contrast to

erythema, it does not disappear under pressure.

Quarantine Statutory and limited period for which people or animals (including

people and animals they come in contact with) with certain infectious diseases or

suspected of being infected are isolated. The duration of the preventive quaran-

tine depends on the incubation period of the suspected disease.

Quasispecies A population of very similar but not identical viruses, especially

RNA viruses. It arises by high mutation rates based on the low fidelity of RNA-

dependent RNA polymerases of RNA viruses, which incorporate incorrectly

pairing nucleotides with an error rate of about 10�4.

Reading frame (1) Coding region of a gene that is translated into a protein. The

start codon is in almost all cases an ATG triplet, which codes for methionine. An

open reading frame is a coding sequence which does not contain a stop codon on

the mRNA over a long distance after the start codon.

Reading frame (2) One of the three possible alternatives to read the nucleotide

sequence of a gene as a series of non-overlapping triplets (codons) which direct

its translation into the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein.

Recurrence (Latin recurrere, “to come back,” “to run back,” “to return”) Relaps-

ing (recurrent) symptoms of an infection. It is known particularly in herpesvirus

infections, in which the pathogens remain latent in the organism. External

stimuli can induce reactivation of the virus from latency, resulting in lytic

viral replication, which is associated with clinical symptoms similar to those

of the initial infection.

Reinfection (secondary infection) A second infection with the same pathogen

(virus, bacterium, etc.).

Relapse Recurrence of a disease after complete healing or recovery. Relapses of

infectious diseases can be caused by reinfection with the original pathogen (e.g.

by herpesviruses that remain latently present in the organism after a primary

infection) or by pathogens from a new disease focus.

Rheumatoid factorsAntibodies of different subclasses (IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE) which

are directed as autoantibodies against specific epitopes of the body’s own IgG

immunoglobulins.

970 Glossary

Ring vaccination (German definition) A localized vaccination measure after out-

break of an infectious disease in an animal population. Animals residing within

a radius of 3–10 km (depending on the infection) of the infected zone are

vaccinated. This measure prevents spread of the disease, and additionally allows

the use of vaccinated animals. However, trade restrictions must usually be

accepted.

Ring vaccination (English definition) The vaccination of all susceptible individ-

uals in a prescribed area around an outbreak of an infectious disease. Ring

vaccination controls an outbreak by vaccinating and monitoring a ring of people

around each infected individual. The idea is to form a buffer of immune

individuals to prevent the spread of the disease (see “Outbreak-control

vaccination”).

RNA editing Post-transcriptional modification of the mRNA sequence by targeted

insertion or excision of single nucleotides.

RNA interference (RNA silencing) RNA interference is one of the mechanisms

through which cells can regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level

by controlling the sequence-specific degradation and thus the amount of

mRNAs. RNA interference is based on the formation of microRNAs (miRNAs)

or small interfering RNAs. These are single-stranded RNA molecules of 21–23

nucleotides in length which result from cleavage of longer pre-miRNA mole-

cules. Pre-miRNAs are encoded in the genome of humans, mammals and

plants in specific genes that are transcribed by RNA polymerase II and are

post-transcriptionally modified with 50-cap groups and polyadenylated. They

contain sequence regions that form intramolecular double-stranded hairpin

structures, which are cleaved by the nuclear protein complex Drosha/Pasha,

which possesses RNase III activity. The resulting pre-miRNAs are exported to

the cytoplasm, where they are further processed into double-stranded miRNA

molecules with a 30 overhang by Dicer, a cytoplasmic RNase III. A helicase

unwinds miRNA duplexes to single-stranded miRNAs, each of which interacts

with the RNA-induced silencing complex (RICS). The miRNA/RISC complex

binds by the miRNA moiety to mRNAs that contain miRNA complementary

sequences, directing the degradation of such transcripts. Besides pre-miRNAs,

precursor miRNA sequences are also found within the introns of protein-coding

sequences of mRNAmolecules, which frequently induce the degradation of their

own precursor molecules.

Sarcoma Malignant, locally destructive, metastasizing tumour originating from

mesenchymal tissues (soft tissue, skeletal and neurogenic tissue and the inter-

stitial connective tissue of organs).

Self-assembly Orderly autonomous assembly of various components (proteins and

nucleic acid) into functionally intact units without requiring additional enzy-

matic activities (e.g. the formation of ribosomal subunits, and infectious viruses;

see also “Viral assembly”).

Seroconversion The occurrence of antibodies in the serum of a patient who had

been free of the corresponding immunoglobulins. Seroconversion occurs as

a result of infection or vaccination.

Glossary 971

Seroprevalence The frequency of occurrence of antibodies which indicate a past or

an existing infection in the blood in a group of people or a population.

Serotype Serologically distinguishable variation within a virus subspecies owing to

the ability to interact with specific antibodies. The serotypes of a viral species

differ in their antigenic properties (surface structures that are recognized by the

immune system). The classification into serotypes allows a subdivision of viral

species, which is of particular interest from an epidemiological perspective.

Because of the increasingly automated methods of nucleic acid sequencing,

the different viral species are distinguished by determining their genotypes.

Slaughter Killing of animals for human consumption, including stunning-bleeding

slaughter. Killed animals are released for human consumption within the frame-

work of the detection of specific animal diseases. An example is enzootic bovine

leucosis, a retrovirus infection.

Small interfering RNA See “RNA interference.”

Squalene An organic, unsaturated compound of the group of triterpenes which is

produced by all higher organisms. It is an adjuvant in vaccines, i.e. an additional

immunological agent that increases the effect of vaccines.

Stroma The interstitial connective tissue of an organ.

Subarachnoid space The space containing cerebrospinal fluid between the arach-

noid (i.e. the poorly vascularised, connective tissue, bilaterally covered with

endothelial cells which sheathes the brain and spinal cord) and the pia mater (the

connective tissue which lies directly on the brain and spinal cord surfaces and is

tightly connected with the underlying membrane).

Superinfection The concurrent or chronologically only slightly delayed secondary

infection of an organism (human, animal, plant) with a different strain of the

same pathogen or another pathogen (virus, bacterium, parasite, fungus). Because

the first infectious agent causes damage to the host organism, other infectious

agents can invade and spread very efficiently.

Symptom Sign of disease.

Symptomatic infection Infection associated with symptoms.

Syncytium A multinucleated cell (polykaryocyte), also known as a giant cell.

A syncytium can arise by fusion of several individual cells. This process is

induced by some viruses (e.g. paramyxoviruses, herpesviruses) which promote

the fusion of infected cells with uninfected cells by using the fusogenic activity

of their surface proteins. Alternatively, syncytia can also arise by nuclear

division without subsequent division of the cytoplasm.

Syndrome (Greek sύndromoB, “coming together,” “path,” “run”). In medicine,

syndrome means the simultaneous presence of various characteristics (symp-

toms) which usually have a common cause.

Synovial fluid The clear, viscous and ropy fluid produced by the synovium (joint-

lining membrane) that reduces friction between the articular cartilages during

movement.

Tachypnoea Increased respiratory rate by stimulating the respiratory centre in the

case of increased oxygen demand, e.g. during physical exertion, fever or reduced

supply of oxygen (hypoxaemia)

972 Glossary

Tegument Proteinaceous layer between the envelope and capsid in herpesviruses.

Tonsils (Latin tonsilla, “almond”) Almond-shaped organs that are parts of the

lymphoepithelial tissue of the lymphatic pharyngeal ring. Four different tonsils

can be distinguished: pharyngeal tonsils (tonsilla pharyngealis or adenoidea),

tonsils of the tongue (tonsilla lingualis), palatal tonsils (tonsilla palatina) and

tubal tonsils (tonsilla tubaria).

Tracheitis Inflammation of the trachea.

Trailer Non-coding RNA sequence region at the 50 end of the genome of negative-

sense RNA viruses (analogous to the 50 untranslated region).

Transaminases (aminotransferases) Enzymes that catalyse the transfer of an

a-amino group from a donor molecule, usually an amino acid, to an acceptor

molecule, commonly an a-keto acid, e.g. pyruvate and oxaloacetate (transami-

nation reaction), using pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme, including an

exchange of the respective redox states. These enzymes include, inter alia,

aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase. The detection of

elevated transaminase activity in serum is used as diagnostic evidence of liver

inflammation or other damage to this organ.

Tropism (Greek tropoB, “change,” “turn”) Refers to the ability of a virus to infecta particular cell type (cell tropism), the cells of a specific tissue (tissue tropism)

or an organ (organ tropism) and to multiply there. Host tropism means the

preferred or exclusive infection of a given species as the host organism.

Tumour (Latin tumor, “swelling,” “lump”) General term for any distinct swelling

of body tissues (neoplasm).

Ulcer (from Latin ulcus). Lesion of the skin or mucous membranes with disinte-

gration and necrosis and loss of epithelial tissue, which usually heals by rejection

of the necrotic tissue, leaving cicatrices.

Ultrafilterable Designation for substances or particles which cannot be filtered by

bacterial filtration systems, and thus are smaller than 0.2 mm.

Undulating fever Wave-like disappearing and recurring fever. It is typical of

infectious diseases in which a change of surface antigens occurs, leading to an

immune response against the altered “new” pathogen. An example is equine

infectious anaemia, a retrovirus infection.

Vaccination (protective vaccination) A preventive measure against various infec-

tious diseases by application of a vaccine. Vaccination stimulates the immune

system to induce specific immunological defence mechanisms in order to estab-

lish a specific immunity against the corresponding infectious disease.

Vaccine A biological preparation composed of an attenuated (weakened) or

inactivated (killed) pathogen that generates an immunity to a particular disease

by stimulating antibody production or cellular immunity against the respective

pathogen.

Vascular Concerning blood vessels.

Viraemia The occurrence and presence of virus particles in the blood.

Virion Infectious virus particle.

Virulence Sum of all the properties of a pathogen (virus) that contribute to disease

development in a human or an animal. Virulence is quantified as the LD50 value,

Glossary 973

i.e. the number of viruses (or other pathogens) which are sufficient to kill 50 % of

the animals or cells in a tissue culture.

Viral assembly The orderly autonomous assembly of the viral structural proteins

and viral genomes into infectious virus particles at the end of the viral replication

cycle.

World Health Organization A specialized agency of the United Nations that acts

as a coordinating authority concerning international public health. It has its

headquarters in Geneva (Switzerland). It was founded on 7 April 1948 and has

194 member states.

World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) The authority responsible for

international animal health, with headquarters in Paris (France). It was founded

in 1924 as the Office International des Epizooties on the occasion of a rinderpest

outbreak (1920 in Belgium), and includes 178 member countries today.

Zoonosis Infectious disease in which pathogens can be transmitted from animals to

humans, causing a disease in them.

974 Glossary

Additional Information

In the various chapters, data concerning the notificability and epidemiology

of individual virus infection refer mainly to the situation in countries of

Central Europe. For readers with interest in respective data in other countries or

regions worldwide, we attach a list of web sites that will supply actual data in

English. For individual countries we would like to ask the readers to contact the

web sites of global agencies or national health authorities and/or departments

of health.

Human infectious diseases

Global:

WHO

Infectious diseases: Global alert and response, databases and information system

http://www.who.int/csr/resources/databases/en/index.html

WHO – Europe:

Centralised information system for infectious diseases CISID

http://data.euo.who.int/cisid/

European Center for Disease Prevention and Cotrol (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden

Information on surveillance of infectious (communicable) diseases in Europe

http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/activities/surveillance/disease_specific_surveillance/

Pages/disease_specific_surveillance.aspx

National:

Australia: Department of Health and Aging, Australian Government, Information and

surveillance of communicable diseases

http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-communic-1

Austria: Bundesministerium f€ur Gesundheit, Notifiable infectious diseases and

statistics

http://www.bmg.gv.at/home/Schwerpunkte/Krankheiten/Uebertragbare_Krankheiten/

Canada: Public Health Agency of Canada: www.publichealth.gc.ca

S. Modrow et al., Molecular Virology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20718-1,# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

975

Infectious diseases, infection control guidelines and surveillance

http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/id-mi/index-eng.php

Germany: Robert-Koch-Institut, Berlin: List and numbers of notifiable infectious

diseases in Germany

http://www.rki.de/DE/Content/Infekt/SurvStat/survstat_node.html

Great Britian: Health Protection Agency, London, Infectious diseases, infection

control guidelines and surveillance

http://www.hpa.org.uk/Topics/InfectiousDiseases/

Ireland: Health Protetion Surveillance Centre, Dublin, Information, surveillance

and data of notifiable and communicable diseases http://www.hpsc.ie/hpsc/

NotifiableDiseases/

New Zealand: New Zealand Public Health Observatory, Auckland, Information on

notifiable communicable diseases http://www.nzpho.org.nz/NotifiableDisease.aspx

and surveillance: http://www.surv.esr.cri.nz/

Sweden: Smittskyddsinstitutet (smi), Solna, Infectious diseases, infection control

guidelines and surveillance

http://www.smittskyddsinstitutet.se/in-english/statistics/

Switzerland: Eidgenossisches Departement des Inneren, Bundesamt f€ur Gesund-heit, Surveillance and numbers of notifiable infectious diseases

http://www.bag.admin.ch/k_m_meldesystem/index.html?lang¼de

USA: Centers of disease control and infection, Atlanta, Informations about infec-

tious diseases, notification and case numbers

http://www.cdc.gov/

National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases:

http://www.cdc.gov/ncezid/

National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases: http://www.cdc.gov/

ncird/

National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral hepatitis, STD and TB prevention:

http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/

Animal infectious diseases

Global:

OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health):

Collection and analysis the latest scientific information on animal disease control

and OIE-listed diseases.

http://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-diseases-2013/

National:

Australia: Australian Animal Health Laboratory (CSIRO), East Geelong.

http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Divisions/Animal-Food-and-Health-

Sciences.aspx

Belgium: Veterinary and Agrochemical Research centre (VAR-CODA-CERVA,)

Brussels.

http://www.coda-cerva.be

976 Additional Information

Canada: Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), Reportable and notifiable

diseases:

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/eng/1299155513713/1299155693492

North American Plan for Animal and Pandemic Influenza:

http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/em/pandemic/2012-napapi-eng.aspx

Terrestrial Animal Disease Surveillance:

http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/surveillance/eng/

1313720601375/1313720675875

Denmark: Technical University of Denmark, National Veterinary Institute (DTU

Vet), Lindholm.

http://www.vet.dtu.dk/

France: L’Agence nationale chargee de la securite sanitaire de l’alimentation, de

l’environnement et du travail (ANSES), Paris.

http://www.anses.fr/en

Centre de cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Develop-

pement (CIRAD), Paris, Montpellier.

http://www.cirad.fr

Germany: Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Insel Riems.

http://www.fli.bund.de/

Great Britain: Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA), now part of Animal Health

and Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA):

http://vla.defra.gov.uk/

Research and Surveillance Virology:

http://vla.defra.gov.uk/science/sci_virology.htm

Wildlife Diseases:

http://vla.defra.gov.uk/science/sci_wildlife.htm

Pirbright Institute (PI), Pirbright.

http://www.pirbright.ac.uk/

Italy :Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’ Emillia Roma-

gna (IZSLER), Brescia.

http://www.izsler.it/

Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie (IZS-Ve), Legnaro.

http://www.izsvenezie.it/

The Netherlands: Central Veterinary Institute (CVI), Lelystad,

http://www.wageningenur.nl/nl/Expertises-Dienstverlening/Onderzoeksinstituten/

central-veterinary-institute.htm

Poland: National Veterinary Research Institute (PIWet; NVRI), Pulawy.

