AP European History Review 2nd Semester

Industrial Revolution To

European Union

The Industrial RevolutionOrigins

Agricultural revolution• New methods of farming increased food production,

led to population growth & surplus of labor

Capital for investment (banking and credit system)

Mineral resources• Supply of coal & iron ore needed to run machines

• Private and public investment built up infrastructure Roads, bridges, canals, railroads etc.

Markets• colonial empire - market for manufactured goods

Technological ChangesCotton Industry

Water frame – use of hydro power Crompton’s mule

• Combined aspects of the water frame & the Spinning Jenny to increase yarn production

• Water powered machines made rivers key locations for production

The Steam engineJames Watt (1736-1819)

• Developed the steam engine powered by coal which increased productivity

• Steam engines did not need to be located by rivers - development of factories

• Coal production quadrupled from 1815 to 1850 to keep up with demand

A Revolution in Transportation: Railroad• Richard Trevithick’s locomotive

1st Steam powered

• George Stephenson’s Rocket 1st public railway line (32 miles long) went 16MPH

The Industrial FactoryWorkers were wage earners instead of entrepreneurs

Workers were forced to work regular hours in shifts

• Major change from agrarian work

• Disciplined with fines, dismissal or beatings

The Pace of Industrialization on the Continent

Obstacles to Rapid IndustrializationLack of a transportation system

• Didn’t have good roads or river transit

Upheavals of war• French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars• Weakened political and social stability• Loss of manpower

The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Population GrowthDecline of the death rate (famine, epidemics, war) & increase in food supply

• Agricultural revolution all but ended famine

By 1850, European population was over 265 million

The Great Hunger (Exception to increase in food supply)Irish population growth

• Grew from 4 to 8 million between 1781 & 1845

Reliance on the potatoPotato crop fails, 1845-1851Over 1 million died of starvation and diseaseOver 2 million emigrated to U.S.Ireland became the only European nation with a declining population in the 19th century

The Growth of CitiesRapid, unplanned, growth

Move from rural to urban – left the countryside looking for work in cities

• Direct result of industrialization

Urban Living Conditions in the Early Industrial Revolution

Cities and suburbs• Sprang up fast with little planning – quickly overcrowded

Unsanitary conditions• Waste flowed through the gutters

Crowding• Rise in prostitution, crime, & sexual immorality

Adulteration of food• Chemicals were added to food and drinks were watered down

Urban Reformers

Edwin Chadwick

Advocated a system of modern sanitary reform• Resulted in first Public Health Act

• Use of drainage (sewers) and piped water

Efforts at ChangeEfforts at Change: The Workers

Luddites • skilled craftspeople who attacked the machines they

believed threatened their livelihoods (British)

The People’s Charter (Chartists) British Workers movement

• Demanded universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property requirements for members of Parliament & annual sessions of Parliament

• Attempted to institute change by peaceful, constitutional means

• Provided working-class with sense of consciousness

Romanticism The Conservative Order (1815 – 1830)

The Peace SettlementQuadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia

• Defeated Napoleon

• Congress of Vienna (1814 – 1815) Created policies to maintain European balance of power

• Lead by Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister)

Believed European monarchs shared common interest of stability

• The principal of legitimacy Considered it necessary to restore legitimate monarchs to

preserve traditional institutions

• A new balance of power Strengthen countries to prevent one country from dominating

Conservative Ideology

Conservative political thought• Obedience to political authority

• Organized religion was crucial to social order

• Hated revolutionary upheavals Advocated slow, gradual changes

• Unwilling to accept liberal demands or representative government

Congress of Vienna sought to weaken France and maintain a balance power

Congress of Vienna managed to prevent an all out European conflict for almost a century

Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe

The Concert of EuropeFear of Revolution & war led to development of the Concert of Europe

Met several times: congresses

Quintuple Alliance • Withdraw armies from France, add France to the

Concert of Europe

Principle of intervention• Great powers reserved the right to send armies into

countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their throne

• Britain objected to the principle of intervention leading to a breakdown in the Concert of Europe

• Britain’s refusal kept Continental Europe from interfering in revolutions in Latin America

The Revolt of Latin AmericaBourbon monarchy of Spain toppled

Latin American countries begin declaring independence• Simón Bolivar (1783-1830)

Freed Columbia (1819) & Venezuela (1821)

• José de San Martín (1778-1850) Freed Chile (1817) After 1825, almost all of Latin America was free of

colonial domination Continental Europe looked to intervene, U.S. passed the

Monroe Doctrine pledging to support Latin American countries

British Navy was more of a deterrent than U.S. words

Britain began to dominate Latin American economy• British merchants & investors moved in

Intervention in the Italian States and SpainConservative reaction against the forces of nationalism and liberalism

• Austrian forces intervene in Italy• French forces intervene in Spain

Repression in Central EuropeMetternich and the forces of reactionLiberal and national movements in Germany

• Initially weak & remained controlled by landowning classBurschenshaften – students societies, dedicated to a free and united Germany (symbol of growing liberalism and nationalism)

Karlsbad Decrees (1819)• Metternich had this decree drawn up by the Germanic

Confederation in response to the Burschenschaften The Karlsbad Decrees (1819)

Disbanded the Burschenschaften Censored the press Supervised universities Restrictions on university activities

Russia

Start of 19th century, Russia was rural, agricultural, and autocratic

Alexander I (1801-1825)

• Raised on ideas of the Enlightenment & seemed sympathetic to reform

• Leader of Russia during Napoleonic Wars

• After the defeat of Napoleon, his rule turned stricter leading to opposition

• Used censorship to govern the people

Nicholas I (1825-1855)

• Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against Nicholas I taking the throne (Decembrist Revolt)

• Revolt was crushed by loyal troops

• Russia became a police state (secret police) Nicholas feared revolutions in Russia & in Europe

Political liberalism Ideology of political liberalism

Believed in individual freedom Protection of civil liberties Freedom before the law, assembly, speech, press Modeled after the Declaration of Independence & the

Rights of Man & Citizen The rights of a representative assembly (legislature)

to make laws Political liberalism was embraced by the industrial

middle class They wanted voting rights so they could share power

with the landowning class but they didn’t advocate extending those rights to the lower class

Nationalism• Part of a community with common institutions, traditions,

language, and customs

• The community is called a “nation” Formation of political loyalty

• Nationalist ideology Arose from the French Revolution and spread across Europe National unity in Germany or Italy threatened to upset the

balance of power established with the Congress of Vienna Independent Hungarian state would breakup the Austrian Empire Conservatives tried to repress nationalism (Concert of Europe)

• Allied with liberalism Liberals believed their goals could only be realized by people

who ruled themselves Nationalists believed that stronger states comprised of their own

people would eventually link communities and ultimately humanity

Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850

Another French RevolutionCharles X (1824-1830)

• Liberals were winning elections which angered the king• Issued the July Ordinances

Rigid censorship Dissolved the legislative assembly Reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections

• Immediate revolt by liberals

Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)• Group of moderate liberals appealed to Louis-

Philippe, the Duke of Orleans to become the constitutional king of France

• Charles X fled to Great Britain & a new monarchy was born

• The bourgeois monarch – support for his rule came from the upper middle class

• Constitutional changes favor the upper bourgeoisie Lower bourgeoisie & working class are disappointed that

they are excluded from political power

Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and Italy (Nationalism)

Primary driving force for these three 1830 revolution was nationalism.

Austrian Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) given to (Protestant) Dutch Republic by the Congress of Vienna

Nationalistic revolt by the Belgians (Protestants) established a constitutional monarchy

Revolt attempts in Poland and Italy• Austrians crushed Italian revolution

• Russians crushed Polish revolution

Reform in Great BritainThe Reform Act of 1832

New political power for industrial urban communities (Whigs take power over Tories)July Revolution in France set the stage for changeBenefited the upper middle class (wealthy industrial middle class)

• Reform Act of 1832 – Industrial communities gained a voice in voting

• Number of voters increased from 478,000 – 814,000• Artisans, industrial workers & lower middle classes still had no vote

New Reform LegislationPoor Law of 1834 – based on the theory that giving aid to the poor & unemployed would encourage laziness

• The poor were crowded into workhouses where the living & working conditions were intentionally miserable so people would be encouraged to find employment

Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)• Economic liberals advocated free trade & lower bread prices for

workers

The Revolutions of 1848Yet Another French Revolution

1846 – agricultural & industrial depression

1847 – 33% unemployment rate in Paris

Government was corrupt & failed to initiate reform• No suffrage for the middle class

Louis-Philippe abdicates, February 24, 1848 (fled to Britain)

Provisional government established• Elections to be by universal male suffrage

• National workshops – jobs for unemployed

• Growing split between moderate and liberal republicans Moderate Government – most of France Radical liberals – Parisian working class

Provisional government established workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc

• Unemployed workers got jobs raking leafs, ditch digging & other manual labor jobs

• Unemployed workers in the national workshops rose from 10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury & prompting moderates to halt the programs

• Became little more than unemployment compensation units through public works projects

• Workers refused to except the decision leading to four days of fighting in this working class revolt (government prevailed)

Second Republic established• New Constitution ratified• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected in December,

1848 (nephew of Napoleon)

Revolution in Central EuropeFrench revolts led to promises of reform

Frederick William IV (1840-1861)• Germanic state rulers made concessions to the

growing revolutionary sentiments Freedom of press, abolishing censorship, new

constitutions, & working towards a united Germany

• Frankfurt Assembly All German parliament elected by universal male suffrage Purpose was to prepare a constitution for a united

