ap review chapter 1, 2, & 3. chapter 1: terms structuralism functionalism behaviorism ...
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Chapter 1: Terms Structuralism Functionalism Behaviorism Evolutionary Nature v.
Nurture Gestalt Psychology Psychoanalysis Humanist Cognition Biological Sociocultural Behavorial Genetics
Ethnocentrism Dualism Rene Descartes John Locke
Empiricism Thomas Hobbes
7 major fields Developmental – human development (mostly children) Social – attitudes, prejudice, conformity, attraction Experimental – sensation, perception, learning,
conditioning, motivation, emotion Physiological – genetics, brain, nervous system,
endocrine system Cognitive – mental processes, memory, reasoning,
language, problem solving Personality – what shapes our personality Psychometrics – measurement of behavior, capacities
through test, designing test, look for new data
Focus of professional practice Clinical – Evaluation, diagnosis, treatment of
disorders Counseling – Overlaps clinical, work usually
with people suffering moderate severity Educational & School – improve curriculum
design, achievement testing, work in schools aiding students
Industrial & Organizational – HR department, improve staff moral, productivity
Structuralism Smallest possible elements of the mind Understand all the parts =
understanding structure of the mind Examples:
Patient shown picture, listen to sounds and record thoughts (Sensation, feelings, images)
People: Edward Titchener (student of Wundt)
Functionalism Influenced by Darwin (Natural Selection)
How people adapt to the world around them (Survival/reproduction advantage)
“Stream of consciousness” Looks at function/ purpose of
consciousness rather than structure (leads to behaviorism)
People: William James
Behavioral (Stimulus – Response Psychology
Study observable behavior, mind and mental events unimportant (why?) Can not study consciousness Scientific Method rests on verifiability
People: Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning – dog), John Watson (Classical Conditioning – Little Albert), B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning – Skinner Box)
Evolutionary Nature vs. Nurture Nature (genetic) vs. Nurture
(Environment/Experience) Watson argued environment played large
role Could specialize any child in any
profession
Gestalt Psychology Concerned with perception of conscious experience. How we experience the world rather than how we
felt The whole of an experience can be more than the
sum of its parts Law of Closure – group items together see whole (3/4
circle – we fill in the gap) Law of Pragnanz – organize, reduce to simplest form Law of Proximity – Objects near each other we group Law of Similiarty – group items that are similar
together Law of Continuity – Lines seen following smooth path
Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic Unconscious – thoughts below surface of
awareness Explains personality, motivation, mental
disorders through unconscious You are not the master of your own mind Repressed thoughts
People: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler
Humanist Humans are unique and free in will
(different from animals) Optimistic about human nature People: Abraham Maslow (Self-
Actualization – reach full potential), Carl Rogers (Unconditional Positive Regard – positive self concept in attaining self actualization)
Cognitive Thinking or conscious experience Combines Structuralist (look at
subcomponents of thought) and functionalist (understand purpose of thought)
People: Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky
Biological Looks at interaction of anatomy and
physiology (Nervous system) and behavior
Example: look at what part of the brain is at work during a task
Sociocultural Environment person lives in has great
influence on how we behave. Cultural values vary from society to
society
Behavorial Genetics Certain behaviors happen due to
genetically-based psychological characteristics
Looks at Biological/ environmental effects on trait
Example: What extent does risk taking behavior in teens have to do with genetics
Ethnocentrism Ones own ethnicity superior to others
Fear of cultural comparisons may have lead to ethnocentrism so many psychologist focused on middle class whites
Dualism Divides the world and all things in it into
two parts: Body Spirit
Questions the Greeks pondered
Rene Descartes “I Think Therefore I am”
Mind controls the body Physical world is not under divine influence
rather followed by a set of observable laws/rules The world and all creatures are like machines
behavior is predictable Humans exception = mind (not observable, not
subject to natural laws) Reflex – not controlled by the mind rather an
unconscious reaction to environmental event
John Lock Empiricism – acquisition of truth through
observations and experiences Humans born knowing nothing (“blank
slate”), nothing is innate it is all learned Nurture over nature in development
Thomas Hobbes Materialism – only
things that exist are matter and energy
What we experience as consciousness is simply by-product of machinery of the brain
Subfields in Psychology Applied Psychology – everyday practical
problems Clinical Psychology – Diagnosis
treatment
Scientific Method Experiment Independent
Variable Dependent
Variable Extraneous
Variable Confounding of
Variables
Mean/Median/Mode Standard Deviation Correlational coefficient Sampling Bias Placebo effect Experimenter Bias Double blind Single blind
Experiment An investigation seeking to understand
relations of cause and effect The experimenter changes a variable
(cause) and measures how it, in turn changes another variable (effect).