http://www.piwet.pulawy.pl/piwet7/index_a_eng.php

Spain: Centro De Investigacion en Sanidad Animal (CISA),

http://www.nadir-project.eu/nadir_project/call_for_access/open_facilities_avai-

lable_for_access/centro_de_investigacion_en_sanidad_animal_cisa

Instituto Nacional de Investigacion y Tecnologıa Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA),

Valdeolmos, Madrid.

http://www.inia.es/IniaPortal/verPresentacion.action

Additional Information 977

Sweden: Statens Veterinarmedicinska Anstalt, Uppsala.

http://www.sva.se/

Switzerland: Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis/Federal Veterinary

Office, Mittelh€ausern, Bern.http://www.bvet.admin.ch/index.html?lang¼en

USA: Animal and Plant Health inspection service (APHIS), United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture (USDA) and Centres for Epidemiology and Animal Health

(CEAH), Information on notifiable communicable animal diseases.

http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/index.shtml

978 Additional Information

Index

A

AAV-2 replication, 889

Abacavir, 609

Abortive infection, 33

adenovirus, 735

Abortive polio, 214

ABO system, 244

ACE-2. See Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2

(ACE-2)

Achong, B., 808

Ackermann, W., 794

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

(AIDS), 40, 598, 605, 608

characteristic diseases, 603

late phase, 602

Actin, 59

Actin filaments, 59

Activated macrophages, 73

Acute-phase proteins, 77

Acute progressive infectious encephalitis, 405

Acute respiratory distress syndrome, 472

Acycloguanosine, 115, 117, 127. See Tab. 9.1and Fig. 9.1

Acyclovir, 117, 127, 765, 798, 801

Adefovir, 117, 124, 649

Adenain, 711, 723

Adenine translocator 3 (ANT3), 491

Adeno-associated viruses (AAV), 876,

886–887, 889–892, 897–898

gene therapy vectors, 891

latent infection, 891–892

pathogenesis, 897–898

proteins functions, 884

replication, 889–891

transmission, 897

Adenosine analogue, 124

Adenoviral E1A and E1B proteins, cell

transformation, 733

Adenoviral fibre protein, 711

Adenoviridae, 23, 626, 708Adenovirus, 36, 707–738

association with specific diseases, 712

attachment, 727

CAR binding, 728

cellular receptors, 712

characteristic prototypes, 709

classification, 708

diagnosis, 736, 738

epidemiology and transmission, 738

genome organization and structure, 711

genome replication, 720

genome structure, 714

immune response, 735

keratoconjunctivitis, 735

late proteins, 723

non-oncogenic, 734

oncogenic adenoviruses, 734

penetration, 729

protein VI, 729

replication, 727

structure, 710

target organs, 712

therapy and prophylaxis, 736

Adenovirus-associated RNA, 726–727

Adenovirus-associated tumours, 734

Adenovirus death protein, 721

Adenovirus particle structure, 710

Adjuvant, 142

Adult T-cell leukaemia, 611

Aedes, 269, 270, 474, 475A. albopictus, 273, 306A. aegypti, 270, 273A. africanus, 269A. haemagogus, 269A. scutellaris, 273A. triseriatus, 474

Aflatoxins, 646

African Duvenhage virus, 354

S. Modrow et al., Molecular Virology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-20718-1,# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

979

African horse sickness virus, 545, 549–551

clinical features, 550

diagnosis and vaccines, 551

epidemiology and transmission, 549

pathogenesis, 550

African swine fever, 36, 286, 857, 860–862

control and prophylaxis, 862

epidemiology and transmission, 860

evasion of the host immune response, 861

pathogenesis, 861

Aggresomes, 860

Agnoprotein, 657, 665

Aichi virus, 190

AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS-related complex, 602

Akabane virus, 474

Alastrim virus, 846

Aleutian mink disease, 878, 902

clinical features, 902

epidemiology and transmission, 902

pathogenesis, 903

Allander, T., 657, 895

Alloherpesviridae, 741Alphacoronavirus, 319

Alphaentomopoxvirus, 832

Alphaherpes viruses, 54, 741, 791–792

Alphapapillomavirus, 679

Alpharetrovirus, 613

Alphaviruses, 292

glycoprotein E1, 299

glycoprotein E2, 299

6k protein, 299

non-structural proteins, 296–297

structural proteins, 298

Aluminium hydroxide adjuvant, 142

Aluminium hydroxyphosphate sulphate

adjuvant, 142

Amantadine, 120, 124, 128, 487, 512

Ambisense orientation, 35

Amdovirus, 878

A/M2 protein, 486, 513

influenza A viruses, 486

influenza viruses, 513

Amyloids, 926

Analogue of the pocket factor.

See PleconarilAnamnesis, def, 152

Anaphylatoxins, 78

Andes virus, 469

Andrews, C., 6, 478, 499

Anelloviridae, 25, 875Anellovirus, 904–914

characteristic prototypes, 906

classification and characteristic prototypes,

905

genome, 906

human pathogenic, 910–912

protein functions, 909

structure, 906

Anergic, 80

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2),

328

Animal and human pathogenic bunyaviruses,

474–477

Animal diseases, controlling, 514

Animal pathogenic adenoviruses, 736

Animal pathogenic arteriviruses, 315

Animal pathogenic asfarviruses, 860–862

Animal pathogenic astroviruses, 235–236

Animal pathogenic birnaviruses, 526

Animal pathogenic caliciviruses, 245–247

Animal pathogenic circoviruses, 912–914

Animal pathogenic coronaviruses, 335–336

Animal pathogenic flaviviruses, 285–288

Animal pathogenic herpesviruses, 817–818

Animal pathogenic papillomaviruses, 704–705

diseases, 705

Animal pathogenic paramyxoviruses, 411

Animal pathogenic parvoviruses, 898–904

evolution, 899

Animal pathogenic picornaviruses, 224–225

Animal pathogenic polyomaviruses, 673–676

Animal pathogenic poxviruses, 852–855

Animal pathogenic reoviruses, 545

Animal pathogenic rhabdoviruses, 368

Animal pathogenic togaviruses, 306–309

Annexin, 637

Annulate lamellae, 788

Anopheles, 369ANT3. See Adenine translocator 3 (ANT3)

Antibodies, 86

infection-enhancing, 266

maternal, 90

somatic hypermutation, 89

structure, 86

Antibody diversity, 89

Antibody subclasses, 89

Antigen ELISA, 166

Antigenic drift, 157, 503–505

influenza virus, 504, 505

Antigenic shift, 157, 438, 503

Antigen-presenting cells, 71, 73, 80, 81, 84–85

Antigens, definition, 70

Antioncogenes. See Tumour suppressors

Antiretroviral therapy, 610

980 Index

Antisense RNA, 132

Antiviral chemotherapeutic agents, 117, 120,

122–126

Antiviral drugs, 13, 115

molecular targets, 116–120

selection pressure, 130

Aphthovirus, 188, 190

cellular receptors, 206

Apodemus agrarius, 470Apodemus agrarius corea, 469Apodemus flavicollis, 470Apoptin, 909

Apoptosis, 49–51

Apoptosis-inducing mechanisms, 50

Apoptotic vesicles, 50

2A protease, 197

Apurinic/apyrimidinic site, 767

Aquabirnavirus, 522, 527

Aquareoviruses, 534

Arenaviridae, 437, 438Arenaviruses, 438–454

animal and human pathogenic, 448

attachment, 446

characteristic prototypes, 440

classification and characteristic prototypes,

439

genome organization and structure, 440

natural host, 440

particle structure, 441

penetration, 446

proteins functions and properties, 444

replication, 446

structure, 439

Armstrong, C., 448

Arteriviridae, 19, 186, 318Arterivirus(es), 309–317

animal pathogenic, 315

arteriviruses, 310

classification and characteristic prototypes,

310

genome organization and replication, 312

genome organization and structure, 310

M protein, 314

non-structural proteins, 312

N protein, 314

protein functions and properties, 313

replication, 314

structural proteins, 314

structure, 311

viral proteins, 312

Arthritis, 91

Arthropods, as virus carriers, 149

Asfarviridae, 25, 286, 626, 857

Asfarvirus, 36, 93, 857–862

animal pathogenic, 860–862

classification and characteristic prototypes,

858

genome, 858

particle structure, 859

replication, 860

structure, 858

viral proteins, 859

Asfivirus, 857

Asialoglycoprotein receptor, 637

Asian flu, 158, 500, 504

Asophils, 110

Aspergillus flavus, 646Assemblin, 751

Astroviridae, 18, 229Astroviruses, 229, 230

animal pathogenic, 235–236

classification and characteristic prototypes,

229

clinical features, 234

epidemiology and transmission, 234

genome, 230

genome organization, 231

human pathogenic, 234

immune response and diagnosis, 234

particle structure, 230

pathogenesis, 234

proteins, 232

replication, 233

structure, 229

therapy and prophylaxis, 235

Astruc, J., 794

Atadenovirus, 23

Ataxia, 374, 929

Ateline herpesvirus, 758

Attachment, 31, 483

of influenza viruses, 483

Attenuated viruses, 137–141

Attenuation, 137, 141

Aujeszky, A., 821

Aujeszky’s disease, 821

Australian bat lyssaviruses, 353

Autocrine stimulation, 61

Autoimmune encephalitis, 403

Autoimmune reactions, 90

Avery, O.T., 9

Aviadenoviruses, 708

clinical features, 738

pathogenesis, 738

Avian adenoviruses, 738

Avian bornaviruses, 371, 373

Avian flu, 160, 507–508

Index 981

Avian flu (cont.)in Central Europa, 507

Avian Hepatitis E virus, 254

Avian infectious bronchitis virus, 319, 321,

330, 335, 338–339

clinical features, 338

diagnosis and prophylaxis, 339

epidemiology and transmission, 338

pathogenesis, 339

Avian influenza, 148, 411, 482, 500, 501, 510

Avian leucosis virus, 613

control, 614

epidemiology and transmission, 613

pathogenesis, 614

Avian leukaemia virus, 5

Avian nephritis virus, 235

Avibirnavirus, 522

Avipoxvirus, 832

Azidothymidine, 117, 121, 122,

126, 609

B

Bacillus Calmette–Guerin, 96

Bacterial artificial chromosomes, 793–794

Bacteriophages, 5

Bait vaccine, 368

Bak proteins, 688

Balayan, M.S., 252

Baltimore, D., 11, 556

Bancroft, T.L., 273

Bang, O., 5, 556

Bank voles, 219, 470

Barker, G., 282

Barre-Sinoussi, F., 556

Barr, Y., 808

Basophils, 71, 72

Bats, 420, 427

as carriers of rabies, 362

B-cell lymphoma, 780, 809

B-cell receptor, 782

Beak and feather disease virus, 905, 913

Beijerinck, M.W., 4

Bel1, 560, 567

Bel2 protein, 584–585

Bel response element (BRE), 567

Betacoronavirus, 319

Betaentomopoxvirus, 832

Betaherpesvirinae, 805Betaherpesviruses, 745, 792–793

Betapapillomavirus, 679Bet protein of spumaviruses, 584

Biosensors, 180

BiP; immunoglobulin heavy chain binding

protein, 212

Birnaviridae, 21, 521Birnaviruses, 35, 522

animal pathogenic, 526

characteristic prototypes, 522

classification and transmission, 522

genome organization and gene expression,

524

genome organization and structure, 523

particle structure, 523

protein and functions properties, 522

protein functions, 375

replication, 525

structural proteins, 525

structure, 522

Bishop, J.M., 556

Bishop, R., 541

Bittner, J.J., 556

BK polyomavirus, 635, 669, 670

associated diseases, 669

and JC polyomaviruses diseases, 670

Black smallpox, 848

Blood-brain barrier, 46

Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, 46

Blood group antigens, 244

Bluetongue disease, 547, 549

clinical features, 547

pathogenesis, 548

prophylaxis, 548

recent spreading into Europa, 549

Bluetongue virus, 159, 547–549

epidemiology and transmission, 547

of sheep, 545

B lymphocytes, 86–90

BNLF1, 781

Bocavirus, 878, 883, 896

animal bocaviruses, 903–904

genome, 878

genome organization, 883

human bocavirus, 895–897

Boceprevir, 120

Body-cavity-based lymphoma, 782

Bokay, J., 798

Bonemeal, 941

Booster vaccinations, 142

Border disease virus, 289

Bordetella bronchiseptica, 411Borna, 376

Borna disease virus, 47, 370, 376

Bornaviridae, 20, 351, 370Bornavirus, 370

animal pathogenic, 376

982 Index

attachment and penetration, 375

avian, 373

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 371

envelope proteins, 374

epidemiology and transmission, 376

genome, 371

genome organization, 373

immune response and diagnosis,

378

infections in humans, 377

M protein, 374

particle structure, 372

pathogenesis, 377

replication, 375

ribonucleocapsid, 374

structure, 371

viral proteins, 374

Borrel, A., 5

Bourgelat, C., 412

Bovine coronavirus, 336

Bovine ephemeral fever virus, 369

Bovine herpesvirus 1, 817–820

Bovine herpesvirus 2, 818–819

Bovine immunodeficiency virus,

559, 599

Bovine leukaemia virus, 617

Bovine papillomavirus, 678

E5 protein, 785

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 genome

structure, 684

Bovine parainfluenza virus.3, 411

Bovine parvovirus, 903–904

Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, 416

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE),

30, 933, 939, 943

cases in various countries, 941

clinical features, 944

consumer protection, 943

control, 945

diagnosis, 945

emergence, 940

epidemiology and transmission, 940

pathogenesis, 944

scenarios for spreading, 940

spread scenarios, 940

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV),

257, 288–291

clinical features, 288

control and prophylaxis, 291

epidemiology and transmission, 288

genome organization, 262

immune response and diagnosis, 289

live vaccines, 291

pathogenesis, 289

recombination events, 290

Bowenoid papulosis, 698

2B protein, 204

BPV-1, 687

BPV-4, 692

Bradley, D.W., 252

Brain infections, 46–47

Branched DNA Detection, 175

Break-bone fever, 273

Brevidensovirus, 877

Brivudine, 117, 801

Bruusgaard, E., 798

BSE. See Bovine spongiform encephalopathy

(BSE)

Budding, 38, 498

orthomyxoviruses, 498

Bunyamwera virus, 455

Bunyaviridae, 437, 455Bunyavirus, 41, 455–477

animal and human pathogenic, 474

characteristic prototypes, 457

classification and characteristic prototypes,

456

conserved genomic sequences, 460

entry gates, 41

envelope proteins, 463

Genome Organization and Structure,

460

Gn and Gc proteins, 459

human pathogenic, 469

L segment, 460

natural hosts, 457–458

particle structure, 459

protein functions, 464

protein properties, 464

replication, 467

S segment, 460

structural proteins, 463

structure, 456

transmission by insects, 456

viral proteins, 463

Burkitt, D., 808

Burkitt’s and Hodgkin’s lymphoma,

741

Burkitt’s lymphoma, 808, 810, 812

Bursa of Fabricius, 235, 527

BVDV. See Bovine viral diarrhoea virus(BVDV)