Germany Frederick William IV refused the offer of “emperor of the

Germans” Frankfurt Assembly disbanded without accomplishing

their goal of a united Germany

Austrian Empire Louis Kossuth, Hungary

Advocated the formation of a legislature

• Metternich flees the country after demonstrations begin & he is dismissed from office

• In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control calling for a constituent assembly

• Hungary’s wishes granted Own Legislature National army Control over its foreign policy & budget

Austria Cont’d• Emperor Ferdinand I & Austrian officials made

concessions to revolutionaries but waited for an opportunity to reassert conservative control

• Tried to capitalize on division between radical & moderate revolutionaries

• Military forces suppressed Czech rebels• Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew• Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)• Nicholas I of Russia sent in troops to defeat

Kossuth’s forces and suppress the revolution Austrian emperor & propertied classes remained in power

The Failures of 1848

Division within the revolutionariesRadicals and liberals

Liberties from propertied classes failed to extend male suffrage to the working classes

Liberals were concerned about their property & security & the fear of a social revolution by the working class

Divisions among nationalitiesHungarians demanded autonomy from Austrians but refused to offer the same autonomy to their minorities

The Emergence of an Ordered Society

Development of a regular system of policePurpose of police

• Preserve property & lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime, & arrest offenders & to create a disciplined law-abiding society

French Police forces in France and England

Crime and Social Reform

Prison Reform

Nationalism The France of Napoleon III: Louis Napoleon & the 2nd Napoleonic Empire

Louis Napoleon: Toward the Second EmpireUsed nationalistic & liberal forces to bolster his powerNational Assembly rejected his call for revision of constitution to allow him to stand for reelectionResponded by seizing government with the militaryRestored universal male suffrage

• People elected him president for 10 years so the empire could be restored

Voted him in by an overwhelming majority• Assumed the title of Napoleon III, December 2, 1852

The Second Napoleonic EmpireAuthoritarian government

Early domestic policies

• Economic prosperity Used government spending to stimulate the economy

• Reconstruction of Paris Built railroads, harbors, roads, & canals Built hospitals & housing for the people Baron Haussmann (civil engineer)

Modernized Paris Wider streets, sewage system, water supply, gaslights

Liberalization of the regime in the face of opposition

• Legalized trade unions & gave them the right to strike

• Strengthened power of the government

Foreign policy: Crimean WarThe Ottoman Empire

Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire• Encroachment of the Russian Empire• Loss of territory

The WarRussian demand to protect Christian shrines (Privilege already given to the French)Ottomans refuse; Russia invades Moldavia and WallachiaTurks declare war, October 4, 1853Britain and France declare war on Russia, March 28, 1854Austria remains neutral & does not give the military support Russia was counting onWar ends in March, 1856 (Treaty of Paris)

• High death count on both sides due to diseasePolitical effects of the war

• Destroys the Concert of Europe• Austria & Russia now enemies• Russia withdraws from European affairs, so does Britain• Sets the stage for German & Italian unification

National Unification: ItalyKingdom of Piedmont

Northern Italian state that had historically stood up to the Austrian EmpireVictor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) of Kingdom of Piedmont

• Names Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) as prime minister

Napoleon III’s alliance with Piedmont, 1858• Cavour agrees to give Napoleon Nice and Savoy in exchange

for military support in driving Austria out of Italy

War with Austria, 1859• France wins a couple of early battles and made peace• Prussia was mobilizing to support Austria

Northern states join Piedmont (nationalists rose up)Italian nationalists in the 1850’s looked to Piedmont for leadership to provide unification of Italy

National Unification: ItalyGuiseppi Garibaldi (1807-1882)

The Red Shirts (Volunteer Army)Invasion of Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 1860Moved up the Peninsula until an army from Piedmont moved southGaribaldi backs down to prevent a civil war

Kingdom of Italy, March 17, 1861Annexation of Venetia, 1866

Italy became an ally to Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866

Annexation of Rome, 1870French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871Rome became the capital of a unified Italy

National Unification: GermanyZollverein, German customs union which began to unite German states economically William I, 1861-1888

Wanted military reforms – planned to double the army’s size

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) (prime minister)`Reorganization and mobilization of the armyRealpolitik – political realist, ruling by opportunity, not ideologyBypassed parliament in pursuing political goals

The Danish War (1864)Bismarck always fought an isolated opponent

Schleswig and HolsteinAustria & Germany defeated Denmark & split control of the two territoriesJoint administration with Austria

Austro-Prussian War (1866)Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Russia remains neutral out of anger over Austria not helping them in the Crimean WarBismarck buys French neutrality by promising him land

Austrian defeat at Königgratz, July 3, 1866Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a faster rate of firePrussian troops moved faster due to network of railroadsSigned an easy peace with Austria to avoid creating a hostile enemy

North German Confederation – organized states, signed a military alliance with Southern states (mainly Catholic)Bismarck proved nationalism & authoritarian government could be combined successfullyKing & Chancellor (Bismarck) held the real power, but two houses of Parliament had elected officials from the German States

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)Two major powers in continental Europe were bound to clash (Prussia & France)Dispute with France over the throne of Spain

Throne was offered to distant relative of Prussian KingBismarck edited a telegram from the king to goad the French into war

French declaration of war, July 15, 1870Battle of Sedan, September 2, 1870

Entire French army & Napoleon III are capturedSiege of Paris, capitulates January 28, 1871

France paid 5 billion francs Gave up provinces of Alsace & Lorraine to Germany

Southern German states join Northern German ConfederationWilliam I proclaimed kaiser, January 8, 1871, of the Second German EmpireBritish Prime Minister felt German unification destroyed the previous balance of power

The Austrian Empire: Toward a Dual Monarchy

Ausgleich, Compromise, 1867 Creates a dual monarchy of Austria-HungaryEach monarchy had a separate constitution & legislatureGerman speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars dominate minoritiesFrancis Joseph Emperor of Austria/King of HungarySome things held in common

• Army• Finances• Foreign policy

Imperial RussiaAlexander II, 1855-1881

Emancipation of serfs, March 3, 1861• Peasants could own property, marry as they chose, & file suits

in court

Problems with emancipation• Government bought land from nobles & sold it to the peasants

with long term installment plans• Land was often the worst available• Peasants worked for gov. instead of nobles

Zemstvos (local assemblies)• Dominated by noble landowners• Created a local system of courts & judicial code of equality

before the law

Growing dissatisfaction• Conservatives & liberals were upset with reforms

Assassination of Alexander II (1881)• Populism – student & intellectual group looking to

create a new society through revolutionary acts

• Alexander is shot & killed by another radical group known as the People’s Will

Alexander III (1881-1894)• Return to traditional methods of repression

Great Britain: The Victorian AgeDid not experience revolts in 1848

ReformsEconomic growth

Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) reflected the ageSymbol of high morals and national pride – Victorian Age

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) Tory (Conservative) Party leaderExtension of voting rightsReform Act, 1867

• Lowered voting requirements (taxes paid or income earned)• More male urban workers could vote• Increased overall number of voters• Established tighter organization of Liberal & Conservative parties

William Gladstone (first administration, 1868 – 1874)

Leader of Liberal party (Whigs)

Responsible for liberal reform acts • Civil Service Exams

• Secret Ballot

Education Act of 1870• Attempted to provide free public education at the

elementary school level

Industrialization on the ContinentContinental industrialization comes of age (1850 – 1871)Mechanization of textile and cotton industriesGrowth of iron and coal industries

Fueled by the expansion of railroads• 1850 – 14,500 miles of track in Europe• 1870 – 70,000 miles of track in Europe

Elimination of trade barriers stimulated economic growthGovernment support and financing

Joint-stock investment banks were crucial to stimulation of industrial development

Marx and MarxismKarl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), The Communist Manifesto, 1848

History is the history of class struggleStages of historyEnd result of history is a classless society“The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!”

After 1848 Revolutions, Marx went to LondonMarx, Das Kapital (writing on political economy)

International Working Men’s Association, 1864First International - Organization for working-class interests (formed by British & French trade unions)

A New Age of ScienceDevelopment of the steam engine led to scientific relationship between heat and mechanical energyLouis Pasteur – germ theory of disease

1863 – Pasteurization, process of heating a product to destroy organisms causing spoilage

Dmitri Mendeleyev – atomic weights and formation of periodic law

Michael Faraday – discovered electromagnetic induction and created first generator

Science and MaterialismPeople turned to science for answers rather than religionTruth was to be found in the concrete existence of human beings, not religious and romantic idealsGrowing secularization of population

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Organic Evolution

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859

• All plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time

• Those who survived had adapted to the environment

The Descent of Man, 1871• Discussed the humans origin from animals

Ideas highly controversial; gradually accepted• Later applied to society with social darwinism

Mass Society

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity: New Products & New Markets

Mass SocietyIn the late 19th century, human progress was measured with material progress and consumption of material goods

Europeans began to value leisure activities and the weekend (free from work)Lower and middle class began to take trains to amusement parks and the beach

Mass PoliticsAfter 1871, the focus of European life became the national state

Growing sense of nationalism and popularity of sports Extension of universal male suffrage leads to nationalism to influence the masses

First Industrial RevolutionTextiles, railroads, iron, and coal

Second Industrial RevolutionSteel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum

Internal Combustion Engine (1878-Gas & Air)Automobile and airplane

• Henry Ford (1863-1947) – mass production (assembly line)• Zeppelin airship, 1900• Wright brothers, 1903 (1st passenger air service 1919)

New marketsFocused on consumer goods for domestic marketsPrices of food and manufactured goods decreasedIncreased wagesCompetition for foreign marketsTariff

• Reaction against free trade to guarantee domestic markets for their own industries

Cartels• Companies worked together to fix prices & set production

quotas

Larger factories• Assembly lines

New Patterns in an Industrial Economy

Economic Patterns, 1873 – 1914Depression, 1873 – 1895Economic boom, 1895 – 1914

German Industrial LeadershipGermany replaces Britain as the industrial leader of EuropeNew areas of manufacturing (chemicals, electrical equipment)Industrialized later, so they invested in modern equipmentEncouraged scientific & technical education

European Economic ZonesAdvanced industrial core of Great Britain, Belgium France, the Netherlands, Germany, western part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and northern ItalyLittle industrial development in southern Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan kingdoms, and RussiaSurplus grain and cheap transportation caused a sharp drop in agricultural prices.