Experimental group – group receiving or reacting to the IV
Control group – does not receive the IV but the rest of the experiment should be the same
Experiment Population – group of interest to be studied Representative Sample – too large of a
population to study Representativeness – degree to which a sample
reflects the diverse characteristics of the population being studied
Random Sampling – ensures maximum representativeness
Random assigned – when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group/condition in a study
Scientific Method IV – Manipulated variable (change) DV – what’s measured Extraneous Variable – Something not
apart of the experiment that effects the results
Confounding of Variables - anything that could cause change in B, that is not A Object of experiment is to prove A causes
B
Placebo In some double-blind experiments, the
control group is given a placebo, a seemingly therapeutic object or procedure that causes the control group to believe they are in the experimental group but actually contains none of the tested material. I.e.; Sugar pill
Sampling Bias When a sample is not representative of
the population from which it is drawn from Example: Dewy defeats Truman election
results Polls tend to focus on middle/upper
class white college students
The Biased &The Blind Experimenter Bias
Another confounding variable Not a conscious act Looks for the good results in study not the bad
Double-Blind Procedure - neither the participants or the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment
Single-Blind - an experiment in which the person collecting data knows whether the subject is in the control group or the experimental group, but subjects do not
Placebo Effects Resembles a drug, but no effect Why is it used? Expectations can
influence feelings, reactions, behavior and going into something positive can have a beneficial effect
Standard Deviation An index of the amount of a variability
in a set of data When the variability is larger so to will
the the standard deviation Typical distribution is:
1 standard deviation is 68% 2 standard deviation is 95% 3 standard deviation is 98%
Correlation Coefficient A number that measures the strength of
a relationship Range from -1 to +1 Relationship gets weaker the closer to
zero Which is a stronger correlation?
-.13 or +.38 -.72 or +.59 -.91 or +.04
Important! Correlation does NOT prove causation, it
simply shows strength of the relationship among variables i.e.; poor school performance may be
correlated with lack of sleep. However, we do not know if lack of sleep
Case Studies Intensive psychological studies of a
single individual The intense research of one can be
broadly applied to similar cases Like correlational studies, case studies do
not lead to causation
Cross Sectional Cross Sectional
utilizes different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest, but share other characteristics such as socioeconomic status, educational background, and ethnicity.
Often used about developmental psychologist
Cross Sectional For example, researchers studying
developmental psychology might select groups of people who are remarkably similar in most areas, but differ only in age. By doing this, any differences between groups can presumably be attributed to age differences rather than to other variables.
Longitudinal used to discover relationships between
variables that are not related to various background variables. This observational research technique involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. Can last decades The Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) is a
long-term study of a random sample of 10,317 men and women who graduated from Wisconsin high schools in 1957
Statistical Significance The probability that the observed
findings are due to chance is very low. “Very low” is usually defined as less
than .05
P Value statistical significance is often
represented like this: p < 0.05
A p-value of less than .05 indicates if the particular results are due merely to chance, the probability of obtaining these results would be less than 5%.
Z - Score In statistics, a z-score is a standardized
score that indicates how many standard deviations a data point is from the mean.
The Neuron Dendrites – receive message Soma – cell body Axon – carries the electrical message Myelin Sheath – protects the axon, and
speed up the message Node of Ranvier – gap between myelin
sheath – helps speed up message Synapse – chemical message takes
place
The Neuron Action Potential (nerve impulse) – firing
of neuron Allows electrical charged ions of
potassium/sodium to enter cells All or nothing Absolute Refractory Period – minimal
length of time to fire again Resting Potential – 70 millivolts
The Neuron Post Synaptic Potential
Excitatory PSP – Ups likelihood of firing Inhibitory PSP – Hampers likelihood of
firing Reuptake – after neurotransmitter is
released had has conducted the impulse to the next cell(s), it is either broken down by enzymes or absorbed back into firing cell for reuptake
Key Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine – memory, muscle contraction,
particularly in the heart Serotonin – arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, and
mood and hunger regulation (OCD/Depression) Dopamine – movement, attention, and reward;
dopamine imbalances may play a role in (low levels) Parkinson’s disease and in (high levels) schizophrenia
GABA – inhibitory neurotransmitter Norepinephrine – affects alertness; lack of
depression Endorphins – body’s natural painkillers
Nervous System Peripheral – all nerves outside brain and
spinal cord Somatic – connect voluntary muscles to
sensory receptors Autonomic – Connect the heart, blood
vessels, smooth muscles, and glands Sympathetic - mobilizes resources for
emergencies Fight or Flight
Parasympathetic – Conserves body resources
Roger Sperry – Split Brain Research Sperry received the prize for his
discoveries concerning the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
Endocrine System Pituitary gland (master gland) – releases
hormones which control release of other glands
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) – released in stressful situations Adrenal glands – fight-or-flight Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline) Thyroid produces thyroxin regulate
metabolism