BZLF1, 755, 771

BZLF1 gene, 771

BZLF1 protein, 771

Index 983

C

C1, 78

C2, 78

C3, 78

C3a, 78

C3 convertase, 78

C4, 78

C5, 78

C5a, 78

C6, 78

C7, 78

C8, 78

C9, 78

Cachexin, 105

CAdV–1, 737

CAdV–2, 737

Caliciviridae, 18, 186, 236Calicivirus(es), 236–237

animal pathogenic, 245

characteristic prototypes, 237

classification and characteristic prototypes,

236

electron micrograph, 238

feline, 245

genome, 239

human pathogenic, 242–247

protein functions, 240

structure, 237

viral proteins, 238

California encephalitis viruses, 474

California virus serogroup, 455

Calnexin, 82

Calomys laucha, 452Calomys musculinus, 452Canine adenoviruses, 737. See also CAdV

epidemiology, 737

vaccines, 737

Canine distemper, 379, 382, 402, 413

clinical features, 414

diagnosis, 415

immuno-prophylaxis, 416

pathogenesis, 414

Canine distemper virus, 413

Canine herpesvirus 1, 823–824

Canine minute virus, 877, 903–904

Canine parainfluenza virus. 2, 411

Canine parvovirus, 877

emergence, 157

Canine parvovirus type 2, 899

Cantegalovirus, 849

Canyon, 32, 193, 201

Cap-binding complex, 212

Cap-binding protein, 212

Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus, 559, 618

Capripoxvirus, 830, 832, 853

Capsids, 27

selection pressure, 28

Cap-snatching, 468, 488, 497

Cap-stealing, 446, 468

5’-Cap-stealing, 497

CAR. See Coxsackievirus and adenovirus

receptor (CAR)

Carcinogenesis, 57–67

Carcinomas, 6

CARD. See Caspase activation and recruitment

domains (CARD)

Cardiovirus, 188, 197

cellular receptors, 206

Carswell, 95

Caspase activation and recruitment domains

(CARD), 98

Castleman’s disease, 815

Cat flu, 823

Cat flu feline calicivirus, 245

Cattle plague. See Rinderpest virusCaughey, B., 925

Caveolae, 537, 538

Caveolin-1, 537

Caveolin-3, 538

C3b, 78

c-bcl-2, 66

CC chemokines, 108

CCHFV. See Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic

fever virus (CCHFV)

CCL1, 109

CCL2, 108

CCL3, 108

CCL4, 108

CCL5, 108

CCL6, 109

CCL7, 109

CCL8, 109

CCL9, 109

CCL11, 109

CCL13, 109

CCL16, 109

CCL19, 109

CCL20, 109

CCL2/MCP-1, 109

CCL3/MIP-1a, 109CCL4/MIP-1b, 109CCL5/RANTES, 109

CCR5, 274, 575, 585, 586, 594, 607

CD3, 80, 82

CD4, 574, 584, 585

CD4+ cells, 602

984 Index

CD4 receptor, 31, 584, 585, 594

CD4+ T cells, 41

CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes, 80

CD8 receptors, 79

CD14, 73

CD23, 61, 780

CD28, 584

CD40, 80

CD46, 404, 728, 807

CD55, 207

CD56, 359

CD81, 265

CD150, 809

CD155, 205

CDK1, 63

CDK2, 63

CDK4, 63

CDR, 585. See Complementarity determining

regions (CDR)

CDw150, 394, 413

Cell-associated enveloped viruses. See CEVparticles

Cell cycle, 62

Cell damage, 49–56

Cell death. See Apoptosis; NecrosisCell immortalization, 663

Cell lysis, 223

Cell rounding, 51, 52

Cell transformation, 58

Cellular immune response detection, 177

Cellular interfering factor, 701

Cervarix, 703

Cervical cancer, 696

Cervical carcinoma, 698

CEV particles, 831

Chang, Y., 815

Channel catfish, 741, 744

Chanock, R.M., 407

Chargaff, E., 9

Chase, M., 9

Cheetahs, 83

Chelle, P.-L., 919

Chemokine-receptor-like proteins, 774

Chemokine receptors, 108, 584, 585

Chemokines, 45, 71, 95–113. See alsoInflammatory chemokines

constitutive (homeostatic), 110

inflammatory, 110

Chemotherapeutic agents, antiviral, 13

Chemotherapeutic index, 116

Chemotherapy, 115–132

Chicken anaemia virus, 905, 912–913

apoptin, 909

control and prophylaxis, 912

epidemiology and transmission, 912

genome organization, 908

non-structural proteins, 908

pathogenesis, 912

replication, 910

Chickenpox, 798, 801

Chikungunya virus, 159, 293, 306

Chimpanzee coryza agent, 407

Chordopoxvirinae, 830, 832, 833Choriomeningitis, 6

Chow, L.T., 710

Chronic wasting disease (CWD), 30, 921, 933,

936–938

Cidofovir, 118, 122, 127, 613, 673, 736, 805,

814, 850

Circoviridae, 25, 875, 905Circovirus, 904–914

characteristic prototypes, 905

classification and characteristic prototypes,

905

genome, 906

genome organization, 908

non-structural proteins, 907

particle structure, 907

porcine, 913–914

protein functions, 909

replication, 910

structure, 906

cis-responsive element, 205, 209

CJD. See Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD)

c-jun, 734Classical pathway, complement activation, 78

Classical swine fever virus, 285–288

clinical features, 286

control and prophylaxis, 287

control in the European Union, 288

epidemiology and transmission, 286

immune response and diagnosis, 287

pathogenesis, 287

vaccine, 137

Classic avian influenza, 478

Clathrin, 207

Claudin 1, 265

CLEC5A, 275

Clethrionomys glareolus, 219, 470Clinical features, 412

Clonal selection, 90

Cloverleaf, 194

Cloverleaf structure, 205, 268

3CLpro, 329

c-myc, 646, 734, 812Co-cultivation, 8

Index 985

Cohort killing, 945

Colds, 44–45

Colony-stimulating factors, 110–111

Colorado tick fever virus, 22, 530, 545

Colostrum, 90

Coltivirus, 529, 545

Common vole, 470

Complement activation pathways, 77

Complementarity determining regions

(CDR), 86

Complement system, 77–79

Condylomata, 698

Condylomata acuminata, 697, 698

Conjunctivitis, 46

Consensus sequences, 446

Constitutive (homeostatic) chemokines, 110

Constitutive transport element (CTE), 592

Contact inhibition, 60

Copy choice recombination, 596

Coronaviridae, 19, 186, 318, 335Coronavirus(es), 34, 318–339

accessory proteins, 328

animal pathogenic, 335–336

bovine, 336

classification and characteristic prototypes,

319

feline, 335

genome organization and replication, 322

genome organization and structure, 319

haemagglutinin esterase, 319

human pathogenic, 330–332

non-structural proteins, 323

particle structure, 321

proteins overview, 324–326

replication, 328

structural proteins, 323

structure, 319

viral proteins, 323

Cossart, Y, 892

Cottontail rabbit papillomavirus, 699

Cowpox virus, 852–853

clinical features, pathogenesis, 853

epidemiology and transmission, 852

vaccination, 853

Coxsackievirus(es), 6, 46, 187, 207, 217

discovery, 187

pathogenesis, 218

Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor

(CAR), 32, 207, 727

CP4, 767

CPEB, 651

3C protease, 197, 203

2C protein, 204, 205

Creutzfeldt, H.-G., 928

Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), 30, 919

clinical features, 929

epidemiology, 928

variant, 929

Crick, F.H., 9

Crimean–Congo haemorrhagic fever virus

(CCHFV), 455, 469, 474–475

infections, 474–475

CrmA, 840

Croup-associated virus, 379

Crystallization or seeding model, 925, 926

Cuille, J., 919

Culex, 255, 293, 474, 475C. pipiens, 283, 877C. univittatus, 283

Culicoides, 369, 474Culiseta melanura, 307CWD. See Chronic wasting disease (CWD)

CXC chemokines, 108

CX3C chemokines, 108

CXCL2, 109

CX3CL1, 110

CXCL4, 109

CXCL6, 109

CXCL8, 109

CXCL9, 109

CXCL10, 109

CXCL12, 110

CXCR4, 574, 575, 584, 585, 594, 607

Cyclin-dependent kinase, 612, 664, 690

Cyclin-dependent kinase 1, 666

Cyclins, 62

Cyclophilin, 582, 595

Cyclophilin B, 692

Cypovirus, 529–531

Cyprinid, 744

Cytokines, 13, 43, 61, 82, 95–113

Cytomegalovirus, 24, 43, 118, 741, 745,

756, 761

clinical features, 803

cytokine receptor-like proteins, 774

E1 protein, 769

E2 protein, 770

evasion of the immune response,

92, 804–805

genome, 756

immediate early genes, 770

immediate early proteins, 769

immune evasion, 774

immune response and diagnosis, 804

immunoglobulin-binding surface

proteins, 761

986 Index

pathogenesis, 803

therapy, 805

transmission, 801

Cytopathic effect, 7, 51, 52

Cytopathogenic virus, 289

Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies, 53

Cytorhabdovirus, 373

Cytosine analogue, 121

Cytosine arabinoside, 115

Cytotoxic T cells, 80–83

D

Dalldorf, G., 187

D and J segments, 89

Dandy fever, 273

Dane, D.S., 628

Dane particles, 628

DC-SIGN. See Dendritic-cell-specificICAM-3-grabbing non-integrin

(DC-SIGN)

Decay accelerating factor, 207

Degen, K., 376

Deinhard, F., 282

de la Torre, J.C., 370

Delavirdine, 119, 609

Deltavirus, 649

Demyelination, 47

Dendritic cells, 42–44, 69, 70

Dendritic-cell-specific ICAM-3-grabbing

non-integrin (DC-SIGN), 334, 425, 585

Dengue fever, 269, 273

Dengue haemorrhagic fever, 273, 274

Dengue shock syndrome, 269, 273, 274

Dengue virus(es), 19, 255, 257, 273–276

attachment, 266

clinical features, 273

immune response and diagnosis, 275

pathogenesis, 274

serotypes, 274

therapy and prophylaxis, 275

type 1, 266

type 2, 266

Densovirinae, 876–878Densovirus, 877

Dependovirus, 25, 876

Designer drugs, 115

Detection of viruses, new methods, 180

d’Herelle, F., 5

Diabetes mellitus, 46, 218

Dicer, 98

Dideoxycytidine, 118, 121

Dideoxycytosine, 609

Dideoxyinosine, 118, 124, 571, 609

Dideoxy-3’-thiacytidine, 118, 649

Diehl, V., 808

Dilatative cardiomyophathy, 217

Dinovernavirus, 530

Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholin, 728

Distemper-associated enamel hypoplasia, 414

DIVA vaccines, 145

DnaJ chaperone, 663

DnaK, 663

DNA latency, 151, 894

DNA polymerase, viral, 36

Dobrava–Belgrade virus, 455, 470

Doerr, R., 794

Doherty, P.C., 6

Dot-blot, 168

Double-stranded DNA viruses, 35–36

Double-stranded RNA viruses, 35

DP, 85

DP1, 64, 65

3D polymerase, 203

D protein of parainfluenza viruses, 392

DQ, 85

DQw3, 702

DR, 85

Duck hepatitis B virus, 637

as model system, 647

Dulbecco, R., 8, 11

Duncan’s syndrome, 809

a-Dystroglycan, 446

E

E1A protein adenovirus, 715, 717

Early proteins adenovirus, 715–723

Eastern equine encephalitis virus,

158, 294, 307

EBER, 772, 811

EBER2, 776

EBNA1, 66, 777, 778, 780

EBNA2, 61, 65, 777, 778, 780, 782

EBNA3, 778, 781

EBNA-LP, 777

Ebolavirus, 14, 21, 151, 419, 426

diagnosis, 430

discovery, 426

envelope proteins, 424

epidemiology, 426

genome, 420

genome organization, 423

NP protein, 423

protein functions, 422

structure, 421

Index 987

Ebolavirus (cont.)symptoms, 427

therapy, 430

transmission, 427

E1B protein

adenovirus, 715, 717

19 kDa adenovirus, 717

55 kDa adenovirus, 717

Echovirus(es), 187, 188, 206

Ectromelia, 852

Ectromelia virus, 852

Eddy, B., 656

EEV particles, 835, 842, 843

E2F, 64, 65

Efavirenz, 119, 609

E4 genes, 721

EGF, 691. See Epidermal growth factor (EGF)

Egg drop syndrome virus, 738

E3-gp19K, 718

eIF-2, 101, 208, 212

eIF-2a, 727eIF-3, 212, 241

eIF-4, 202

eIF-4A, 202

eIF-4F, 202

eIF-4G, 211

c element, 595, 597

Elion, G., 13, 115

ELISA, 167, 176

ELISA to detect specific antibodies, 167

Ellermann, V., 5, 556

E3L protein, 841

Embryopathies, 46

Emerging virus diseases, 151

Encephalitis, measles-associated, 405

Encephalitis viruses, 276

Encephalomyocarditis virus, IRES, 196

Endemic diseases, definition, 148

Enders, J.F., 187, 407

Endosomes, 29

Endotheliochorial placenta, 90

Enfuvirtide, 120, 128, 609

Enhancers, def, 9

Entencavir, 649

Enterovirus(es), 120, 188, 189, 191

cellular receptors, 206

clinical features, 217

epidemiology and transmission, 216

immune response and diagnosis, 219

pathogenesis, 218

therapy and prophylaxis, 219

Entomobirnavirus, 21, 523

Entomopoxvirinae, 830, 832

Entry gates, 41–42

Envelope, 17, 28

Envelope proteins, 443, 481–487

of arenaviruses, 443

influenza viruses, 481

retroviruses, 572

of rhabdoviruses, 358

env genes, 572Enzootic bovine leucosis, 557, 617

E4-ORF6 protein adenovirus, 717

Eosinophils, 71, 72

Ephemerovirus, 352

Epidemic, definition, 148

Epidemic nephropathy, 455

Epidemiology, 148

Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 60

Epidermodysplasia verruciformis,

681, 696, 697

Episome, 26, 36, 751, 789, 791

Epitheliochorial placenta, 90

Epizootic diseases, 352

Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus

of deer, 545

Epomops franqueti, 427E protein, 323

E1 proteins

adenovirus, 715–717

of papillomaviruses, 683

E2 proteins

adenovirus, 716

of papillomaviruses, 686

E3 proteins adenovirus, 718, 721

E4 proteins adenovirus, 721–723

E proteins of coronaviruses, 327

E6 proteins of papillomaviruses, 687

E7 proteins, papillomavirus, 65

Epstein, A., 808

Epstein–Barr virus, 8, 24, 55, 58, 61, 91, 112,

741, 757, 760, 777–782, 784, 808–815

attachment and penetration, 788

BZLF1 protein, 773

clinical features, 809

EBER RNA, 772

epidemiology and transmission, 808

genome, 757

genome structure, 753

immediate early genes, 772

immune evasion, 92

immune response and diagnosis, 813

induction of proliferation, 65

inhibition of apoptosis, 66

latency genes, 772

latency proteins, 777, 778

988 Index

latent infection, 793

latent infection cycle, 793

LMP proteins, 782

pathogenesis, 810

primary infection, 810

protein nomenclature, 755

subtypes, 780

therapy, 814

transcription of immediate early genes, 779

Epstein–Barr virus infection

chronic active, 811

secondary diseases, 812

time course of antibody formation, 814

Epstein–Barr virus nuclear antigen

(EBNA)1, 61, 66

Equine arteritis virus, 310, 315–316

clinical features, 316

epidemiology and transmission, 315

immune response and diagnosis, 316

pathogenesis, 316

Equine encephalitis virus(es), 306–309

clinical features, 307

control and prophylaxis, 308

enzootic and epizootic cycles, 308–309

epidemiology and transmission, 306–309

immune response and diagnosis, 308

Equine encephalosis virus, 530, 550

Equine herpesviruses, 821–823

clinical features, 822

epidemiology and transmission, 821

pathogenesis, 822

Equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), 557,

559, 620

clinical features, 620

diagnosis and control, 621

epidemiology and transmission, 620

genome structure, 564

pathogenesis, 621

Equine influenza, 315, 501

Equine sarcoid, 704, 705

Erbovirus, 190

E4 region, 721

Erythema infectiosum, 892

time course of the disease, 895

Erythrovirus, 876

genome organization, 883

European brown hare syndrome virus, 246

Evans postulates, 10, 153

Exanthema subitum, 806

Exanthems, 45

Excess mortality, 148

Exonucleolytic proofreading, 156, 280, 571,

597, 668

Exotic ungulate encephalopathy, 921

Exportin, 491

Extracellular enveloped viruses. See EEVparticles

Extracellular matrix, 59

Eyach virus, 530, 545

F

Falke, D., 740

Famciclovir, 119

Fas-associated death-domain-containing

protein, 99

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI), 919, 930

clinical features, 930

symptoms, 930

Fc receptor, 86

Fc region, 87

Feinstone, S.M., 219

Feline astrovirus, 235

Feline calicivirus, 241, 245

clinical features, 245, 246

epidemiology and transmission, 245

genome organization, 239

Feline coronavirus, 318, 335, 337–338

diagnosis, 338

epidemiology and transmission, 337

pathogenesis, 337

prophylaxis, 338

Feline herpesvirus, 823

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), 557, 621

clinical features, 622

control, 622

diagnosis, 622

epidemiology and transmission, 621

genome structure, 564

pathogenesis, 622

Feline infectious peritonitis virus, 318, 337.