The Spread of IndustrializationIndustrialization in Russia and JapanJapan’s government took the lead in promoting industry

Emergence of a World EconomyEurope was importing goods from around the worldForeign countries were used as markets for the surplus of manufactured goods

Women and Work: New Job OpportunitiesWomen sought the “Right to work”Ideal of Domesticity – working class organizations supported traditional roles for womenSweatshops – subcontracting work out to women at homeWhite-Collar Jobs

Increase in white-collar jobs created a shortage of male workers opening up opportunities for women (After 1870)Expansion of service sector jobs - secretaries, teachers & nursesFreedom from domestic patterns

ProstitutionMany lower class women became prostitutes in big cities as a way to surviveLondon – 1885 – an estimated 60,000 prostitutesContagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s & 1880s

• Called for inspection of prostitutes for venereal diseases• Acts were repealed over complaints that men were not being checked

Organizing the Working ClassTrade UnionsFirst half of the 19th Century

Trade Unions functioned as mutual aid societiesLate 19th Century

Formed labor unions and political parties based on ideas of Karl MarxTrade unions are increasingly aligned with socialist parties

Socialist PartiesGerman Social Democratic Party (SPD)

• Largest German political party by 1912

Growth of socialist parties – spread to other European countriesSecond International – united socialist organization

• Struggled due to internal differences• Two divisive issues: nationalism and revisionism

Evolutionary Socialism (Revisionism)• Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932)

Member of the German Social Democratic Party who spent years in exile in Britain

Argued that Marx had made fundamental mistakes and socialists needed to stress cooperation and evolution rather than class conflict and revolution

Stressed the need to work through democratic politics to create socialism, not revolution.

The Problem of NationalismVariation of socialist parties from country to countryFocused on issues in their own countries instead of a unified workers movement

The Role of Trade UnionsNational variations

• German unions were the strongest

Unions and political parties

The Anarchist AlternativeMore popular in less industrialized nations (Italy, Spain, Russia, & Portugal) where people saw no hope of peaceful political changeInitially believed that people were inherently good but got corrupted by the state and societySocialist parties and trade unions became less radical so some people turned to anarchism as a means for a social revolutionMichael Bakunin

• Russian anarchist who advocated violence to dissolve state institutions

Emergence of a Mass SocietyPopulation Growth

1850 270 million1910 460 millionPopulation growth 1850-1880 – caused by increasing birth rateAfter 1880 – caused by declining mortality rate

• Medical discoveries and environmental conditions Smallpox vaccination

• Improved publication sanitation Reduced deaths from diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera

• Improved nutrition Better nutrition & food hygiene Faster shipment of food Pasteurization of milk

EmigrationEconomic motives

• Oppressed minorities went to other countries (especially U.S)Political motives

• Lower class citizens seeking more freedom

Transformation of the Urban Environment

Urbanization of EuropeMigration from rural to urban 1800 – 21 European cities with a population of 100,000+1900 – 147 European cities with a population of 100,000+People moved to the cities for job opportunities

Improving Living ConditionsReformers: Edwin Chadwick and Rudolf VirchowPointed to relationship between living conditions and diseaseBuildings begin to be inspected for problemsPublic Health Act of 1875 in Britain

• Clean water into the city• Private baths (Hot water) became accessible to people in 1860s• Shower appears in 1880s• Sewage System

Housing NeedsReformer-philanthropists focused on relationship of living conditions to political and moral health of the nation – built homes for the poorGovernment support – increase in regulationsDemolition of old, unneeded urban defensive walls and new, wider streetsOctavia Hill rehabilitated old homes and built new ones designed to give the poor an environment they could use to improve themselves

Redesigning the CitiesMajor European cities were redesigned after the example of Paris in the 1850sConstruction of streetcars & commuter trains created suburbs

The Social Structure of the SocietyThe Upper Classes

5% of the population that controlled 30 to 40% of wealthPlutocrats – aristocrats who made their money on investments in railroads, public utilities, government bonds, & businessesAlliance of wealthy business elite and traditional aristocracyCommon bonds – wealthy middle class kids admitted to elite schools

The Middle ClassesUpper middle class, middle middle-class, lower middle-classProfessionals (law, medicine, civil service)

• New professionals – engineers, architects, accountants, chemists

White-collar workers (product of the 2nd Industrial Revolution)• Sales reps, bookkeepers, bank tellers, telephone operators,

secretaries, department store clerksMiddle-class values came to dominate

• Concerned with traditional Christian values and work ethic

The Lower classes

80 percent of the European population

Agriculture

• Many were landholding peasants – sharecroppers, laborers

Urban working class: Skilled, semiskilled, unskilled workers 

• Skilled artisans – cabinet makers, printers, jewelry makers

• semiskilled artisans – carpenters, bricklayers, factory workers

• Unskilled laborers – day laborers, domestic services

The “Woman Question”: The Role of WomenTraditional Values

Marriage the only honorable and available careerDecline in the birth rate in part to some birth control1840s-invention of vulcanized rubber made birth control an optionElizabeth Poole Sanford encouraged women to avoid being self-sufficient. Thought women should embrace domesticity and dependence on their husbands.

Middle-Class and Working-Class FamiliesGlorified DomesticityDomestic ideal for the family emphasized togetherness with time for leisureStressed functional knowledge for their children to prepare them for future roles.Daughters of working class families worked until married1890 – 1914: higher paying jobs made it possible to live on husband’s wages

• Limit size of the family• Reduced work week

Education in the Mass SocietyExpansion of Secondary EducationUniversal Elementary Education

States began to offer public educationBy 1900, most were free and compulsory at the primary levelStates assumed the responsibility for teacher training

Liberal Beliefs About EducationPersonal and social developmentNeeds of industrializationDifferences in education of boys and girls

• Girls - less math & science, more domestic skills• Boys – humanities plus carpentry & military drill

Political motives• Need for an educated electorate• Instilled patriotism and nationalized the masses

Female TeachersIncreased Literacy from mass educationGrowth of Newspapers

Western Europe: The Growth of Political Democracy

Reform in Britain: William GladstoneReform Act of 1867: Suffrage extendedEnglish Reform Bill of 1884

• Gave English agricultural workers the right to vote Redistribution Act of 1885: Reorganized the election boroughsSalaries paid to members of the House of Commons, 1911

• More people could run for office

Charles Parnell (1846-1891)• Leader of the Irish representatives in Parliament• Called for Home Rule for Ireland• This would have established a separate Parliament for Ireland• English conservatives voted against home rule

Resulted in terrorist attacks by the Irish

Reform in FranceLouis Napoleon’s 2nd Empire ended with his defeat in the Franco-Prussian WarUniversal male suffrage in 1871 enforced by Bismarck

• People elected a new National Assembly

Radical republicans formed an independent government in Paris known as the Commune

• Fighting broke out between the Commune and the National Assembly• National Assembly massacred thousands of members of the Paris

Commune• Brutal suppression of the Paris Commune created a split between the

working class and the middle class

Establishment of the Third Republic, 1875Monarchists, Catholic clergy and army officers opposed the Third RepublicGeneral Georges Boulanger - leader of a proposed coup d’etat

• Lost the courage to carry it out and fled the country• Boulanger crisis rallied French citizens to the republic

ItalyHad pretensions of great power statusSectional differences in ItalyItalians were loyal to their family, towns and regions, but not their countryChronic turmoil beyond the government’s controlNo universal male suffrageItaly & Spain

• Both remained second rate European powers

Central & Eastern Europe: Persistence of the Old Order

GermanyTrappings of parliamentary government1871 constitutionEmperor commands the military in Prussian traditionBismarck’s conservatism

• Used coalitions to get what he wanted & then he dropped them• Kulturkampf - “struggle for civilization” an attack on Catholic

Church• Tried to weaken Social Democratic Party by passing

antisocialist law• Tried to woo workers from socialism by passing social welfare

programs

Austria-HungaryAustrian constitution of 1867 (in reality it was still an autocracy)

Problem of minorities worsened with universal male suffrage, 1907

RussiaAlexander III, 1881-1894: Overturns reform and returns to repressive measures (autocracy) after assassination of Alexander II