See also Feline coronavirus

Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV), 57, 557, 615

clinical features, 615

epidemiology and transmission, 615

genome structure, 564

infection diagnosis, 616

pathogenesis, 616

subtypes, 615

vaccine, 616

Feline panleucopenia virus, 157, 877, 898–900

Feline parvoviruses

amino acid residues determining the host

range, 900–901

clinical features, 899

Feline sarcoma virus, 615

Index 989

Feline spongiform encephalopathy,

921, 945

Feng, Y., 586

Fetopathies, 46

FFI. See Fatal familial insomnia (FFI)

Fibrinogen, 77

Fibroblast growth factors, 60

Fibroblast interferon, 97

Fifth disease, 892

time course of the disease, 895

Fijivirus, 530

Filoviridae, 21, 351, 419Filoviruses, 419, 426

attachment, 425

characteristic representatives, 419

envelope proteins, 424

genome, 420

genome organization, 423

GP proteins, 425

human and animal pathogenic, 426

nucleocapsid proteins, 423

proteins, 422

replication, 425

safety precautions, 420

structure, 420

Findlay, G.M., 12, 95

Finlay, C., 270

Flat condylomata, 697

Flaviviridae, 19, 186, 255, 256Flavivirus(es), 41, 254–291

animal pathogenic, 285–288

attachment, 265

characteristic prototypes, 255

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 255

entry gates, 41

genome, 257

genome organization, 262

human pathogenic, 269

non-structural proteins, 263

NS4A protein, 264

NS1 protein, 263

NS2 protein, 264

NS3 protein, 264

NS5 protein, 264

particle structure, 257

polyprotein, 258

proteins, 259–260

replication, 265

structural proteins, 261

structure, 256

Flexal virus, 439

Flying foxes, 160

FMD virus. See Foot-and-mouth disease

(FMD) virus

Follicular dendritic cells, 71

Fomivirsen, 132

Food poisoning, 243

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, 1, 194,

205, 206, 224, 226

clinical features, 227

control and prophylaxis, 228

epidemiology and transmission, 226

in Europa, 225

in Europe, 225

immune response and diagnosis, 228

L protein, 197

pathogenesis, 227

proteins, 198

serotypes, 228

vaccination, 228

Fortovase, 119

Fosamprenavir, 130

Foscarnet, 119, 128, 805

Fowl plague virus, 501

F-protein-mediated membrane fusion, 391

F proteins, 382, 383

of morbilliviruses, 386

paramyxoviruses, 381

Fractalkine, 108, 774

Fraenkel-Conrat, H., 9

Francis, T., 478

Franklin, R., 9

Frosch, P., 4, 187

Frosner, G., 219

Fusion protein, 33

G

Gag, 579

Gag–Pol fusion protein, retroviral, 570

Gag–Pol precursor proteins, 594

retroviral, 570

Gag precursor proteins, 567

Gag proteins, 567

Gajdusek, D.C., 920, 925, 939

Gallid herpesvirus 1, 825

Gallid herpesvirus 2, 824–825

Gallo, R., 58, 556, 598, 611

Gammaentomopoxvirus, 833

Gammaherpesvirus, 745, 793–794

Ganciclovir, 119, 122, 127, 765, 805, 814

Gardasil, 703

Gastric lymphoepithelial carcinomas, 810

GB virus, 282

GB virus C, 256

990 Index

G-CSF, 111

Geminiviruses, 905

General rinderpest eradication programme, 413

Gene therapy, retroviral vectors, 597

Gene therapy vectors, 891–892

Genetic reassortment, 157

Genuine flu, clinical features, 508

Gerstmann–Str€aussler–Scheinker (GSS)syndrome, 919, 930

clinical features, 930

Giant cells, 53

Glomerulonephritis, 450, 902

Glycophorin A, 888

GM-CSF, 111

Goatpox virus, 853–854

Goats, 618

Goodpasture, E.W., 8

gp41, 560, 561, 572–574, 586, 594

gp120, 31, 129, 560, 561, 572–574, 585, 586,

593, 594

CD4 binding, 574

CD4 receptor interaction, 575

GPC precursor protein of arenaviruses, 443

GPC protein, 442

G protein

paramyxoviruses, 382

rabies virus, 366

rhabdovirus, 354, 358

Graham, H., 273

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-

stimulating, 73

Granulocytes, 69, 71

Granzymes, 82

Gregg, N., 6, 301

Gregg syndrome, 302

Gross, L., 6, 656

GRP-78. See BiP; immunoglobulin heavy

chain binding protein

Gr€uter, W., 6, 794

GSS. See Gerstmann–Str€aussler–Scheinker(GSS) syndrome

Guanarito virus, 439, 452

Guanosine analogue, 127

Guarnieri, G., 7

Gumboro virus, 21, 522, 523, 526

Gut-associated lymphatic tissue, 42

Gyrovirus, 905

H

HAART. See Highly active antiretroviral

therapy (HAART)

Hadlow, W., 920

HAdV-2, 711, 731

main products of the E1 region, 716

open reading frames, 714

HAdV-3, 732

HAdV-4, 732, 736

vaccine, 736

HAdV-5, 715, 731, 734

main products of the E4 region, 722

HAdV-7, 731, 736

vaccine, 736

HAdV-12, 708, 731, 734

HAdV-31, 731

Haemagglutination, 168

activity, 380

test, 168

Haemagglutination-inhibition test, 168, 176

Haemagglutinin, 31, 478, 481, 484, 488–489

of influenza A viruses, 484

structure, 488

Haemagglutinin esterase, coronavirus

(HE), 319

Haemagglutinin esterase fusion (HEF), 327

Haemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF)

protein, 478

Haemagglutinin-neuraminidase, 380

Haemochorial placenta, 90

Haemophilus influenzae, 400, 493Haemorrhagic fever, 452–454

clinical features, 453

epidemiology and transmission, 452

immune response and diagnosis, 454

vaccine, 454

Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome

(HFRS), 469

Haemorrhagic septicaemia of trout, 369

Hahn, B., 598

Hairy cell leukaemia, 613

Hammerhead, 29

Hamster disease, 448

Hantaan virus, 463, 468, 469

Hantavirus, 21, 455, 456, 458–460, 463–467,

469–474

clinical features, 471

discovery, 471

epidemiology and transmission, 469

G protein, 460

L protein, 466

N protein, 465, 466

nucleocapsid components, 465

particle structure, 459

pathogenesis, 472

replication, 467

structure, 459

Index 991

Hantavirus (cont.)symptoms, 471

transcription, translation and genome

replication, 463

viral proteins, 460

Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome

(HCPS), 469, 470

HA protein, 484, 486, 500. See alsoHaemagglutinin

crystallographic structure, 484

functionally domains, 484

influenza viruses, 486

interaction with N-acetylneuraminic

acid, 484

subtypes, 500

Hard pad disease, 88

Hausen, H. zur., 12, 678

HBcAg, 628, 630, 633, 634

precore, 638

HBeAg, 633, 634

HBsAg, 143, 628, 629, 634–636

HBx protein, 646

HCPS. See Hantavirus cardiopulmonary

syndrome (HCPS)

HDAg variants, 650

HEF. See Haemagglutinin esterase

fusion (HEF)

HEF protein. See Haemagglutinin-esterase

fusion (HEF) protein

Heine, J. von, 187

Hendra virus, 160, 380, 381, 417

clinical features, 418

Hendrickson, W., 574

Henipavirus, 381, 393, 417

epidemiology and transmission, 417

Henle, G., 808

Henle, J., 10

Henle–Koch postulates, 10

Henle, W., 808

Hepacivirus, 256

Hepadnaviridae, 23, 626, 627Hepadnaviruses, 627–654

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 627

genome, 629

human pathogenic, 641–654

structure, 628

Hepatitis, 46, 627, 642

acute, 643

chronic aggressive, 642

chronic persistent, 642

Hepatitis A virus, 188, 190, 194, 212, 219, 220

clinical features, 220

epidemiology and transmission, 219

immune response and diagnosis, 221

mini epidemics, 222

in mussels, 220

pathogenesis, 221

therapy and prophylaxis, 222

Hepatitis B virus, 11, 23, 55, 58, 627, 628

acute virus infection, 642

attachment and penetration, 637

chronic infection, 645–646

clinical features, 642

epidemiology and transmission, 641–642

evading the immune response, 66

genome, 629, 632

genome integration, 645

genome organization, 631

genotypes, 642

HBeAg-negative, 645

HBx Protein, 636

immune response and diagnosis, 648

infectious and non-infectious particles, 630

mutations, 641

pathogenesis, 642

perinatal infection, 644

P protein, 636

primary liver cell carcinoma, 645

proteins, 635

reading frame, 633

replication, 637, 638

serological parameters of infection, 648

subtypes, 641

therapy and prophylaxis, 649

vaccination programmes, 643

vaccine, 649

Hepatitis C virus, 11, 58, 255, 256,

278–282

attachment, 265

clinical features, 279

discovery, 279

epidemiology and transmission, 278

genotypes, 278

immune response and diagnosis, 281

7 kD protein, 264

non-structural proteins, 264

NS4A protein, 264

pathogenesis, 279

polyprotein, 258

proteins, 258

quasispecies, 280

replication, 265

therapy and prophylaxis, 282

Hepatitis delta antigen, 650

Hepatitis D virus, 649–654

992 Index

epidemiology, clinical features and

pathogenesis, 653

genome and replication, 651

genomic structure and replication, 652

immune response and diagnosis, 654

structure and viral proteins, 650

therapy and prophylaxis, 654

Hepatitis E virus, 19, 248, 252–253

Avian, 254

classification and characteristic prototypes,

248

clinical features, 253

epidemiology and transmission, 252

genome, 249

genomic organization, 250

particle structure, 250

pathogenesis, 253

replication, 251

structure, 249

viral proteins, 249

Hepatitis G virus, 155, 256, 282

Hepatitis-splenomegaly syndrome, 254

Hepatocellular carcinoma, 643, 645

Hepatovirus, 188, 190

cellular receptors, 206

Hepeviridae, 19, 186, 257Hepevirus(es), 248–254

characteristic prototypes, 248

protein functions and properties, 251

HE protein esterase activity, 327

Herd immunity definition, 148

Herpes, 794

Herpes genitalis, 795

Herpes immunological paradox, 8

Herpes labialis, 795

Herpes neonatorum, 795

Herpes simplex virus, 6, 8, 24, 40, 43, 51, 53,

54, 92, 741, 794–798

associated encephalitis, 796

clinical features, 795

diagnosis, 797

DNA polymerase, 765

genome structure, 753

helicase-primase complex, 765

immediate early proteins, 767

keratitis, 113

latency, 54

LAT RNA, 776

oriLyt-binding protein, 765

particle structure, 746

pathogenesis, 796

processivity factor, 765

structural proteins, 758

tegument, 751

tegument proteins, 761

therapy, 798

thymidine kinase mutants, 765

uracil glycosilase, 764

Herpes simplex virus 1, 784

Herpes simplex virus 2, 784

Herpes simplex virus types

epidemiology and transmission, 794

type 1, 795

type 1varicella-zoster virus, 117

Herpesviridae, 24, 626, 741Herpesvirus, 32, 36, 43, 740–825

animal pathogenic, 817

attachment, 787

characteristic prototypes, 742–744

classification and characteristic prototypes,

741

entry mediator, 788

envelope proteins, 758

evasion of the immune response, 804

genome, 751

genome replication, 766

glycoproteins, 758

immediate early proteins, 767

immune evasion, 92

induction of cell cycle arrest, 790–791

inhibition of DNA polymerase by

acycloguanosine, 127

latency, 741

latent infection cycle, 791

latent stage, 775

lytic cycle, 789

lytic infection cycle, 788

mutations, 131

nomenclature of herpesvirus proteins,

754–755

non-structural proteins, 763

proteins, 747

proteins involved in attachment and

interaction with cellular surface

components, 784

proteins involved in replication, 763, 764

proteins of the lytic cycle, 758

proteins with homologies to cellular gene

products, 774

replication, 787

replication proteins, 764

residence, 151

ribonucleotide reductase, 767

structural proteins, 747–750

structure, 745

thymidine kinase, 765

Index 993

Herpesvirus (cont.)updated taxonomy, 741

uracil DNA glycosylase, 766

Herpesvirus 6

clinical features, 806

immune response and diagnosis, 807

Herpesvirus 7, epidemiology and transmission,

806

Herpesvirus 8

genome, 758

K-bZIP, 772

latency, 772

latent infection cycle, 793

Herpesvirus ateles, 757Herpesviruses 1 and 2, 752–754

Herpesvirus saimiri, 757Herpetic keratitis, 794

Hershey, A.D., 9

Heterodimer model, 925

Hexon-associated proteins, 711

Hexons, 710

HFRS. See Haemorrhagic fever with renal

syndrome (HFRS)

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART),

121, 131, 609, 670

Hilleman, M., 656, 675

Hipposideros larvatus, 418Histamine, 72

Hitchhiking (passenger) mutations, 156

HIV, 8, 14, 22, 40, 556

acute, 603

antibodies against HIV, 608

attachment, 585

CCR5 receptor binding, 284

of CD4+ lymphocytes, 593

CD4 receptor, 573

cellular interaction partners, 574

chemotherapy, 117, 119, 120

clinical categories, 603

clinical progression, 606

clinical stages of HIV infection, 601

diagnosis, 608

early infection phase, 604

failure of vaccine development,

610

high mutation rates, 605

immune evasion, 92

importance of cytotoxic

T cells, 607

infection course, 600

integrase, 572

latency phase, 600

NSI strains, 601

pathogenesis, 604

primary infection, 600

quasispecies, 597

receptors, 585

serological window, 608

subtypes (clades), 566

therapy and prophylaxis, 609

third infection phase, 602

variants, 600, 610

variants (quasispecies), 573

HIV-1, 159, 598

attachment, 574

emergence of new variants, 600

Gag and Gag–Pol proteins, 568

genome structure, 564

glycoproteins, 573

LTR region, 566

Nef protein, 583

neutralizing antibodies, 574

particle structure, 561

properties of proteins, 569

rev protein, 579

structure, 560

subtypes, 159

Tat protein, 575, 577

vpu protein, 582

HIV-2, 159, 556, 599

Nef protein, 583

subgroups, 599

Vpx protein, 582

HIV proviruses, 610

HIV variants, 600, 601

HLA-A2, 612

antigen-binding groove, 83

HLA-B35, 607

HLA-B53, 607

HLA-B4002, 612

HLA-B4006, 612

HLA-B4801, 612

HLA-B5401, 612

HLA-Cw8, 612

HLA haplotypes, 83

HLA type

cofactors involved in carcinogenesis, 702

risk of developing carcinomes, 702

H1N1, 151, 160, 499–501, 505, 507

H2N2, 499, 500

H3N2, 499, 500, 506

H3N8, 501

H5N1, 160, 500, 501, 506

H5N2, 501

H7N1, 501

H7N7, 501

994 Index

HN protein

of paramyxoviruses, 381

of respiro-and rubulaviruses, 386

Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 808, 810

Hogle, J., 201

Homologous transmission, 149

Hong Kong flu, 158, 500, 504

Hoogen, B. van den, 409

Hoppegarten cough, 501

Horizontal transmission, 149, 556

Horsepox, 850

Hoskins, M., 12, 95

House mouse, 438, 448

HPV, 678

associated cancer, 697–702

associated skin warts, 699–700

classification, 681

cofactors involved in carcinogenesis,

699

skin lesions and tumour diseases, 697

vaccine, 703

HPV-5, 696

HPV-6, 689

protein nomenclature, 755

HPV-8, 687

protein nomenclature, 755

HPV-11, 689, 692

HPV-16, 687, 887

cervical cancer, 696

E6 protein, 687

E7 protein, 689

genome structure, 684

HPV-18, 687

cervical cancer, 696

E7 protein, 689

HPV-33, 692

Hsc70, 663

Hsp70 chaperones, 663

hTERT, 688

HTLV, 61, 556

diagnosis, 613

epidemiology and transmission, 611

pathogenesis, 612

primary infection, 611

replication cycle, 595

therapy, 613

HTLV-1, 611

genome structure, 564

LTR region, 566

pathogenesis, 612

HTLV-2, 611

TAX proteins, 578

HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (HAM), 611

Human adenovirus, 708. See also HAdV

classification epidemiology and

transmission, 731

clinical features, 732

oncogenic potential, 733

pathogenesis, 732

serotypes, 731

Human and animal pathogenic arenaviruses,

448–454

Human and animal pathogenic filoviruses, 426

Human and animal pathogenic

orthomyxoviruses, 498–514

Human and animal pathogenic

paramyxoviruses, 417

Human B-lymphotropic virus, 806

Human bocavirus, 876, 895

clinical features, 896

genotypes, 896

pathogenesis, 896

proteins functions, 884

Human coronaviruses, 328, 330

clinical features, 331

epidemiology and transmission, 330

NL63, 328

pathogenesis, 331

Human cytomegalovirus, 753, 784, 801–805

clinical features, 802

epidemiology and transmission, 802

genome structure, 753

immune response and diagnosis, 804

Human enterovirus B, 194

Human enteroviruses, 18, 216–219

Human hepatitis B virus, 627, 641–649

Human herpesvirus 3, varicella-zoster virus,

756–757

Human herpesvirus 4. See Epstein–Barr virusHuman herpesvirus 5. See Cytomegalovirus

Human herpesvirus 6, 743, 757, 784

clinical features, 806

epidemiology and transmission, 806

genome structure, 753

latent infection, 792

pathogenesis, 807

therapy, 807

Human herpesvirus 7, 757, 784

genome, 757

pathogenesis, 807

therapy, 807

Human herpesvirus 8, 741, 758, 782–787,

815–817

clinical features, 815

diagnosis, 816

epidemiology and transmission, 815

Index 995

Human herpesvirus 8 (cont.)genome structure, 753

immune evasion, 92

latency proteins, 783

latent phase, 793

pathogenesis, 816

therapy, 816

T1.1/nut RNA, 776

Human herpesvirus, attachment and cell

entry, 787

Human immunodeficiency virus 1. See HIV-1Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV).

See HIVHuman immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2, 559

Human influenza virus strains, emergence,

504–508

Human leucocyte antigens (HLA), 82

Human metapneumovirus, 409

diagnosis, 410

epidemiology, 410

genome organization, 384

pathogenesis, 410

Human papillomavirus. See HPVHuman papillomavirus-16. See HPV-16Human parainfluenza viruses, 398

Human parechoviruses, 219

Human parvovirus B19, 876

Human pathogenic adenoviruses, 731–736

Human pathogenic anelloviruses, 910–912

Human pathogenic astroviruses, 234

Human pathogenic bunyaviruses, 469–474

Human pathogenic caliciviruses, 242–247

Human pathogenic coronaviruses, 330–332

Human pathogenic flaviviruses, 269

Human pathogenic hepadnaviruses, 641–654

Human pathogenic herpesviruses, 794–817

Human pathogenic papillomaviruses. See HPVHuman pathogenic paramyxoviruses, 398

Human pathogenic parvoviruses, 892–898

Human pathogenic picornaviruses, 212–213

Human pathogenic polyomaviruses, 669–673

Human pathogenic poxviruses, 846–852

Human pathogenic reoviruses, 540

Human pathogenic retroviruses, 598

Human pathogenic togaviruses, 301–306

Human pathogenic viruses, 150

Human prion diseases, 30, 928–932

diagnosis, 931

pathogenesis, 930

Human rhinovirus 14, canyon structure, 193

Human smallpox, 829

Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1).

See HTLV-1

HVP-16, E5 protein, 691

HyalommaHyalomma, ticks, 474Hybrid capture assay, 175

Hydrophobia, 362

Hydrops fetalis, 450, 892, 893

Hypsignathus montrosus, 427

I

Iatrogenic infection, 150

Iatrogenic transmission, 928

Ibaraki virus, 545

IBDV. See Infectious bursal disease virus(IBDV)

ICAM. See Intercellular adhesion molecule

(ICAM)

ICP0, 767

protein, 789

ICP4 protein, 767

ICP22, 767, 800

ICP27, 767, 769

ICP47, 767, 769

Ictalurivirus, 744

Idnoreovirus, 530

IE2 protein, 770, 791

IE63 protein, 792

IEV particles, 831, 835, 843, 846

IFN. See Interferons (IFN)IFN-a, 96, 102, 648

effects, 101, 102

molecular properties, 97

synthesis, 98

for therapy, 112

IFN-a receptor (IFNaR), 97, 99, 102IFN-b, 96

effects, 101

molecular properties, 97

synthesis, 98

IFN-b promoter stimulator 1 (IPS-1), 99

IFN-d, 97IFN-e, 96IFN-g, 71, 74, 82, 103

effects, 101

signalling cascade, 104

IFN-g receptor (IFNR), 103

IFN-k, 96IFN-l1, 103IFN-l2, 103IFN-l3, 103IFN-lR, 104IFN-t, 97IFN-o, 96

996 Index

IFN-z, 97IgA, 86, 88

IgD, 86, 88

IgE, 86, 88

IgG, 86, 88

IgG subclasses, 88

IgM, 86

Iinhibitors of influenza virus, 129

Ikb, 99IL-1, 96, 106

IL-2, 106

IL-3, 106

IL-4, 106

IL-5, 106

IL-6, 106

viral, 775, 787

IL-7, 106

IL-10, 106, 775

IL-11, 106

IL-12, 106

IL-13, 107

IL-15, 107

IL-17, 107

IL-18, 107

IL-2areceptor, 612IL-1 receptor associated kinases (IRAK),

75, 77

Iltovirus, 742

Imiquimod, 120, 124, 130, 703

Immediate early genes, adenoviral, 715

Immediate early proteins, 767,

769–771, 779

Immortalized cells, 58

Immune defence innate, 69

Immune enhancement, 266

Immune escape. See Immune evasion

Immune evasion, 92

Immune interferon, 103

Immune response, adaptive, 69

Immune-stimulating complexes, 142

Immune system, 90

Immune tolerance, 6

Immunochromatography, 171

Immunofluorescence, 164, 166

Immunofluorescence test, 168

Immunoglobulin class switch, 89

Immunoglobulin genes, somatic

recombination, 89

Immunoglobulins, 86

classes, 86

Immunology, 69–93

Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation

motif, 786

Immunosensors, 180

piezoelectric, 181

IMV particles, 831, 846

Inactivated vaccines, 142–144

Inclusion bodies, 53

cytoplasmic, 53

negri, 53

photographic picture, 53

Indinavir, 130, 571, 609

Indirect immunofluorescence tests, 177

Indirect transmission, 149

Infantile myocarditis, 217

Infantile paralysis, 213, 214

Infected cell protein (ICP), 751

Infection, 40, 46

placenta, 46

single-phase and biphasic course, 40

Infection-enhancing antibodies, 266, 585

Infectious balanoposthitis, 818

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, 818

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV),

522, 526

clinical features, 527

diagnosis, 528

epidemiology and transmission, 526

genome organization, 524

pathogenesis, 528

Infectious canine hepatitis, 737

Infectious haematopoietic necrosis of

salmonids, 369

Infectious mononucleosis, 809

Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV),

522, 527

Infectious pustular vulvovaginitis, 818

Infectious salmon anaemia virus, 21, 478,

479, 485

Inflammatory chemokines, 110

Influenza A virus, 477–479, 481, 484–486,

489, 491, 493, 494, 498–502, 507,

512, 513

epidemiology, 498, 500

genome organization and structure,

479–481

genome segments, 478, 493

haemagglutinin, 481, 484

infection, 499

inhibitors, 128

M2 protein, 486

neuraminidase, 485

NP protein, 512

NS1 protein, 489

pandemics, 498, 499

particle, 480

Index 997

Influenza A virus (cont.)PB1-F2 protein, 491

in poultry, 501, 502

protein functions, 494

reassortment, 500

RNA genome segments, 481

structure, 479

subtype H1N1, 507

subtypes, 500

vaccines, 513

Influenza B virus, 478, 481, 485–487, 494, 498,

509, 513

BM2 protein, 487

genome segments, 478

infections, 509

NB protein, 486

neuraminidase, 485

protein functions, 494

RNA genome segments, 481

vaccines, 513

Influenza C virus, 478, 481, 485, 498, 506

HEF protein, 485

reassortment, 506

RNA genome segments, 481

Influenza virus, 32, 481, 483, 489, 493–496,

498–514. See Table 2.1among water birds, 501

antigenic shift, 503

attachment and penetration, 493

attachment, 489

epidemiology and transmission, 498–508

genetic epidemiology, 503

host tropism, 509–510

immune response and diagnosis, 511–512

innate defence, 511

neuraminidase inhibitors, 129

nomenclature, 506

pathogenesis, 510–511

penetration, 32

protein properties, 494–495

reassortants, 151

replication cycle, 496

resistance against inhibitors, 131

RNA genome segments, 481

structural proteins, 483

subtypes, 506

therapy and prophylaxis, 512–514

zoonotic potential, 498

Influenza virus proteins, properties, 493

Inhibitors

non-nucleoside, 128

of uptake/uncoating, 120

of viral neuramidases, 120

of viral polymerases, 118

of viral proteases, 119

of viral replication, 121–128

of virus penetration/uncoating, 128–129

In situ hybridization, 175

In situ PCR, 175

Integrase, 591

inhibitors, 609

Integration of the double-stranded DNA

retroviral genome, 591

Integrin a4b7, 585Integrins, 59

Intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM), 585

proteins, 206

Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1),

193, 207

Interference, 12, 95

Interferon-a, 512Interferon regulatory factors (IRF), 75, 775

Interferons (IFN), 12–13, 92, 95–113

discovery, 95

overview, 97

type I, 96–103

type II, 103

type III, 103–104

Interferon-stimulated response element

(ISRE), 77, 99

Interleukins, 105–107

Internal ribosomal entry site (IRES),

194, 195, 208

Internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)

sequences, 212

translation initiation, 212

Interstitial cytomegalovirus pneumonia, 803

Interstitial dendritic cells, 70

Intracellular enveloped viruses. See IEVparticles

Intracellular mature viruses. See IMV

particles

Invariant chain, 85, 584

Iodine deoxyuridine, 115

Ion-sensitive field-effect transistors, 181

IRES. See Internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)

IRF. See Interferon regulatory factors (IRF)

IRF3, 98, 535

IRF7, 98

Isaacs, A., 13, 95

Isavirus, 21, 478

ISRE. See Interferon-stimulated response

element (ISRE)

Iteravirus, 877

Ivanovski, D.I., 3

Ixodes ricinus, 276

998 Index

J

Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus, 619

Jak1, 99, 102

Jakob, A.M., 928

Jaundice, 220, 253

JC polyomaviruses, 656, 669

associated diseases, 670

Jenner, E., 4, 829

Joest–Degen inclusion bodies, 377

Joest, E., 376

Junın virus, 438, 439, 446, 452

K

Kaposins, 783, 785

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 602, 741, 755

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, 758

Kaufman, H.E., 13, 115

K-bZIP, 773, 793

Keele, B.F., 600

Kemerovo virus, 545

Kennel cough, 411

Keratinocytes, 691

Keratoconjunctivitis, 115

in swimming pools, 731

Killed vaccines, 139

Killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors

(KIR), 73

Killing activatory receptors, 73

KI polyomavirus, 658

KIR. See Killer cell immunoglobulin-like

receptors (KIR)

Kissing disease, 808

Kobuvirus, 18, 188, 190

Koch, R., 10

Koi herpesvirus, 741, 817

Koplik’s spots, 403

K1 protein, 786

6K protein, 299

KSHV-Rta, 793

Kundratitz, K., 798

Kupffer cells, 70

Kuroya, M., 379

Kuru, 30, 920, 928

clinical features, 930

epidemiology, 928

Kyasanur forest disease virus, 276

L

Laboratory methods

for virus detection, 163

La Crosse virus, 455, 467

Lactate dehydrogenase elevating virus

(LDV), 310

Lactoferrin receptor, 728

Lagovirus, 236

Laidlaw, P., 6, 478, 499

Laminin 5, 692

Lamivudine, 121, 131, 609, 649

LAMP. See Latency-associated membrane

protein (LAMP)

LANA. See Latency-associated nuclear antigen(LANA)

Landsteiner, K., 5, 187

Langerhans cells, 42, 43, 70

Lansbury, P., 925

Large T antigen, 661–664

Laryngeal papillomas, 698

Lassa fever, 130, 151, 152, 438, 452–454

clinical features, 453

epidemiology and transmission, 452

immune response and diagnosis, 453, 454

pathogenesis, 453

Lassa virus, 438, 439, 446, 452, 454

vaccine, 454

LAT. See Latency-associated transcript (LAT)

Latency, 36, 54

Latency-associated membrane protein

(LAMP), 783, 793

Latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA),

783, 793

Latency-associated transcript (LAT),

767, 792, 807

Latent membrane proteins, of Epstein–Barr

virus, 781–782

LCMV. See Lymphocytic choriomeningitis

virus (LCMV)

LCMV infections, 448, 450

clinical features, 450

pathogenesis, 450

persistent, 448

L domains, of viral structural proteins, 445

LDV. See Lactate dehydrogenase elevatingvirus (LDV)