Nicholas II, 1894-1917: Believed in absolute rule

Age of Modernity

Toward the Modern Consciousness: Developments in the Sciences

European Intellectual CommunityPrior to WWI – prominent thinkers had a sense of confusion and anxiety about an impending catastropheBrought on by the growth of nationalism and technology

The Certainty of ScienceBased on ideas from the Scientific Revolution & EnlightenmentLate 19th century - scientists questioned established scientific theories

Marie Curie (1867-1934) and Pierre Curie (1859-1906)Marie won Nobel Prizes in physics & chemistryDiscovered radiation (Marie ironically died from leukemia)Atoms – small worlds with protons & electrons Their experiments spawned a new theme in physics that studied the disintegrative processes within atoms

Max Planck (1858-1947)Energy radiated discontinuously (irregular packets of quanta)Formation of quantum theoryRaised questions about the subatomic realm of the atom & the building blocks of the material worldNew physicists began to challenge and ultimately invalidate some of the work of Newton

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)Theory of relativity – space & time are not absoluteFour dimensional space-time continuumEnergy of the atom

Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)Glorifies the irrational

• Claimed humans at the whim of irrational life forces

“God is dead”• Critique of Christianity• Felt Christianity weakened Western creativity

Concept of the superman• Superior intellectuals must rise up and lead the masses

Rejected democracy, social reform, & universal suffrage

Henri Bergson (1859 – 1941)French philosopher who accepted rational thought but thought it was incapable of arriving at truth.

Georges Sorel (1847 – 1922)Advocated revolutionary socialism through violence

Sigmund Freud & PsychoanalysisSigmund Freud (1856-1939)The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900

Foundation of psychoanalysis

The UnconsciousHuman behavior was influenced by the unconscious and by inner desires

Id, Ego, and SuperegoId – center of unconscious (pleasure principle)Ego – reason, coordinator of life (reality principle)Superego – moral values of societyThe superego served to force the ego to curb the unsatisfactory drives of the id.

Dreams were the repression of unconscious desiresOedipus Complex for men (Electra for women)

Desire for the parent of the opposite sex

Social Darwinism and RacismHerbert Spencer (1820-1903)

British philosopher who applied Darwin’s ideas to societySocieties are organisms that evolve through time by struggling with their environment.Progress came from the “struggle for survival”

Nationalism and RacismFriedrich von Bernhardi (German general)

• Thought war was necessary for culture• Evolutionary role “survival of the fittest”

Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927)• The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1890• Claimed Aryans were the creators of Western culture• Modern day Germans were the pure successors of “Aryans”• Aryan must be prepared to fight for Western Civilization

The Attack on ChristianityChallenges to Established Churches

Scientific inquiryModernization – migration to the city weakened the base of the church set in village culturesNew political movements – governments reestablished ties with the churches after 1848 RevolutionsAnticlericalism – backlash against union of church & state after 1848 revolutionsBiblical higher criticism

• Ernst Renan wrote Life of Jesus• Questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible• Denied the divinity of Jesus

Response of the ChurchesRejection: Pope Pius IX, Syllabus of Errors

• Rigid stand against nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, & freedom of speech & press

Adaptation: modernism • New view on the Bible as a book of moral ideas

• Encouraged Christians to get involved in social reform

• Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907

Compromise: Pope Leo XIII • Permitted the teaching of evolution as a theory

• De Rerum Novarum (1891) Asserted that socialism was Christian principle upheld right to private property condemned evils of capitalism urged followers to join unions & social reform groups (attempt

to reconnect with the working class)

Modernism in the ArtsImpressionism

Use of light and colorLeft the studio & went out to paint what they sawCamille Pissarro (1830-1903)

• Beginning of impressionist art• Urged artists to paint nature, people and their surroundings• Capture light, running water, emotion

Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)• Female artist who used lighter colors and flowing brush strokes

Post-ImpressionismKept the Light and color of impression and combined it with structure and formShifted from objective reality to subjective realityViewed as the beginning of modern artPaul Cezanne (1839-1906) – Woman with Coffee PotVincent van Gogh (1853-1890) Starry Night

The Search for Individual ExpressionPhotographyCubism: Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

• Use of geometric designs to re-create realityAbstract Expressionism: Vasily Kandinsky (1866-1944) Abstract painting

Modernism in MusicIncluded: Attraction to the exotic, nationalist themes, folk music and the lure of the primitiveEdvard Grieg (1843 – 1907)

• Scandinavian composer who used folk music to present nationalist themes

Claude Debussy (1862 – 1918)• Impressionist musician who used music to evoke the emotion of

poetryIgor Stravinsky (1882-1971) Rites of Spring

• Classic example of modernism in music• Use of pulsating rhythm, sharp dissonances, and sensual dancing

caused a riot at its debut in ParisSergei Diaghilev (1872-1929)

• Russian ballet director who worked with Stravinsky

Jews in the European Nation-StateBy the end of the 19th century, Jews were emancipated in most countries with some restrictions

Allowed them to get involved in politics and move out of the ghetto

Anti-SemitismRevival of hatred towards JewsPortrayed as the murders of JesusStrongest anti-Semitism was in Eastern Europe (Germany, Austria, & Russia)

Persecution in Eastern EuropePogroms (massacres) in Russia

EmigrationJews moved to U.S., Canada & Palestine

The Zionist MovementZionism

• Planned migration to Palestine to form a Jewish stateTheodor Herzl (1860-1904) leader of the Zionist MovementThe Jewish State, 1896

• Advocated Jews returning to Israel (Palestine) to form a Jewish state• Gained support from Jewish bankers• Slowly, Jews began to emigrate to Palestine

The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain & Italy

BritainWorking Class Demands

• Caused Liberals to move away from ideals (like laissez-faire)Trade Unions

• Advocate “collective ownership” and other controls• Unions grow in power• Strike to demand a minimum wage

Fabian Socialists• Stressed for workers to use their right to vote to capture the

House of Commons and pass legislation to help the laboring class

• They were not Marxists• They wanted social revolution through democratic means

Britain’s Labour Party• Fabian Socialists & trade unions joined forces to form the

Labour Party

David Lloyd George (1863-1945)• Abandons laissez-faire• Backs social reform measures• In order to implement the Liberal Party’s social reforms, he

curtails the power of the House of Lords• National Insurance Act, 1911

Sick pay, unemployment• Beginnings of the welfare state

Later legislation provided a small pension plan & worker’s compensation

Tax increases implemented on the wealthy class

ItalyGiovanni Giolitti (1903 – 1914)

• Prime Minister of Italy

Transformismo (policy of Giolitti) • Transformism – political groups were transformed into new

government coalitions by political & economic bribery• Giolitti’s policy eventually make Italian politics corrupt &

unmanageable

France: Travails of the Third RepublicDreyfus Affair (1895 – 1906)

Evidence of renewed anti-Semitism in EuropeDreyfus was a Jewish captain in the French militaryAccused and found guilty of being a spy, sentenced to life on Devil’s IslandMore evidence revealed that the spy was a Catholic officerMilitary refused to try the Catholic officerDreyfus was eventually pardoned

Rise of Radical RepublicansDetermined to make France more democraticTargeted the army and the Catholic Church

Purge of anti-republican individuals and institutions

1905- separation of church and state

Growing Tensions in GermanyWilliam II (1888-1918)

Ran Germany as a authoritarian, conservative, military state

Military and industrial powerBy 1914, Germany was the strongest military and industrial power in Europe

Pan-German League (radical right-wing politics)Advocated:

Strong German NationalismImperialism to united different social classes at homeAnti-liberal policiesAnti-Semitic policies

Austria-Hungary: The Problem of the Nationalities

Parliamentary agitation for autonomy of nationalities

Granting universal male suffrage only increased the problem of governing multiple ethnic groups

Growth of German nationalism from a German minority group caused problems in Austria

Magyar (Hungarian land owning class) agitation for complete separation of Hungary from Austria

New Hungarian parliamentary leader kept Magyars from rising up and worked to keep the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary) intact

Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia

In 1890s, government sponsored massive industrializationBy 1900 the fourth largest producer of steel

Development of working classDevelopment of socialist parties

Marxist Social Democratic Party, Minsk, 1898The Revolution of 1905

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905• Russia’s defeat led indirectly to the Revolution of 1905

“Bloody Sunday” January 9, 1905• Transport system wasn’t working due to the war, which led to

food shortages• Workers went to the Winter Palace to present a list of

grievances to the Tsar• Royal troops fired on the peaceful protest killing hundreds• Workers called for strikes and organized unions

General strike, October 1905Under pressure, Nicholas II granted civil liberties and a legislative body, the DumaCurtailment of power of the Duma, 1907 

The Rise of the United StatesShift to an industrial nation, 1860-1914

World’s richest nation and greatest industrial power

9 percent own 71 percent of wealthAmerican Federation of Labor

Included only 8.4 percent of industrial laborLacked real power due to low membership

Progressive EraReformMeat Inspection Act, Pure Food and Drug Act

Woodrow Wilson, 1913-1921Income tax and Federal Reserve System

The Growth of CanadaDominion of Canada

Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick – 1870Manitoba, British Columbia – 1871Lack of real unity due to French Quebec

William Laurier, 1896, first French Canadian prime minister

Made peace between French Canadians and the rest of CanadaHelped industrialize CanadaLed to hundreds of thousands of immigrants