Lentivirus, 557, 559, 561, 562

rex-dependent mRNA export, 592

tat proteins, 575

vif protein, 581

Leporipoxvirus, 832, 842, 854

Lethality, definition, 148

Leucocyte-function-associated antigen

(LFA), 585

Leukotrienes, 72

LGP2 protein, 98

LHBsAg, 628, 633, 637, 638, 645, 650

Index 999

LHDAg, 650

Licht, C., 678

Liddington, R.C., 665

Lieberk€uhn’s crypts, 336Light chain, 424

Lillie, R.D., 448

Lindenmann, J., 13, 95

Line-blot tests, 177

Lipid rafts, 38, 375, 398, 482, 537, 538

Lipkin, W.I., 370

Live vaccines, 136, 139, 216

with vaccinia viruses, 141

Ljungan virus, 219

LMP1, 61, 66, 778, 781

LMP2A, 772, 778, 782

LMP2B, 772, 778, 782

Locally restricted infections, 42–43

Loeffler, F., 4, 187

Loewenstein, E., 794

Louping ill virus, 276, 285

Loviride, 119, 609

L protein, 442, 466

of arenaviruses, 442

of hantaviruses, 466

of paramyxoviruses, 382

of rhabdoviruses, 357

Lucke tumour herpesvirus, 741

Lumpy skin disease virus, 853–854

Lung infections, 45

Lymphadenopathy syndrome, 602

Lymph node swelling, 43

Lymphocryptovirus, 743

Lymphocyte proliferation or stimulation test, 178

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis, 6, 448

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis of mice, 451

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV),

152, 438, 442, 446, 448–452

epidemiology and transmission, 448

immune response and diagnosis, 451

replication, 442

risk in organ transplants, 449

Lymphohaematogenic dissemination, 43

Lymphotactin, 108, 110

Lymphotoxin-a, 105Lysosomes, 51, 71

Lyssa, 362

Lyssavirus, 352, 354, 373

Lytic infection cycle, 36

M

Macaw wasting disease, 374

MacCallum, F., 12, 95

Machupo virus, 439, 446

Macrophages, 42, 43, 72–73, 604

Mad Cow disease. See Bovine spongiformencephalopathy (BSE)

Maedi, 619

Maedi-visna virus, 12, 559, 618, 619

control, 620

diagnosis, 620

epidemiology, 618

pathogenesis, 620

Magnus, H. von, 187

Magnus, P. von, 112

Maitland, M.C. and H.B., 7

Major basic protein (MBP), 72

Malacoherpesviridae, 741Malignant catarrhal fever, 817

Malignant transformation, 11, 26

Mamaviruses, 29

Mammary tumour virus, 561

Mannose-binding lectin, 334

Maraviroc, 120, 609

Marble spleen disease virus, 738

Marburgvirus, 21, 419, 426

diagnosis, 430

discovery, 426

envelope proteins, 424

epidemiology and transmission, 426

genome, 420

genome organization, 423

NP protein, 423

protein functions, 422

symptoms, 427

therapy, 430

Mardivirus, 742

Marek’s disease, 824

Marker vaccines, 145

Mason–Pfizer monkey virus, 561

Mastadenovirus, 708, 709

Mastadenovirus proteins, 724–726

Mast cells, 72

Maternal immunity, 90

Maternal passive immunity, 90

Maton, G. de, 301

Matrix proteins, 486

retroviruses, 567

MBP. See Major basic protein (MBP)

McCarty, M., 9

M cells, 70

MC54L, 851

McLeod, C., 9

MC159 protein, 851

MC80R, 851

MCV-1, 851

1000 Index

MCV-2, 851

MCV-3, 851

MDA-5, 98

Measles, 379, 402

clinical features, 402

inclusion body encephalitis, 405

vaccine, 407

Measles virus, 379, 402

associated encephalitis, 405

attachment, 394, 404

epidemiology and transmission, 402

genome organization, 384

immune response and diagnosis, 406

induction of autoimmune reactions, 90

pathogenesis, 403

prophylaxis, 407

structural and non-structural proteins, 387

Meat and bonemeal, 940, 944, 945

scrapie and/or BSE-contaminated, 940

Mechanisms of antigen processing, 85

Medin, O., 187

Meister, J., 362

Melnick, J., 656

Menangle virus, 417

Meningoencephalitis, 47, 255

Merkel cell carcinoma, 58, 673

Merkel cell polyomavirus, 58, 658, 672–673

Merkel cell polyomavirus DNA, 657

Meselson, M., 9

Metapneumovirus, 381

Metastasis, 60

Mexican flu, 505–507

MHBsAg, 628, 638, 645, 650

MHC antigens, 45

reduction by viruses, 92

MHC class I antigen, 80, 81, 584

loading, 85

structure, 83

MHC class II antigen, 82, 84–85

loading, 85

MHC class I proteins, 73

loading, 80

MHC class II proteins, 70, 73

Microfilaments, 59

b2-Microglobulin, 81

Microtus arvalis, 470Middle T antigen, 664

Midges, 547

Mimicking viruses, 29

Mimiviruses, 28–29

Minichromosome maintenance element, 693

Mink enteritis virus, 877, 898

Minks, 938

Minute virus of mice (MVM), 877, 883, 885

genome, 880

genome organization, 883

proteins functions, 884

replication, 888

Mizutani, S., 556

Modelling, 153

Modified vaccinia ankara (MVA) virus,

137, 850

Mokola virus, 353

Molecular biology, emergence, 8–9

Molecular epidemiology, 153

Molecular mimicry, 91

Molluscipoxvirus, 832

Molluscum contagiosum virus, 851–852

clinical features, 851

epidemiology and transmission, 851

genotypes, 851

pathogenesis, 851

Monkeypox virus, 847

Monocyte colony-stimulating factor, 73

Monocytes, 72–73

Mononegavirales, 351Mononucleosis, 91, 808

Montagnier, L., 556, 598

Morbidity, definition, 148

Morbilliviruses

F protein, 386

H protein, 386

Morphogenesis, 37

Mortality, definition, 148

Mouse hepatitis virus, 318, 321, 335

attachment, 328

Mouse mammary tumour virus, 556, 565

Mousepox virus, 852

M protein, 323, 325

of coronaviruses, 327

of paramyxoviruses, 390, 398

of rhabdoviruses, 358

M1 protein, 480, 486

influenza A virus, 480

M2 protein, 479

M2-1 protein, 383

Mucine-like domains, 424

Mucin-like protein domains, 429

Mucin-like proteins, 429

Mucins, 429, 509

Mucosal disease, 289

Muerhoff, S., 282

Multicentric castleman’s disease, 741

Multiplex PCR, 175, 180

Mumps, 379, 401

Mumps virus, 46, 381, 400

Index 1001

Mumps virus (cont.)clinical features, 400

epidemiology and transmission, 400

genome, 382

genome organization, 383, 384

immune response and diagnosis, 401

pathogenesis, 401

prophylaxis, 401

structural and non-structural proteins, 387

M€unch, J., 599Munk, K., 794

Mupapillomavirus, 679

Murine leukaemia virus, 6

Murine polyomavirus, genome organization,

659

Muromegalovirus, 743

Mus musculus, 438MxA proteins, 102

Mx proteins, 102, 104, 511

Mycoreovirus, 530

Myeloid dendritic cells, 70

Myeloid differentiation primary response

gene 88 (MyD88), 74

Myeloid stem cells, 73

Myocarditis, 46

Myonycteris torquata, 427Myxoma virus, 160, 854–855

for biological control of rabbit pest, 854

clinical features, 854–855

transmission, 854

N

N-acetylneuraminic acid, 488

Nahmias, A., 794

Nairobi sheep disease virus, 474, 476–477

clinical features, 477

diagnosis, 477

epidemiology and transmission, 476–477

Nairovirus, 458, 463

G protein, 463

NA proteins, 486

of influenza A viruses, 486

influenza viruses, 486

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, 741, 808, 810

Natural killer (NK) cells, 73

NB protein, 486

influenza B viruses, 486

Necrosis, 49–51

Nefilnavir, 130

Nef protein, 583, 594

functions, 583

Negative elongation factor (NELF), 651

Negative marker vaccines, 145

Negative-sense, 437

Negative-sense RNA viruses, 34–35

Negri, A., 7, 367

Negri inclusion bodies, 53, 367

Nelfinavir, 609

Nelvinavir, 119

NendoU, 312, 313

Neo-cannibalism, 939, 942

Neotma, 453Nested PCR, 173

Neural cell adhesion molecule, 359

Neuraminidase (NA), 129, 485

crystallographic structure, 485

of influenza A viruses, 485

Neurogenic dissemination, 43–44

Neutrophils, 71, 110

Nevirapine, 119, 123, 128, 609

Newcastle disease virus, 411

attachment, 394

clinical features, 411

epidemiology and transmission, 411

immune evasion, 393

pathogenesis, 411

New flu, 505–507

New influenza virus, 507

New World arenaviruses, 439, 446

NFX1-91, 688

Nidovirales, 309, 318Nipah virus, 160, 381, 417, 418

attachment, 394

pathogenesis, 418

NK cells. See Natural killer (NK) cellsNon-A, Non-B hepatitis viruses, 257

Non-nucleoside inhibitors, 128, 609

Non-nucleoside inhibitors of reverse

transcriptase, 121

Non-paralytic poliovirus infections, 214

Non-structural proteins, 467

of astroviruses, 232

of bunyaviruses, 467

of caliciviruses, 238–240

of coronaviruses, 323

of flaviviruses, 263–265

of herpesviruses, 763–775

of paramyxoviruses, 391

Norovirus (Norwalk virus), 18, 41, 236, 239,

242–247

clinical features, 243

diagnosis, 243

entry gates, 41

epidemiology and transmission, 242

genome organization, 238, 239

1002 Index

pathogenesis, 243

replication, 241

viral proteins, 238

zoonotic transmissions, 242

Northern blot, 168

Nosocomial infection, 150

Novel retrovirus types, 596

Novirhabdovirus, 352, 373

NP protein of orthomyxoviruses, 487, 495

Npro protein, 265

N protein, 465

of coronaviruses, 328

of hantaviruses, 465

of paramyxoviruses, 383, 390

of rhabdoviruses, 356

NS2/NEP protein, 497

orthomyxoviruses, 497

NSP1, 296

of arteriviruses, 312

NSP1a, 232

NSP1ab, 232

NSP1b, 231

NSP2, 296

NSP3, 296

NSP4, 296

of arteriviruses, 312

NSP11, of arteriviruses, 312

NS1 protein, 489–491, 497

influenza viruses, 489

orthomyxoviruses, 497

respiratory syncytial virus, 391

NS2 protein, respiratory syncytial virus, 391

NSs protein, 467

of orthobunyaviruses, 467

phleboviruses, 467

Nuclear factor kB (NFkB), 54, 61, 75, 99,565, 612

Nucleic acids detection, 168

Nucleocapsid, 27

of paramyxoviruses, 381

proteins of filoviruses, 420

proteins, retroviruses, 567

Nucleolin, 207, 889

Nucleoprotein, of arenaviruses, 443

Nucleorhabdovirus, 373

Nucleoside analogue, 121–127, 609, 765

Nupapillomavirus, 679

O

Oct-1, 763

Oct-2, 763, 791

Ohomyxoviruses, replication, 495

Okazaki fragments, 36

Old dog encephalitis, 414

Oldstone, M.B.A., 448

Old World arenaviruses, 446

Oncogenes, 57, 556, 557, 596, 614

cellular, 578

Oncogenic human papillomavirus vaccines,

143

Oncogenic retroviruses, 11, 57, 158

Oncornaviruses, 556

O’nyong-nyong virus, 293

Ophtalmic zoster, 799

Oral polio vaccine, 216

Orbivirus, 529, 534, 545

Orf virus, 855

Ornithodoros, 860Orphan virus, 187

Orthobunyavirus, 457, 463

natural hosts, 457–458

Orthohepadnavirus, 627

glycoproteins, 634

X protein, 636

Orthomyxoviridae, 21, 437Orthomyxovirus, 34, 477–514

attachment, 493

characteristic prototypes, 478

characteristic representatives, 479

classification, 478

structure, 479

Orthopoxvirus, 830, 832, 847, 852

Orthoreovirus, 22, 529, 539

Orthoretrovirinae, 557, 558Oryzavirus, 530

Oscillating quartz crystals, 180

Oseltamivir, 120, 129, 513

Osteopetrosis, 614

OTU proteases, 466

Outbreak-control vaccination, 136, 150, 513

Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, 619

P

p17, 587

p53, 717

gene, 63

molecular effects, 717

protein, 63–65

p130, 716

p150, 297

Pandemic, def, 148

Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009, 507

Panencephalitis, sclerosing, 12

Papillomas, 678

Index 1003

Papillomaviridae, 23, 626Papillomavirus, 6, 11, 55, 62, 678–705

animal pathogenic, 704–705

animal transmission, 704

attachment, 692

characteristic prototypes, 679–680

classification, 678

clinical features, 696

cofactors involved in carcinogenesis, 699

differentiation dependent gene expression,

694

early proteins, 686

electron micrograph, 682

epidemiology and transmission, 695–696

evasion of the immune response, 66, 92

genome organization and structure, 683

genome structure, 684

immune response and diagnosis, 702–703

L1 and L2 proteins, 691

late proteins, 691

pathogenesis, 699

proteins, 685

replication, 692

structure, 682

viral proteins, 683

Papovaviridae, 656Paque test, 8

Parainfluenza virus 1, tructural and

non-structural proteins, 387

Parainfluenza viruses, 44, 394, 398

attachment, 394

clinical features, 398

epidemiology, 398

immune response and diagnosis, 399

pathogenesis, 399

Paralytic, poliovirus infection, 214

Paramyxoviridae, 20, 379Paramyxovirinae, 380Paramyxoviruses, 33, 34, 379, 495, 511

animal pathogenic, 411

attachment, 394

classification and characteristic prototypes,

380

evasion of interferon-mediated defence

responses, 393

F protein, 386, 389

functions of proteins, 387

genome organization and structure, 382

genome replication, 396

human pathogenic, 398

L protein, 390

non-structural proteins, 391

nucleocapsid proteins, 390

particle structure, 382

penetration, 33

protein interactions model, 396

replication, 394

structural and envelope proteins, 385

structure, 381

viral proteins, 385

Parapoxvirus, 832, 849

electron micrograph, 835

Parechovirus(es), 187, 188, 190,

206, 219

clinical features, 217

epidemiology and transmission, 216

Parvoviridae, 25, 876Parvovirinae, 876Parvovirus, 32, 62, 876–904

animal pathogenic, 898–904

canine, 898, 903

characteristic prototypes, 877

classification, 876

electron micrograph, 876

feline and canine, 898–901

feline transmission, 898

functions of proteins, 884

genome, 878

genome replication model, 891

human pathogenic, 892–898

non-structural proteins, 885

porcine, 877, 901–902

replication, 888

structural proteins, 883

structure, 878

viral proteins, 883

Parvovirus 4, 897

Parvovirus-associated arthritis, 893

Parvovirus-associated replication bodies, 888

Parvovirus B19, 55, 885–886, 892–895

clinical features, 893

diagnosis, 895

epidemiology and transmission, 892

genome, 878

genome organization, 883

genome structure, 880

infection during pregnancy, 893

non-structural proteins, 885

NS1 protein, 886

particle structure (schematic depiction),

879

pathogenesis, 893

persistent infection, 894

proteins functions, 884

replication, 888–892

structural proteins, 883

1004 Index

therapy, 895

time course of the disease, 895

Passive vaccination, 135

Pasteur, L., 3, 4, 361

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, 74

Pathogenesis, 39

Pathogenicity, definition, 40

Pathways for spread of viruses, 42–47

Pattern recognition receptor family, 70

Pattern-recognition receptors, 74

PB1-F2 protein, 491

PB1 protein of orthomyxoviruses, 488

PB2 protein, 488, 497

orthomyxoviruses, 488

of orthomyxoviruses, 488, 497

PDZ domains, 688

Penetration, 32

Pentons, 710

Peptide vaccines, 143–144

Peptidomimetics, 128, 130

Peramivir, 120

Perforins, 82

Permeability transition pore complex, 491

Peromyscus maniculatus, 470Persistent infections, 39

Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus, 412

Pestivirus(es), 19, 255, 285

7 kD protein, 264

7k protein, 299

polyproteins, 258

Peters, D., 426

Peyer patches, 42

Peyer plaques, 215

Pfeiffer, E., 809

Phagocytes, 43, 72

Phleboviruses, 457, 464, 467, 468

non-structural proteins, 467

replication, 468

Phocine distemper, 415

Phocine distemper virus, 380

Phocine distemper virus 1, 415

Phocine distemper virus 2, 415

Phocoena spinipinnis papillomavirus, 682

Phosphatidylinositol 3-hydroxykinase, 729

Phytoreovirus, 530

Picornaviridae, 18, 186, 188Picornavirus(es), 41, 51, 187–188

cellular receptors, 206

characteristic prototypes, 189–190

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 188

3CLpro, 323

comparison of proteins, 198–199

discovery, 187

entry gates, 41

enzymes, 202

evolution, 157

genome comparison, 194

genome organization and structure, 194

genome replication, 210

human pathogenic, 212

particle structure, 193

polyprotein, 197

proteases, 202

replication, 205

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, 203

structural proteins, 200

structure, 191

viral protein, 195

PKR. See Protein kinase R (PKR)

Placenta

infection, 46

types, 90

Plant pathogenic viroids, 651

Plasmacytoid (lymphoid) dendritic cells, 70

Platelet-derived growth factor, 60

Pleconaril, 120, 124, 128

PL1pro, 323, 329

PL2pro, 323, 329

Pneumovirinae, 380Pocket factor, 201

Pol, 562

Pol gene, 570

Poliomyelitis, 7, 47, 212–215

virus transmission, 152

Polio vaccines

contaminated with SV40, 675–676

SV40 contamination, 674

Poliovirus(es), 18, 32, 47, 150, 189, 205, 213

capsid proteins, 193

clinical features, 214

epidemiology and transmission, 213

immune response and diagnosis, 215

pathogenesis, 215

therapy and prophylaxis, 216

types, 213

vaccine, 216

Poliovirus 1, genome structure, 194, 195

Poliovirus infection

non-paralytic, 214

paralytic, 214

Polykaryocytes, 53

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 172

multiplex, 180

nested, 173

principle, 174

Index 1005

Polyoma, 656

Polyomaviridae, 23, 626, 656Polyomavirus, 656–676

animal pathogenic, 673

attachment and penetration, 666

characteristic prototypes, 657

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 656

clinical features, 669–670

epidemiology and transmission, 669

genome organization and

structure, 658

genome replication, 667

human pathogenic, 669–673

immune response and diagnosis, 672

non-structural proteins, 665

pathogenesis, 670

protein functions, 662

replication, 665

structural proteins, 665

structure, 657

therapy, 673

viral proteins, 660

Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy, 669

Popper, E., 5, 187

Porcine circoviruses (PCV–1), 905, 913–914.

See also Porcine circoviruses (PCV)

vaccines

Porcine circoviruses–2 (PCV–2), 905, 913

clinical features, 913

diagnosis, 914

pathogenesis, 913–914

Porcine circoviruses (PCV) vaccines, 914

Porcine haemagglutinating encephalomyelitis

virus, 335

Porcine herpesvirus

clinical features, 820

control, 821

diagnosis, 821

pathogenesis, 821

transmission, 820

Porcine herpesvirus 1, 820–821

Porcine parvovirus, 877, 901–902

Porcine postweaning multisystemic wasting

syndrome (PMWS), 913

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome

virus (PRRSV), 316–317

clinical features, 317

control and prophylaxis, 317

epidemiology and transmission, 316

structure, 311

Porcine rotavirus, 533

Porcine teschoviruses, 224

Porcine transmissible gastroenteritis virus,

336–337

clinical features, 336

epidemiology and transmission, 336

pathogenesis, 336

Positive marker vaccines, 145

Positive-sense RNA viruses, 34

Postexposure prophylaxis, 368

Postexposure vaccination, 368

Post-polio syndrome, 214

Post-transcriptional regulatory

element, 632

Post-transcriptional transactivators,

retroviruses, 578

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative

disorder, 809

POU, 763

Poultry enteritis mortality syndrome, 235

Poxviridae, 24, 626, 829Poxviruses, 33, 36, 52, 93, 829–855

accessory proteins, 838–842

animal pathogenic, 852–855

attachment and penetration, 842

characteristic prototypes, 832–833

classification and characteristic prototypes,

830–831

enzymes, 835–838

genome, 833–835

genome structure, 836

infection cycle, 843

of insects, 832

intermediate genes, 845

replication, 842–846

sagittal section, 835

structural proteins, 835

structure, 832

uracil-DNA glycosylase, 838

of vertebrates, 832

viral proteins, 835–842

Poxvirus particle

cross-section, 834

structure, 834

pp65, 762

P protein

complexes, orthomyxoviruses, 488

of rhabdoviruses, 357

of rubulaviruses, 392

Pre-B cells, 89

Preintegration complex, 591

Primary effusion (body-cavity-based)

lymphoma, 741, 782

Primary liver cell carcinoma, 645–647

Primary viraemia, 43

1006 Index

Prion conversion, 29

Prion diseases, 919, 921

in animals, 932–946

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 920

forms and manifestations, 921

Prion propagation, 925

Prion protein (PrP), 92

structure, 922

Prions, 29–30, 919–946

PRNP, 922Prnp gene, 935

Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy, 12

Proinflammatory cytokines, 70

Prospect Hill virus, 463

Protease Clara, 483

Protease inhibitors, 609

Protease, retroviral, 571

Protein, 851

Proteinaceous infectious particle, 29, 920

Protein detection, 165

Protein kinase R (PKR), 101, 490

Protein-only hypothesis, 920

Protein p53, 63

Proto-oncogene, 617, 646

Proventricular dilatation syndrome, 31

Provirus, 11

Provost, P., 219

PrPC, 29, 922

PrPC and PrPSc, 927

cell biology of conformational conversion,

927

distinction, 932

PrPC into PrPSc, conformational conversion

model, 925

PrP coding gene structure, 922

PrP gene structure, 924

PrP isoforms structure, 924

PrPSc, 29, 922, 930, 940, 945

detection, 945

plaques, 930

PRRSV. See Porcine reproductiveand respiratory syndrome virus

(PRRSV)

Prusiner, S.B., 920

Pseudocroup, 379

Pteropus sp., 418Pu-1, 780

Pulvertaft, R., 808

pU94 protein, 771

Purtilo, D., 809

Puumala virus, 455, 470

pVP87, 232, 233

Q

Quasispecies, 130, 156, 597

Quil-A, 142

R

Rabbit calicivirus, 247

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV),

160, 236, 240, 246–247

for biological control, 247

clinical features, 247

diagnosis, 247

epidemiology and transmission, 246

genome organization, 239

pathogenesis, 247

prophylaxis, 247

Rabbit myxomatosis, 855

Rabbit myxoma virus, 5

Rabies, 361, 362

first vaccines, 362

history, 361

transmission by organ transplants, 363

untreated, 365

vaccination, 368

vaccination of foxes, 368

vaccination of raccoons and foxes, 142

Rabies virus, 5, 20, 41, 43, 47, 352, 359, 362

clinical features, 364

entry gates, 41

epidemiology and transmission, 362

G protein, 366

immune response and diagnosis, 367

pathogenesis, 365

proteins, 356

replication, 359

strain PV, 355

therapy and prophylaxis, 368

Rabies virus infection, in transplant

recipients, 363

Raltegravir, 609

Raoult, D., 29

RB. See Retinoblastoma proteins (RB)

RB105, 65, 663, 689, 716

function, 690

tumour suppressor protein, 612

RB107, 65, 689, 716

RBP-Jk, 780

Real-time PCR, 173

Reassortants, 437

Reassortment, 500

Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 32

Recombinant viruses, 141–142

Reed, W., 5, 270

Index 1007

Re-emerging viruses, 151

Regulator of expression of virion proteins.

See REV protein

Regulatory T cells, 80, 85–86

Reoviridae, 22, 521, 529Reoviruses, 35, 528–551

animal pathogenic, 545

attachment and penetration, 538

characteristic prototypes, 530

epidemiology and transmission, 540

genome, 531

human pathogenic, 540

non-structural proteins, 535

reassortants, 540

replication, 538

structure, 529

Rep68, 883, 886, 887

Rep78, 883, 886, 887

Replication of togaviruses, 300–301

Rep proteins, 886

Resistance tests, 180

Respiratory enteric orphan virus. SeeReoviruses

Respiratory syncytial virus, 44, 54, 379,

394, 407

bovine, 416

clinical features, 408

epidemiology and transmission, 407

genome organization, 384

M2-1 protein, 390

pathogenesis, 408

structural and non-structural proteins, 387

therapy, 409

Respirovirus

HN protein, 386

structure, 382

Reston ebolavirus, 420

Reticular endocytic system, 43

Reticulohistiocytic system, 43

Retinoblastoma gene, 65

Retinoblastoma proteins (RB), 64–65

Retinoic acid inducible gene (RIG–1), 98

Retroviral vectors, 597

Retroviridae, 22, 557carcinogenesis, 57

Retroviruses, 35, 555, 567

animal pathogenic, 613

characteristic prototypes, 558

classification and characteristic prototypes,

557

emergence of novel retroviruses, 596

endogenous, 557

exogenous, 557

genome organization and structure, 561

human pathogenic, 598

inhibitors, 128

integrase, 572, 591

leader region, 564

LTR region and promoter, 565

oncogenic, 57, 158

polypurine tract, 565

replication, 585

reverse transcriptase, 571

reverse transcriptase inhibitors, 126

structure, 560

variability, 572, 597

viral proteins, 567

Reverse genetics, 144

Reverse transcriptase, 35, 556, 571

discovery, 11

inhibitors, 609

non-nucleoside inhibitors, 121

Reverse transcriptase activity determination,

166

Reverse transcription, 596

Rev protein, 578, 594

Rev response element (RRE), 579

Rex-dependent mRNA export, 592

Rex proteins, 581, 595

Rex response element (RxRE), 581

Reye syndrome, 509

Rey, F.A., 261

RGD motif, 729

Rhabdoviridae, 20, 352Rhabdoviruses, 34, 352

animal pathogenic, 368

characteristic prototypes, 353

classification, 352

genome organization and structure, 355

genome replication, 360

G protein, 354

human and animal pathogenic, 362

replication, 358

structure, 354

Rhadinovirus, 743, 758

RHDV. See Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus

(RHDV)

Rhinovirus(es), 32, 44, 223–224

cellular receptors, 206

clinical features, 223

epidemiology and transmission, 223

immune response and diagnosis, 224

pathogenesis, 223

serotypes, 202

therapy and prophylaxis, 224

Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, 476

1008 Index

Ribavirin, 120, 129

Ribozymes, 132

Rift valley fever virus, 463, 474–476

clinical features, 475

diagnosis, 476

envelope proteins, 463

epidemiology and transmission, 475

pathogenesis, 476

(RIG-I)-like helicases (RLH), 98

Rimantadine, 120, 128, 512

Rinderpest virus, 379, 382, 402, 403, 412

control and prophylaxis, 413

diagnosis, 413

epidemiology and transmission, 412

pathogenesis, 413

Ritonavir, 119, 130

River, C., 10

Rizzetto, M., 649

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, 34, 35, 186,

203, 443–444

of arenaviruses, 443–444

RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), 727

RNA interference, 132

RNA polymerase II, 594, 597

error-prone, 597

RNA splicing, 9

discovery, 708, 710

RNA virus capsid (RVC) domain, 193, 200

RNA viruses, 33–35

double-stranded, 35

evasion of immune defence, 92

mutations, 156

negative sense, 34

positive-sense, 34

Robbins, F.C., 187

Rolling-circle replication, 36

Roniviridae, 318Roseola infantum, 806

Roseolovirus, 743

Rossmann, M., 201

Ross River virus, 293

Rotaviruses, 41, 529–531, 540, 545

clinical features, 542

entry gates, 41

failure in developing vaccines, 544

functional domains of NSP4, 536

genome, 531

genome segments, 532

haemagglutination activity, 533

immune response and diagnosis, 543

infections, 529

inner capsid, 534

nomenclature, 542

non-structural proteins, 535

NSP1 protein, 535

NSP2 protein, 535

NSP3 protein, 535

NSP4 protein, 536

NSP5 protein, 537

NSP6 protein, 537

outer capsid, 533

particle structure, 531

pathogenesis, 543

reassortants, 542

structure, 529

therapy and prophylaxis, 544

vaccine, 544

viral core, 534

Rous, P., 5, 57, 556

Rous sarcoma virus, 5, 57, 556, 613

Rowe, W.P., 8, 708

Rta, 772

Rubella

embryopathy, 302

postnatal, 304

prenatal, 305

syndrome, 302

Rubella virus, 293, 294, 301

clinical features, 303

epidemiology and transmission, 302

E1 protein, 299

E2 protein, 299

genome organization, 294, 295

immune response and diagnosis, 304

non-structural proteins, 297

pathogenesis, 303

prenatal infections, 303

replication, 300

structural proteins, 298

structure, 294

therapy and prophylaxis, 305

time course of antibody formation, 303

Rubivirus(es), 292, 293, 297–298

Rubula virus, 380, 393

HN protein, 386

68 rule, 505

Russian flu, 500, 504, 512

RVC. See RNA virus capsid (RVC) domain

R5 virus, 574, 586, 601, 604

RxRE sequences, 581

S

Sabia virus, 439, 446

Sabin, A.B., 8, 216, 273

Sachs, L., 11

Index 1009

Saimiriine herpesvirus, 758

Salahuddin, S.Z., 806

Salk, J.E., 8

Salk vaccine, 675

Sapovirus(es), 236, 237, 242–247

clinical features, 243

diagnosis, 243

epidemiology and transmission, 242

genome organization, 238, 239

pathogenesis, 243

replication, 241

viral proteins, 240

SAP proteins, 809

Saquinavir, 119, 130, 571, 609

SARS. See Severe acute respiratory syndrome

(SARS)

SARS-related coronavirus, 151, 318, 332–335

attachment and penetration, 328

clinical features, 333

control, 335

epidemiology and transmission, 332

genome organization, 321

genome organization and replication, 322

immune response and diagnosis, 335

pathogenesis, 334

replication, 328

Satellite viruses, 28–29

Schaefer, W., 478

Schlesinger, R.W., 273

Schneweis, K., 794

Schramm, G., 9

Sclerosing panencephalitis, 12

Scrapie, 30, 919, 933–936

atypical, 934, 935

clinical features, 934

control, 936

diagnosis, 936

epidemiology and transmission, 933

pathogenesis, 935

Scrapie-associated fibrils, 924

Seadornavirus, 530

Secondary viraemia, 43

Self-assembly, 37

Semen-derived enhancer of viral infection,

SEVI, 599

Semliki forest virus, 293, 294, 296, 307

Sendai virus, 379

attachment, 394

non-structural proteins, 392

Sentinel cells, 70

Seoul virus, 458

Sergeant, 892

Serpins, 841

Serum response elements, 61

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS),

14, 152, 159, 330, 332, 333

SEVI proteins, 599

SFV. See Simian foamy virus (SFV)