The New ImperialismCauses of the New Imperialism

• Competition among European nations for prestige

• Social Darwinism and racism

• Religious humanitarianism, “White man’s burden”

• Economic motives and military bases

The Scramble for AfricaSouth Africa

• Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) Diamond and gold companies Takes the Transvaal (Dutch Region) Attempts to overthrow the neighboring Boer Government

• Boer War, 1899-1902 British defeat Boers (Dutch) and offer them a lenient peace

• Union of South Africa, 1910

The Scramble for Africa (cont)Portuguese and French Possessions

MozambiqueAngolaAlgeria, 1830West Africa and Tunis

The British in EgyptBelgium and Central Africa

Leopold II, 1865-1909International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa, 1876Exploration of the CongoFrench reaction is to move into territory north of the Congo River

German PossessionsBismarck was against colonialism, he knew it helped win electionsSouth West Africa; Cameroons; Togoland; East Africa

Impact on AfricaBy 1914, almost all of Africa was carved up between European powers

Imperialism in AsiaThe British in Asia

James Cook to Australia, 1768-1771British East India CompanyEmpress of India bestowed on Queen Victoria, 1876

Russian ExpansionSiberiaReach Pacific coast, 1637Korea and Manchuria

ChinaBritish acquisition of Hong Kong European rivalry and the establishment of spheres of influence

Japan and KoreaMatthew Perry opens Japan, 1853-1854

Southeast AsiaBritish and French control

American ImperialismUS and the Spanish-American WarControlled Pacific Islands for military bases to trade with Asia

Responses to ImperialismAfrica

New class of educated African leadersResentment of foreignersIntellectual hatred of colonial rule

• Political parties and movementsChina

Boxer Rebellion, 1900-1901, Society of Harmonious FistsChinese nationalists who tried to kick foreigners out by force

• Brutally put down by armies from around the worldFall of the Manchu dynasty, 1912, founding of the Republic of ChinaSun Yat-sen (1866-1925)

• Overthrew the Manchu dynasty – China remained weakJapan

Mutsuhito (1867 – 1912) – young emperor who westernized JapanMeiji Restoration

• Created democratic political & financial institutions but remained authoritarian in practice

• Imitation of the West – sent Japanese abroad to get a western educationIndia

Costs and benefits of British ruleBrought order & introduced technology but subjugated the peopleIndian National Congress (1883) Moderate, educated Indians began to seek self government

International Rivalry and the Coming of War

The Bismarckian SystemTried to preserve European peaceWanted to isolate France (still mad over Franco-Prussian War)The Balkans: Decline of Ottoman Power

• Russia and Austria-Hungary both want territory

Congress of Berlin (1878) • Limited the size of the new Bulgarian state and humiliated

Russia in front of the European powers

New Alliances• Triple Alliance, 1882 – Germany, Austria, Italy• Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany, 1887

Bismarck didn’t want France and Russia to become allies Warned of a possible two front war

• Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890 by William II

New Directions and New CrisesEmperor William II and a “place in the sun”

• Aggressive policy of expansion

• Ended the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia

Military alliance of France and Russia, 1894

Triple Entente, 1907 – Britain, France, Russia

Triple Alliance, 1907 – Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy

Crisis in the Balkans, 1908-1913Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908Serbian protest, Russian support of SerbiaPrimary antagonists in the Balkans region were Serbs and AustriansFirst Balkan War, 1912

Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, & Greece) defeats the Ottomans

Second Balkan War, 1913Couldn’t agree on division of Ottoman provinces of Macedonia & AlbaniaGreece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire attacked and defeated BulgariaSerbia’s ambitionsLondon Conference

Twentieth-Century Crisis

The Road to World War IBefore the outbreak of WWI, European were optimistic about material progress

Felt European society was moving towards an earthly utopia

WWI kills millions of Europeans and brings an end to the period known as the age of progress

Nationalism and Internal DissentNationalism

• Liberals claimed that creation of national states would bring peace

• Instead it was the most responsible for triggering WWI• Led to competition instead of cooperation• Brinkmanship

Defended national honor Believed they had to support allies to preserve their own

internal security

Internal dissent• Ethnic tensions

Irish in British EmpireSlavic minorities in the Balkans &

Austrian EmpirePoles in the Russian empire

• Growing power of Socialist labor movements Increase is strikes alarmed conservative

leaders

Militarism

Conscription• Armies doubled in size between 1890 -

1914

Influence of military leaders• Developed complex military plans that

took precedence over political plans

The Outbreak of War: The Summer of 1914

The effects of the Balkan Wars prior to 1914• Tension between Russia & Austria for control of Balkan states

• Nationalism pushed minority groups to seek independence

Immediate cause of WWI was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophia, June 28, 1914

Germany gives “full support” to Austria

• Blank Check

• Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914

Russian mobilization

• Germans responded with an ultimatum

• Russians ignored it and Germany declared war on Russia

Schlieffen Plan • Minimal troops against Russia

• Quick strike against France by moving through Belgium

• Germany declared war on France to carry out their plan

• Britain declares war on Germany for invading Belgium neutrality

The War 1914-1915: Illusions & StalemateEuropean attitudes toward the beginning of war

Belief in a short, romantic war, that would provide a release from the dull and boring existence of mass societyStarted in Aug. 1914 – troops thought they would be home for Christmas

Failure of the Schlieffen PlanRight flank was weakened to prevent Russian invasion in Eastern GermanyBritish mobilized faster than expectedMost important consequence - Western front bogs down into trench warfare

First Battle of the Marne, September 6-10, 1914Germans stopped.

War in the EastFighting was characterized by more mobility than the trench warfare on the Western Front, but still resulted in high numbers of casualties.

Russian FailuresBattle of Tannenberg, August 30, 1914Battle of Masurian Lakes, September 15, 1914

Austrian FailuresGalicia and SerbiaGermans come to Austria’s aidDefeat SerbiaInflict heavy casualties on Russia (2.5 million dead)Italy doesn’t honor prewar alliance – joins allies in 1915

The War 1916-1917: The Great SlaughterTrench warfare

“No-man’s land” – area between trenches

Political pressure for military results prompted Generals to throw massive amounts of men at defensive positions

Daily life for the soldiers was characterized by long periods of boredom followed by artillery barrage and frontal assaults by troops

Trench warfare became a senseless slaughter of troops incompetent officers continually ordered their troops to accomplish impossible battlefield objectives

“Softening up” the enemy (usual tactic)• Artillery barrage before soldiers attack

intended to destroy enemy barbed wire, make them hide in bunkers, psychologically shock them and make them vulnerable to attack

Battle of Verdun, 1916, Germans lost 700,000 men in 10 monthsBattle of the Somme, 1916, British lost 60,000 men in one day.

• Heaviest one-day loss in World War I

As the soldiers settled into trench warfare• They became miserable in rat-infested trenches• Dealt with trench foot• Lost the romantic feel to the war • Lost morale as they waited to die

The Widening of the WarAugust 1914: Ottoman Empire enters the war

Battle of Gallipoli, April 1915

May 1915: Italy enters the war against Austria-HungarySeptember 1915: Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the Central PowersMiddle East

Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935)

April 1917: Entry of the United StatesThe United States tried to remain neutralSinking of the Lusitania, May 7, 1915Return to unrestricted submarine warfare January 1917Germany gambles – starve Britain before the U.S. enters the warUnited States enters the war, April 6, 1917

• Zimmerman Telegram and unrestricted submarine warfare

U.S. provides fresh troops and morale for the surge of 1918

A New Kind of Warfare

Air Power1915: first use of airplanes on the battle-front

• First for recon, then for combat

German use of zeppelins

Tanks1916: first use of tanks on the battlefield by British

• Early tanks ineffective

1918: British Mark V first effective tank• Tanks play a larger role in WWII

The Home Front: The Impact of Total WarIncreased Government Centralization and expansion of Government power

Conscription draft, or mandatory military serviceDeath rates from the war hit all social classes Highest death rates

• Junior officers from aristocracy who led charges across “no man’s land”

• Unskilled laborers and peasants who were infantry troops

Effects on EconomiesEuropean governments gradually took full control of all aspects of their economiesInflation from higher wages and scarcity of consumer goodsLarge industrialists benefited from the war due to wartime contracts for weapons and munitions

Public Order and Public OpinionDealing with unrest

• Use of military to break up strikes• Police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters• Loss of freedom of speech• Liberals and Socialists opposed the war because of wide scale human

slaughter, nationalism and militarism

Defense of the Realm Act • British arrested dissenters and traitors

Propaganda to boost morale for the war effort• Work or fight campaigns• Music as propaganda• Germans “The Watch on the Rhine”• Americans “Over There”• British “The Old Barbed Wire”

Social Impact of Total WarLabor benefits – allowed unions, gained higher wagesNew roles for women

• Male concern over wages• Women began to demand equal pay• Gains for women• After the war, women demand the right to vote

The Russian RevolutionWar and Discontent

Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler• Led the military• Wife kept him isolated from the reality of domestic

disturbances

Russia not prepared for war• Incompetent political leadership of Nicholas II• Lack of guns and ammunition• Over 2 million killed, 4-6 million wounded or captured

Influence of Rasputin (the mad monk)• Holy man who influenced Tsar Nicolas’s wife and eventually

the Tsar’s decisions• Series of military and economic disasters caused Russians to

lose faith in the Tsar• Conservative aristocracy assassinated Rasputin

The March Revolution

Problems in Petrograd• Bread rationing

March of the women, March 8, 1917• Women marched through the streets “Peace and

Bread!”