Sharp, P.A., 710

SHBsAg, 628, 638, 649, 650

SHDAg, 650

Sheeppox virus, 853–854

Shingles, 603, 798, 799, 801

Shipping fever, 411

Shipyard eye, 735

(Shope) cottontail rabbit papillomavirus, 678

Shope rabbit papillomavirus, 699

Shope, R.E., 6, 11, 478, 678

SH protein, 391

Siadenovirus, 709

Sialic acid, 483

Sialomucins, 429

Siegert, R., 426

Sigma replication, 36

Signal peptides, 445

Signal recognition particle, 268

Signal transducer and activator of transcription

(STAT), 99

Sigurdsson, B., 12, 618

Simian foamy virus (SFV), 559, 560, 569

genome structure, 564

LTR region, 566

protein properties, 569

Simian haemorrhagic fever virus, 310

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), 159,

559, 598

Nef protein, 583

vpu protein, 582

Simian virus 40, 674–676. See also SV40

Simplex virus type 1, 768

Sindbis virus, 158, 293, 294, 299

attachment and penetration, 300

genome organization, 295

pathogenicity, 307

Single-stranded DNA viruses, 37

Sin Nombre virus, 458, 470

SIVcpz, 159, 598

SIVmac, 599

SIVmac239, 583

SIVsmm, 599

Sixth disease, 806

Skehel, J., 488

Slenczka, W., 426

Slow viral infections, 12

Small interfering RNA, 132

Smallpox, 4, 829, 846

1010 Index

Smallpox vaccination, 830, 850

Small T antigen, 664

Smear infections, 149

Smith, W., 6, 478, 499

Snowshoe hare virus, 457, 474

Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide

gel, 165

Sodroski, J., 574

Sorting signals, 445

Southern blot, 168

principle, 169

Spanish flu, 7, 157, 478, 499, 505

Spikes, 479

Spring viraemia of carp, 369

S protein of coronaviruses, 323

Spumaretrovirinae, 557Spumaretrovirus, 559

Spumavirus, 155, 557, 559, 572

Sputnikvirus, 29

Squamous cell carcinoma, 699

Squirrels, 474

Src kinase, 782

Staggering disease, 376

Stahl, F.W., 9

Stanley, W., 8

Staphylococcus aureus, 493STAT. See Signal transducer and activator of

transcription (STAT)

STAT1, 99

STAT2, 99

STAT3, 99

STAT5, 99

State of latency, 26

Stavudine, 119, 121

Stehelin, D., 556

Steiner, R., 798

Stewart, S., 656

Stick tests, 170

Stillbirth, mummification, embryonic death

and infertility (SMEDI), 901

St. Louis encephalitis virus, 255

Stoddard, M.B., 798

Straus, S.E., 798

Streptococcus pneumoniae, 493Stromal cell derived factor 1, 586

Structural proteins, 460, 463, 465, 481–489

of astroviruses, 232

of bunyaviruses, 460, 463, 465

of caliciviruses, 240–241

of coronaviruses, 323–328

of flaviviruses, 260–263

of herpesviruses, 747–750, 758–763

of influenzaviruses, 481–489

of paramyxoviruses, 385

of parvoviruses, 883–885

of picornaviruses, 197–202

Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, 405

Subtilisin-like proteases, 482

Subunit vaccine, 143

Sudan ebolavirus, 426

Suid herpesvirus 1, 820–821

Suipoxvirus, 832

Summer flu, 217

Superantigens, 91

SV40, 58, 62, 656

clinical features, 674–675

derived vectors, 668–669

diagnosis, 676

epidemiology and transmission, 674

genome organization, 659

large T antigen, 661

model system for molecular biology, 660

pathogenesis, 675

sequence elements in the regulatory

region, 661

small T antigen, 664

structure, 658

Swamp fever, 620

Sweet, B., 656, 675

Swine flu, 151, 505–507

Swine influenza, 478

Swinepox, 850

Swine vesicular disease virus, 188, 224

Syk kinases, 782

Sylvatic or wild rabies, 362

Symmetry forms of viral capsids, 27

Syncytia, 53

Syncytia formation, 53–54, 407

Syndesmochorial placenta, 90

T

T20, 609

Tacaribe virus, 439

Talfan virus, 225

Tanapox virus, 847

TANK, 99

T antigen, 660

Taq polymerase, 172

TAR element, 577

Targeted empiricism, def, 13

TAR-RNA-binding protein (TRP) 1

complex, 576

Tas protein, 578

Tat-binding cellular proteins (TBP), 576

Tat protein, 567, 575, 594

Index 1011

Tax protein, 61, 567, 578

Tax response elements (TREs), 567

TBEV. See Tick-borne encephalitis virus(TBEV)

T-cell leukaemia, 556

T-cell receptor (TCR), 79, 82

diversity, 79

T cells

co-stimulatory signals, 80

regulatory, 85

gd T cells, 79

Tegument layer, 28

Telaprevir, 120

Telbivudine, 649

Temin, H., 11, 556

Teravirus, 877

Teschovirus, 190

Tetherin, 582

Tetramer test, 178

sequence of the test procedure, 179

Tev protein, 594

TGF. See Transforming growth factor (TGF)

TGF-a, 61, 111TGF-b, 60, 111TH cells, 84–85

TH1 cells, 85

TH2 cells, 85

Theiler, M., 272

T-helper cells, 82

Therapy and prophylaxis togoviruses, 305

Thogoto virus, 478, 511

Three day fever, 806

Thymidine analogue, 121

Thymidine kinase, 764, 765

Thymidylate synthase, 764

Tick bites, 276

Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), 19, 151,

255, 257, 276–278

attachment, 266

clinical features, 276

epidemiology and transmission, 276

E protein, 277

E protein structure, 263

genome organization, 262

immune response and diagnosis, 277

life cycle, 267

particle structure, 257

pathogenesis, 277

structure of the E protein, 261

therapy and prophylaxis, 278

a-TIF protein, 761

Tiger heart, 227

Tiny T antigen, 660, 664

TIR-domain-containing adapter inducing

IFN-b (TRIF), 75

TLR. See Toll-like receptors (TLR)TLR1, 74

TLR2, 74

TLR3, 74

TLR4, 74

TLR5, 74

TLR6, 74

TLR7, 74

TLR8, 74

TLR9, 74

TLR11, 74

TLRs, 74

T lymphocytes, 79

TNF. See Tumour necrosis factors (TNF)

TNF-a, 105TNF-a converting enzyme, 105

TNF-b, 105TNF receptor, 105

TNF-receptor-associated factor (TRAF) 3, 99

Tobacco mosaic virus, 8

Togaviridae, 19, 186, 292Togavirus(es), 290–309

animal pathogenic, 306–309

capsid protein, 298

characteristic prototypes, 293

classification and characteristic

prototypes, 292

genome, 294

genome organization and replication, 295

human pathogenic, 301–306

non-structural proteins, 294, 296

polyprotein, 298

protein functions, 300

structure, 294

viral proteins, 296

Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain

proteins, 74

Toll-like receptors (TLR), 74

TLR-mediated activation

pathways, 76

Toll-like receptors 7 and 8, 511

ligand, 511

Torovirinae, 319Torovirus, 319

Torque teno virus, 875, 905, 906,

910–912

clinical features, 911

diagnosis, 911

epidemiology and transmission,

910–911

genome organization, 908

1012 Index

genotypes, 910

pathogenesis, 911

replication, 909, 911

TRAF-1, 781

TRAF-2, 782

TRAF-family-associated NFkb activator, 99

Transactivators, retroviral, 575

Transformation, 11, 57–67

Transformed cells, 59

cell growth changes, 60

evasion of the immune response, 66

morphological changes, 58–62

Transforming growth factor (TGF), 60, 111

Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME),

921, 938

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

(TSEs), 919

Transport-associated protein, 82

Traub, E., 6, 448

Trentin, J.J., 708

Tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP), 611

TT virus, 905

Tula virus, 463, 470

Tumour necrosis factors (TNF), 96, 105–108

Tumour-suppressor protein, 690

inactivation, 62–63

p53, 63, 688

Tumour suppressors, 62

Tumour viruses, 58

evasion of the immune defence, 66

Twort, F., 5

Tyk2, 99, 102, 701

Type I interferons, 96

effects, 99

Type III interferons, 103

Tyrrell, D.A.J., 318

U

UL18, 804

UL80a, 751

Ultraviolet-damaged DNA-binding protein,

636

Uncoating, 33

Uracil DNA glycosylase, 766, 838

Uracil glycosylase, 764

Urbani, C., 332, 333

Urban rabies, 362

US6, 774, 805

US11, 805

US11, 762

US28, 805

Uukuniemi virus, 463

V

Vaccination, 4, 142

active, 135

ancient, 4

passive, 135

against rabies, 136

Vaccines, 135–145, 216, 513

against classical swine fever virus, 137

development, 137

DNA, 144

against influenza, 513

marker, 145

overview, 139

against papillomaviruses, 143

peptide, 143

using selected proteins, 143

Vaccinia virus, 141, 829–832, 842, 849

Ankara, 831

attenuation, 137

enzymes, 839–840

as expression system in genetic

engineering, 830–831

genome structure, 836

recombinant, 850

structural proteins, 837–838

vaccine, 850

Vaccinia virus early transcription factor

(VETF), 844

Valovirus, 236, 237

Variant CJD, 929

clinical features, 930

Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, 30

Varicella-zoster virus, 24, 40, 43, 741,

756–757, 759, 784, 798–801

clinical features, 799

epidemiology and transmission, 798

genome, 756

genome structure, 753

latent infection cycle, 792

pathogenesis, 800

reactivation, 799

structural proteins, 760

therapy, 801

vaccination, 801

Varicellovirus, 742

Variola minor, 846

Variolation, 4, 829

Variola vera, 829, 846

Variola virus, 832, 846–850

clinical features, 848

epidemiology and transmission, 846–848

pathogenesis, 848–849

Variot, G., 678

Index 1013

Varmus, H.E., 556

Vascular endothelial growth factor, 848

VDAC1. See Voltage-dependent anion channel1 (VDAC1)

Vectors derived from BPV-1, 695

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, 307

v-erb, 614Vero cells, 359

Verruca plana, 696

Verruca vulgaris, 696

Vertical transmission, 150, 556

Vesicles formation, 444

Vesicular disease, 352

Vesicular exanthema virus, 245

Vesicular stomatitis virus, 352, 369

clinical features, 369

diagnosis, 369

epidemiology and transmission, 369

genome organization, 355

pathogenesis, 369

Vesiculovirus, 352

Vesivirus, 236

genome organization, 239

v-fms, 615Vhs protein, 763

Vif Protein, 581

vIL-6, 775, 787

Viraemia, 43

primary, 43

secondary, 43

Viral capsid antigen (VCA), 813

Viral capsids symmetry forms, 27

Viral CC chemokine inhibitor, 841

Viral cultivation, 164

Viral cyclin D2, 783, 786–787

Viral diseases, therapy by cytokines, 112–113

Viral FLIP, 775, 783, 787

Viral gene expression strategies, 33

Viral IL-6, 783

Viral infection, 39, 40, 51–54

chronic, 54

consequences for the affected cells, 51

detection, 163

effects on the synthesis of cytokines, 112

indirect detection, 176

resistance by blood group antigens, 244

state of equilibrium, 54

time course of disease, 40

transmission, 149

typical course, 39

Viral integrase, 594

Viral IRF-1 (vIRF-1), 775

Viral IRF-2 (vIRF-2), 775

Viral IRF-3 (vIRF-3), 775

Viral IRF1-IRF4, 783

Viral morphogenesis, 37

Viral neuraminidases inhibitors, 120

Viral nucleic acids detection, 168

Viral oncogenes, 557

Viral penetration and uncoating inhibitors,

128–129

Viral polymerases inhibitors, 117

Viral proliferation and replication, 31–38

Viral proteases inhibitors, 119

Viral proteins, 443–446, 481–493

of arenaviruses, 443

orthomyxoviruses, 481

Viral transduction, 9

Virion-associated protein rapid. See Vprprotein

Virion infectivity factor, 581

Virions, 26

Virocrine stimulation, 691

Viroids, 28–29

plant pathogenic, 651

Virokines, 841

Virology, future challenges, 14

Virophages, 28–29

Viroplasms, 539

Virosome, 53

Virostatic drugs, 116, 128

Virulence, definition, 41

Virus-associated RNAI, 726

Virus-associated RNAII, 727

Viruses, 7, 31–39, 41–47, 437–514

adaptation to hosts, 152

attachment, 31

attenuated, 137

autocrine cell growth stimulation,

61–62

as biological weapons, 160

as a cause of cancer, 11

cell transformation, 11

definition, 17–30

direct detection, 164

discovery, 5

with a double-stranded DNA

genome, 626

with double-stranded, segmented RNA

genomes, 521–551

emergence of novel viruses, 155

erythrocytes agglutination, 263

evasion of the immune response, 91–93

evolution, 155

gene expression strategies, 33

genetic recombination, 158

1014 Index

historical overview, 3–5

human pathogenic, 150

inception of infection, 31

of infectious pancreatic necrosis of

salmonids, 527

intrauterine transmission, 6

latent, 26

mutations, 130–131, 155

pathogenesis, 39

penetration, 32

protein detection, 165

reassortants, 157

recently emerged, 159

recombinant, 141

release, 38

replicationally active, 26

residence, 150

resistance tests, 180

resistant against virostatic drugs, 131

retroviruses, 35

SARS, 160

satellite, 28

with single-stranded, non-segmented,

negative-sense RNA genomes, 351

with single-stranded RNA genomes and

double-stranded DNA as an

intermediate product, 555

with single-stranded, segmented, negative-

sense RNA genomes, 437

spreading in the organism, 41

structural features, 26–30

Virus families

molecular characteristics and

prototypes, 18

taxonomic classification, 30

Virus-host shutoff, 51, 202, 211

Virus-infected cells, recognition by

T lymphocytes, 81

Virus of atypical avian influenza. SeeNewcastle disease virus

Virusoids, 28–29

Virus particle, enveloped, 27

Virus-specific T cells detection, 179

Virus uptake/uncoating inhibitors, 120

Visna, 619

v-myb, 614v-myc, 614, 615Vogt, M., 8, 11

Vogt, P.K., 556

Voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1),

491

VP24, 420, 421

VP26, 233

VP29, 233

VP34, 234

VP40, 420–422

Vpg protein, 194

Vpr protein, 581

Vpu protein, 582

Vpx protein, 582

V segments, 89

v-src, 614

W

Wang, D., 657

Warthin–Finkeldey giant cells, 53

Warts, 678, 699

HPV-associated, 699–700

spontaneous regression, 702

therapy, 703

types, 695

Wart viruses, 695–704

Watson, J.D., 9

Weller, T.H., 187, 798

Western blot tests, 165

Western blotting, 165, 176

Western equine encephalitis virus,

158, 293, 307

West Nile virus, 19, 255, 266, 283

on the American Continent, 285

epidemiology and transmission, 283

NS1 protein, 263

pathogenesis, 284

prophylaxis, 284

in the USA, 285

Whitewater Arroyo virus, 439, 453

Wild mouse species, 448

Wiley, D., 488

Williams, E., 937

Wilson, I., 488

Winocour, E., 11

Wollensak, J., 13

World Health Organization, 513

Wrapped virions, 831

WU polyomaviruses, 658, 671–672

W€uthrich, K., 924

X

XCL1, 110

XCL2, 110

XendoU, 313

X-linked lymphoproliferative (XLP)

syndrome, 809

X4 viruses, 586, 601, 604, 605

Index 1015

Y

Yaba monkey tumour virus,

24, 832, 847

Yellow fever virus, 5, 12, 19, 255,

269–272

attenuated, 137

attenuation, 272

clinical features, 271

epidemics, 269

epidemiology and transmission, 270

genome organization, 262

immune response and diagnosis, 271

live vaccine strain 17D, 272

pathogenesis, 271

polyprotein, 258

therapy and prophylaxis, 272

vaccine, 272

YY1, 692, 886

Z

Zaire ebolavirus, 426

Zanamivir, 120, 129, 513

Zidovudine, 121

Zinke, G.F., 361

Zinkernagel, R.M., 6, 448

Zoonoses, 14, 149

Zoonotic potential of BSE, 928

Z protein, 439, 444–446

of arenaviruses, 444

1016 Index