Calls for a general strike

Soldiers join the marchers

Provisional Government takes control• Tried to carry on the war• Soviets sprang up – councils of workers and

soldiers

Bolsheviks under the leadership of Vladimir Ulianov, 1870-1924• Sent back to Russia in a sealed train by the

Germans• April Theses – Lenin’s version of a Russian

socialist movement that skipped the bourgeois revolution

• Promised “Peace, land and bread” to the people

Russian Revolution (cont)The Bolshevik Revolution

Bolsheviks control Petrograd and Moscow sovietsCollapse of Provisional Government, November 6-7, 1917Lenin ratifies redistribution of land and worker control of factories to gain the support of the massesTreaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918

• Russian and German treaty

Civil WarBolshevik (Red) army and Anti-Bolshevik (White) armyMurder of the Tsar and his family (July 16, 1918)Disunity among the white armyCommunists and “War communism”

• Military prevails due to ruthless discipline and the leadership of Leon Trotsky.

• War Communism ensures regular supplies for the Red ArmyInvasion of allied troops (support White army)1921: Communists victory

The Last Year of the WarLast German offensive, March 21-July 18, 1918Allied counterattack, Second Battle of the Marne, July 18, 1918

German attack is repelledEnds Germany’s final attempt to win the war

General Ludendorff informs German leaders that the war is lostWilliam II abdicates, November 9, 1918Republic establishedArmistice, November 11, 1918The Casualties of the War

8 to 9 million soldiers killed, 22 million wounded1915 – Armenians rebelled against Ottoman Empire

• Ottoman Empire retaliated with what is known as the Armenian holocaust, killing an estimated 1 million Armenians

Revolutionary Upheavals in Germany and Austria-HungaryGerman November revolution of 1918

Series of mutinies & demonstrationsGerman socialists come to powerDivision of German Socialists

• Majority favored parliamentary democracy in route to an elimination of capitalism

• Radicals favored an immediate social revolutionFormation of two governmentsFailure of radicals to achieve controlCommunists attempt to seize power and are brutally repressed

• Left a fear of communism that Hitler would build upon

Revolution in AustriaEthnic upheavalFormation of independent republics based largely on ethnicity

• Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, & Yugoslavia

The Peace SettlementPalace of Versailles, January 1919, 27 Allied nationsWoodrow Wilson

Most important goal in the Paris Peace Conference was to assure acceptance of his Fourteen Points

Lloyd George (GB) was determined to make Germany pay

Georges Clemenceau of France concerned with his nation’s security

Wanted to punish Germany and make sure they could never wage war against France again

January 25, 1919, the principle of the League of Nations adopted but United States Senators do will not allow the US to be included

The Treaty of VersaillesFive separate treaties (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire)The most important was the Treaty of Versailles, June 18, 1919

Article 231, War Guilt ClauseForced Germany to pay reparations to GB & France100,000 man armyEliminate Germany’s air forceRestrict the size of Germany’s navyLoss of Alsace and LorraineSections of Prussia to the new Polish stateGermans were outraged at the “dictated peace” but they had to either accept it or go back to war where they faced defeat

The Other Peace TreatiesGerman and Russian Empires lost territory in eastern EuropeWWI resulted in new nation-states in Eastern Europe: Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and HungaryRomania acquired additional lands from Russia, Hungary, and BulgariaCompromises will lead to future problemsMinorities in every eastern European statesOttoman Empire dismembered

Promises of independence of Arab states in the Middle EastMandates (League of Nation term - imperialism)

• France – Lebanon and Syria• Britain – Iraq and Palestine

United States Senate rejects the Versailles Peace Treaty

Europe Between the Wars

An Uncertain Peace: Search for Security

Weaknesses of the League of NationsU.S. did not joinOnly weapon against aggression was economic sanctions

U.S. & G.B didn’t form defensive alliances with FranceThe French Policy of Coercion (1919 – 1924)

Desire for strict enforcement the Treaty of VersaillesFrance forms alliance with Little Entente (Czech, Yugoslavia, Romania)Allied Reparations Commission, April 1921 $33 billionPaid in annual installments of 2.5 billion gold marksGermany unable to pay in 1922French occupation of the Ruhr Valley

• Chief industrial & mining center• German government begins printing money to pay debt

German mark fall to 4.2 trillion to $1, end of November 1923

The Hopeful Years (1924 – 1929)Dawes Plan, 1924

• Reduced reparations on Germany’s ability to pay• $200 million loan for German recovery (from U.S.)• Led to more investment from U.S.

Treaty of Locarno, 1925• Guaranteed Germany’s new western borders with France &

Belgium• Spirit of Locarno – viewed as the start of a new era in

European peace• Germany is admitted into the League of Nations• 1924-1929 – growing spirit of optimism for a peaceful future

Coexistence with Soviet Union• Western countries established diplomatic relations with the

new communist government

German Government under Stresemann ends passive resistance and looks to carry out provisions of the TOV

The Great DepressionProblems in domestic economies

Loan debt, strength of unions, & trade tariffs

International financial crisisCrash of the American stock market, October 1929

• American investors pulled $ out of European markets to cope with losses in American Stock market

Downturn in domestic economies• Overproduction causes a drop in agricultural prices

(wheat)• Cheaper energy sources (oil & electricity) lead to a

slump in coal industry

Unemployment Germany 40%, Britain & U.S. 25%Banks failed, industrialists scaled back production

Social RepercussionsWomen obtained menial jobs as servants & housekeepers

Men remained unemployed & grew resentful (opens the door for dynamic leaders to influence them)

Powerlessness of Governments

Governments became more involved in economy (end of laissez-faire)

Growing trend of communism

Overall effect of the Great Depression in Europe was a rise in authoritarian movements

The Democratic StatesGreat Britain

Labour Party failed to solve problemsCoalition (Liberals & Conservatives) claimed credit for prosperity

• Got them out of the worst stages of the depressionJohn Maynard Keynes (1883-1946)

• Keynes says the government should create jobs (public works)

• Deficit spending would create jobs and thereby increase demand for goods

France

Conservative National Bloc government led by Raymond Poincare

• Took a hard stance against Germany (reparations & Ruhr occupation)

Could not solve financial problems (Poincare stabilized the economy from 1926-1929)

Great Depression brought political chaos

Popular Front (coalition of Socialists & Radicals) was formed in 1936 out of fear of extremists

• French “New Deal” – Established 40 hour work week, collective bargaining, two week vacations, & minimum wage

• Policies helped a little but failed to solve the problems of the Depression

The United StatesHerbert Hoover, (1929-1933)

Franklin D. Roosevelt, (1933-1945)• New Deal

Provided social reforms that helped avert a possible social revolution

• Public works projects Brought partial economic recovery

• World War II ends the depression Full employment to do wartime industries

European States and the World: Colonial Empires

Despite WWI, Europeans kept their colonial empires

France & G.B. even added to theirs by dividing Germany’s colonial possession

Political and social foundations and the self-confidence of European imperialism was undermined during the 1920s and 1930s.

Rising tide of unrest in Asia and Africa against imperialism

Increasing worker activism, rural protest, rising national fervor

The Middle EastDivision of Ottoman Empire

• New regimes in Turkey & Iran• European influence remained strong in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan

& PalestineTurkey

• Colonel Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk – “Father Turk”) (1923)• Made a conscious effort to adopt a Westernized secular culture

after WWI

IndiaMohandas Gandhi (1869 – 1948)Used civil disobedience against British imperialism to win self rule for India

AfricaProtest movements Demands for independence from colonial rule came from Africans who were educated in Europe and the United States

Retreat from Democracy: The Authoritarian and Totalitarian States

TotalitarianismBy 1939 only France and Great Britain are only major democratic states in EuropeTotalitarianism regimes in Germany, Italy, & the Soviet Union Hoped to control every aspect of their citizens’ livesThe modern totalitarian state

• Active commitment of citizens• Mass propaganda techniques• High speed communication – radio, film• Led by single leader and single party

Fascist ItalyImpact of World War I

Italians angry over failure to receive territory after World War I • Received Trieste, wanted Fiume & Dalmatia (went to Yugoslavia)• Fascist movement aided by nationalistic resentment toward Italy’s

treatment following WWI

Birth of FascismBenito Mussolini (1883-1945)Growth of the socialist party – largest party spoke of a revolutionSquadristi, armed bands of Fascists who used violence to intimidate enemies

• attacked socialist offices & newspapers

Fascist movement gains support from industrialists (squadristi were breaking up strikes, protecting capitalism)March on Rome, 1922

• King Victor Emmanuel made Mussolini Prime Minister• The next day, Mussolini’s blackshirts marched on Rome to give the

illusion of a military take over• Italy becomes the first fascist state in Europe

Mussolini and the Italian Fascist StateFascist GovernmentAll parties outlawed, 1926 – Fascist dictatorship establishedGovernment censorship enforced by OVRA – secret policeMussolini’s view of a Fascist state

Unity, values, state above all else“Mussolini is always right!” – propaganda slogan

Young FascistsProgram to indoctrinate young people to fascist ideals

Family is the pillar of the stateReinforced stereotypes about womenWomen should stay home and make babies

Mussolini’s Fascist Italy never achieves the degree of totalitarianism like Germany or Soviet UnionLateran Accords, February 1929

Established Vatican CityProvided FundingEstablished Catholicism as the state religion

Hitler and Nazi GermanyWeimar Germany

No outstanding leadersPaul von Hindenberg elected president, 1925Great Depression

The Emergence of Adolf HitlerAdolf Hitler (1889-1945)Vienna

• Influenced by politics & ideology (anti-semitism & German nationalism)

Moved to Munich & fought for Germany in WWI

The Rise of the NazisGerman Workers’ Party

• Took control of party• Renamed it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP),

1921 (Nazis)

Sturmabteilung (SA), Storm Troops

Nazi party largest in the Reichstag after 1932 election• Successful in making the Nazi party appeal to all segments of

German society

Support from right-wing elitesBecomes chancellor, January 30, 1933Reichstag fire, February 27, 1933Successes in 1933 electionEnabling Act, March 23, 1933

• Amendment to the Weimar Constitution• Provided legal basis for Hitler’s acts

Gleichschaltung, coordination of all institutions under Nazi controlNight of the Long Knives

• Hitler has Ernst Rohm and other SA leaders killed

President Paul von Hindenburg dies, August 2, 1934

The Nazi State (1933-1939)Parliamentary republic dismantled Mass demonstrations and spectacles to create collective fellowship

Nuremberg was the largest annual demonstration

Constant rivalry in politics gives Hitler powerEconomics and the drop in unemployment

Controlled the working class through mandatory membership in Nazi-sponsored German Labor FrontHelped the economy by government spending rearming Germany

Heinrich Himmler and the SSControlled the secret police and later the death campsCarried out the racial and terrorist policies of the NazisUsed the SS for terror & ideology

Churches, schools, and universities brought under Nazi control

Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth) and Bund deutscher Mädel (League of German Maidens)

Influence of Nazi ideas on working womenExpected to be housewives and child bearers

Aryan Racial StateNuremberg laws, September 1935

• Separated Jews from Germans politically, socially & legally

Kristallnacht, November 9-10, 1938• Organized riots against Jewish businesses and synagogues

Restrictions on Jews

The Soviet UnionNew Economic Policy

Modified form of the capitalist system (NEP)Peasants and small show keepers could sell productsSaved economy from collapse

Union of Socialist Republics established, 1922Revived economy

Lenin suffers strokes, (1922-1924)Division

Leon Trotsky • Military leader • Goes into hiding after Stalin takes over

Joseph Stalin• General Party Secretary – appointed regional Communist

positions, which aided his emergence as the leader of the Communist party

The Stalinist Era, (1929-1939)First Five Year Plan, 1928

Emphasis on industryReal wages declinedUse of propaganda

Rapid collectivization of agricultureFamine of 1932-1933; 10 million peasants died

Political ControlStalin’s dictatorship established, 1929Political purge, 1936-1938;

• Millions of ordinary citizens arrested and sent to force labor camps in Siberia.

• 8 million arrested, millions never returned

Authoritarianism in Eastern EuropeConservative Authoritarian Governments

Dominant form of government in Eastern Europe in 1920s and 1930s

Eastern EuropeAustria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia adopted parliamentary systems

• Czechoslovakia is the only eastern European nation to maintain political democracy in the 1930s

Romania and Bulgaria gained new parliamentary constitutionsGreece became a republicHungary parliamentary in form; controlled by landed aristocrats

ProblemsLittle or no tradition of liberalism and parliamentary formRural and agrarian societyEthnic conflicts

Dictatorship in the Iberian PeninsulaGeneral Miguel Primo de Rivera and the End of Parliamentary Government (1923)The Spanish Civil War

The Popular Front – anti-fascist groupGeneral Francisco Franco (1892 – 1975)

• Fascist military leaderForeign intervention

• Popular Front gets supplies from Soviets• Franco gets supplies and military help from Germany & Italy

Franco emerges victorious (March 28, 1939)• Establishes a conservative, authoritarian, and anti-democratic regime

backed by the Spanish Catholic Church

The Franco RegimeTraditional, conservative, dictatorship

PortugalAntonio Salazar (1889 – 1970)Finance Minister and leader of military group that overthrows the government

Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure

The Roaring TwentiesDecade named for its exuberant culture

Berlin, the entertainment center of Europe

Josephine Baker (1906-1975)American Jazz singer

Became the symbol for the flapper generation

Jazz Age

Radio and Movies: Mass forms of Communication & Entertainment

RadioDiscovery of wireless radio waves propels radio industryNellie Melba, June 16, 1920 – 1st radio broadcast of a live concertBBC, formed in 1926

MoviesFull length movies - Quo Vadis; Birth of a Nation

Stars became subjects of adorationMarlene Dietrich Popularized new images of women’s sexuality

Used for political purposesNazis encourage cheap radios & put speakers in the streetsTriumph of the Will, 1934

• Propaganda film from Nuremberg demonstration

Mass LeisureSports

Growth of professional sports for mass audiences

TourismPassenger flights for the rich

Trains, buses and car travel for everyone else

Organized Mass Leisure in Italy and GermanyDopolavoro in Italy – national recreation centers

• Clubhouses with libraries, gyms, radios, theaters

• Strengthened public support for the fascist regime

“Strength Through Joy” in Germany• Coordinated and monitored working class leisure time

• Concerts, operas, films, tours & sporting events

• Built public support for Nazi policies

Cultural & Intellectual Trends in the Interwar Years

Prewar avant-garde culture becomes acceptableProvoked by a disillusionment with Western Civilization provoked by the horrors of WWI.Political, economic, and social insecuritiesRadical changes in women’s styles

Short skirts, short hair, makeup

Theodor van de VeldeIdeal Marriage: Its Physiology and TechniqueDiscussed birth control & glorified sex for pleasure

Nightmares and New Visions: Art and MusicAbstract painting; fascination with the absurdDadaism

• Tristan Tzara (1896-1945)• Expressed contempt for Western culture• Created “anti-art” to mock traditional culture• Celebrated chaos & absurdity of life• Popular artistic movement in Weimar Germany

Surrealism• Salvador Dali (1904-1989) • Depicted reality beyond the conscious world

Functionalism in Modern ArchitectureBauhaus School in GermanyFounded by Walter GropiusKnown for ideas of functionalism & practicality in architecture

Cultural & Intellectual Trends (cont)

A Popular AudienceKurt Weill, The Threepenny Opera

Opera aimed at a lower class audience

Art in Totalitarian RegimesArt in service of the state – propaganda

Culture in Nazi Germany centered around simple art with sentimental and realistic scenes used to glorify the Aryans

Literature & Physics Between the WarsThe Search for the Unconscious

James Joyce (1882-1941), Ulysses• Stream of consciousness• Writer presents interior monologues for characters

Virginia Woolf (1882-1942 writer who used inner monologueHermann Hesse (1877-1962)

• German writer who combined Carl Jung’s psychological theories and Eastern religions

• Focused on spiritual loneliness of modern humans

Impact of Freud• becomes more mainstream after WWI

Carl Jung (1856-1961)• Psychological theories:• Collective unconscious

shared memories with other humans

• Process of individualization• Universal archetypes

mental forms or images

• Importance of universal myths

The “Heroic Age of Physics”Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), atom could be split

Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)• Proposing that uncertainty was at the bottom of all

physical laws.

World War II

Hitler becomes chancellor, January 30, 1933First dramatic act as chancellor

• withdrew from League of Nations and Geneva Disarmament Conference

Repudiation of disarmament clauses of the TOV, 1935• Slow rearmament

Anglo-German Naval Pact 1935 – Germany can build a navy 35% of Britain’s & an equal number of submarinesTroops into the demilitarized Rhineland, March 7, 1936

• Allies did nothing to this violation of the TOV

Appeasement – allied policy of giving into Hitler to avoid warNew Alliances

• Rome-Berlin Axis, October 1936• Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan, November

1936 – maintain a common front against Communism

The “Diplomatic Revolution” (1933-1937)

Hitler demands DanzigBritish offer to protect Poland

Non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, August 23, 1939Invasion of Poland, September 1, 1939

Soviet Union invades Poland Sept. 17, 1939

Britain and France declare war on Germany, September 3, 1939 - Official Start of WWIIUnable to mobilize quick enough to help PolandPoland falls in a few weeks to the combined forces of German and the Soviets

New military tactic of Blitzkrieg “lighting war” air attack, tank attack, infantry attack

After the fall of Poland, there is no fighting until the spring of 1940

Period called the Phony War or “sitzkrieg”

The Course to World War IIBritain & France pledge to back up PolandBlitzkrieg (lightening war) (planes, tanks, troops)

Russia attacks from the other sidePoland divided on September 28, 1939Victory and Stalemate

“Phony War”, winter 1939-1940France built the Maginot Line, defensive structures on their eastern border, and waited for a defensive warGermany resumes offensive, April 9, 1939, against Denmark and NorwayAttack on Netherlands, Belgium, and France, May 10, 1940Evacuation of Dunkirk (330,000 troops)Surrender of France, June 22, 1940Vichy France

• Marshal Henri Pétain (1856-1951)• Unoccupied France, but seen as a German puppet state

Battle of Britain, August-September 1940Winston Churchill replaces Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister of G.B.

German Luftwaffe (air force) wages a massive air attackBritish use radar and broke German codes to prepare for attacksHitler switches to bombing cities (after attack on Berlin), allowing the RAF to rebuildHitler is forced to postpone his invasion of Britain

German Mediterranean strategyCapturing Egypt and the Suez Canal and cutting off the British oil supply from the Middle EastLeaves this strategy largely up to Italy, but they failHitler sends troops to support Italy, but it is to late

Germany invades the Soviet Union, June 22, 1941Supposed to start in the spring and finish by winter

The Course of the War (1942-1943)

German success in 1942 in Africa and Soviet Union

Allies invade North Africa, November 1942, victory in May 1943

Major Turning Points in the War• North African Campaign

• Battle of El Alamein, Summer 1942 British stopped German General Rommel Safeguarded the Suez Canal and oil shipments from the

Middle East Combined U.S. and British forces force Germans and

Italian troops to surrender North Africa in 1943

The Last Years of the WarInvasion of Sicily, 1943Invasion of Italy, September 1943Rome falls June 4, 1944D-Day invasion of France, June 6, 1944

Five assault divisions landed on Normandy beachesWithin three months, two million men landedGreatest naval invasion in historyOpened up 2nd Front in Europe

German surrender at Stalingrad, February 2, 1943Tank Battle of Kursk, Soviet Union, July 5-12, 1943

Largest tank battle of all time– Germans defeatedOver 15,000 tanks combinedGermans are defeated

Russians enter Berlin, April 1945

End of the WarHitler’s suicide, April 30, 1945Surrender of Germany, May 7, 1945 Death of FDR, April 12, 1945Difficulty of invading the Japanese homelandNew President Harry Truman makes decision to use the atomic bomb

Hiroshima Aug. 6, 1945Nagasaki Aug. 9, 1945

Surrender of Japan, August 14, 1945Human losses in the war: 17 million military dead, 18 million civilians dead but may have numbered as high as 50 million dead

The HolocaustFirst focused on emigration of JewsThe Final Solution

Planned Extermination of all European JewsDeveloped by Hitler and Himmler (head of SS)Reinhard Heydrich (1904-1942)

• SS officer responsible for carrying out the final solutionWannsee Conference – Jan 20, 1942

• Established procedures for the Final SolutionEinsatzgrupen

• Special strike forces used in eastern Europe that rounded up and executed Jews

Largest death camp was Auschwitz-Birkenau• Use of Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide) and huge ovens• Death of 2 out of 3 European Jews

The Other HolocaustDeath of 9 - 10 million people beyond the 5 - 6 million Jews40 percent of European Gypsies

Aftermath: The Emergence of the Cold War

Chief concern at conferences was determining spheres of influence for each allied power in post-war EuropeThe Conferences at Teheran and Yalta

Conference at Tehran, November 1943• Future course of the war, invasion of the continent for 1944• Agreement for the partition of postwar Germany• Germany was to be divided into four occupied zones after the war

Conference at Yalta, February 1945• Soviet military assistance for the war against Japan • Creation of a United Nations• German unconditional surrender• Free elections in Eastern Europe

Intensifying DifferencesConference at Potsdam, July 1945Truman replaces FDR – learns of A-bombTruman and Stalin argue over free elections in eastern Europe

The Emergence of the Cold WarMutual mistrustIdeological conflict

Cold War

Confrontation of the SuperpowersWWII devastated the countries, cities and people of Europe, bringing about an end to European supremacy in the world.

The Cold WarThe indirect conflict between the Soviet Union and the U.S. over ideologies and control of the post WWII world.

First Area of Conflict - Disagreement over Eastern EuropeUnited States and Britain championed self-determination and democracySoviet forces occupied all of Eastern Europe and wanted to establish pro-Soviet governments there to create a buffer zone against potential western attacks.Between 1945 and 1947 Communist governments were entrenched in East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Hungary

Truman Doctrine, March 12, 1947U.S. foreign policy developed due to a civil war in GreeceProvided $400 million in aid to countries threatened by aggression.Assistance in defense of Greece and TurkeyDefined America’s fear of Communist expansionPledged U.S. support to support “free peoples” and “Fight Communism anywhere, anytime”

Marshall Plan, June 1947, European Recovery Program$13 billion for the economic recovery intended to rebuild war-torn EuropeSoviet view – Western European countries sold their political & economic freedom for U.S. loans. Made Stalin push for more control of Eastern bloc countries

The American Policy of ContainmentStop the spread of Communism

Contention over GermanyGermany is partitioned into 4 sections (so is Berlin)Soviets dismantle and remove 380 factoriesBlockade of Berlin, 1948-1949

• Soviets cut off rail and road access through East Germany• Supplies were flown in to west Berlin• Soviets eventually back down

Germany separated, 1949• West German Federal Republic, September• German Democratic Republic, October

- East Germany

Cold War TensionSoviet Union detonates its first atomic bomb, 1949Communist forces win the Civil War in China, 1949Mutual deterrence – belief that an arsenal of nuclear weapons prevented war through mutually assured destruction

New Military Alliances

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, (NATO) 1949

• Western Alliance• Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,

Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Canada and the U.S.

• A few years later, West Germany, Greece & Turkey joined

Warsaw Pact, 1955 • Communist Alliance• Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany,

Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union: From Stalin to Khrushchev

Stalin’s Policies Stalin’s method for the recovery of the Soviet Union

• Use Soviet labor to produce goods to export so Russia could bring in foreign capital to build machinery and Western technology

By 1947 the Soviet Union had attained pre-war levels of industrial production

• Emphasized development of heavy industry & the production of modern weapons and space technology (Sputnik)

• Very few consumer goods producedStalin continued his iron rule until his death in 1953

Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)Ends the forced labor campsCondemns Stalinist programs of forced labor and terrorThere seem to be a loosening of restraint (destalinization)Allowed more intellectual freedom

• Allowed publication of Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s novel A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich which portrayed life in Stalin’s forced labor camps

Encouraged rebellion in satellite nations • Rebellions will be crushed by Red Army (Hungary,

Czech etc)Economic policies focused on production of light industry and consumer goods & increase agricultural output

• Failed to benefit the Soviet economy and industry

Forced into retirement by party members in 1964

Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain

In 1945 Soviet Union occupied all of the BalkansCommunist governments were under the control of the Soviet UnionDue to strong democratic traditions, Czechoslovakia was the last Eastern European nation to fall under Soviet controlAlbania and Yugoslavia were the exceptions to total Soviet rule

Albania had a Stalinist type regime, but became more independentJosip Broz, Tito, took control of Yugoslavia

• Asserted Yugoslavia’s independence from the end of WWII into the 1970s.

• Form of communism was less centralized and closer to Marxist-Leninist ideal

Eastern European countries followed the Soviet pattern

Five year plans

Farm collectivization

Upheaval in Eastern EuropeKhrushchev interferes less with the satellite countries

Rebellion in Poland • Wladyslaw Gomulka , 1956, elected first secretary

• Poland pledged to follow its own socialist plan

• Got nervous about a Soviet military response

• Compromised and agreed to support the Warsaw Pact

Eastern Europe: Behind the Iron Curtain: Hungary & Czechoslovakia

Hungary, 1956This time dissent was directed at communism as wellDissatisfaction and economic problems creates tense situationImry Nagy (1896-1958) declares Hungary free, November 1, 1956Promises free elections – Soviet military invadesSoviet military intervention reasserts Communist leadershipJanos Kadar (1912-1989) replaced Nagy

Czechoslovakia, 1968Antonin Novotny (1904-1975) known as “Little Stalin”

• Appointed by Stalin in 1952 • Resigned in the late 1960s over protests

Alexander Dubcek (1921-1992), “socialism with a human face”• Initiated by Dubcek’s reforms – “Prague Spring”

Reform crushed by the Warsaw Pact – Red Army invades Czech

Western Europe: The Revival of Democracy and the Economy

Europe recovered rapidly from World War IIMarshall Plan money was important to the recoveryFrance: The Domination of De Gaulle

Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)• Feels he has mission to reestablish the greatness of France• Kept France largely independent politically• Wanted to make France a nuclear power

Defeat in Indochina Algerian crisis

• Algeria rebels against France for independence• Anti-war movement almost leads to French civil war

Fifth Republic, 1958• Powers of the President enhanced

Economic growth Student riots, Labor Strikes, in 1968 over rising cost of livingResignation of de Gaulle, April 1969 

Western Europe: The Revival of Democracy and the Economy

West Germany: A Reconceived NationKonrad Adenauer (1876-1967) (Christian Democrats)

• Founding hero of West Germany

Reconciliation with FranceResurrection of the economy (“economic miracle”)

• New currency, free markets, low taxes

Payments to Holocaust survivors and Israel

Great Britain: The Welfare StateClement Atlee (1883-1967) (Labour Party)

• British Welfare State (social security, socialized medicine) National Insurance Act and National Health Act

• Meant dismantling of the British Empire• No longer viewed as a world power after loss of Suez Canal

Continued economic problems• Economy lagged behind and failed to re-industrialize• Lost colonies and their revenues• Debt from international commitments

Italy: Weak Coalition GovernmentPostwar reconstruction

Alcide de Gaspari (prime minister, 1948 – 1953)

Unstable political coalitions• Christian Democrats gained power with the backing

of the Catholic Church

Italy’s “economic miracle” • Marshall Plan helped stabilize the economy and

increase production of steel and consumer goods

Europe Since 1973

The Revolutionary Era in the Soviet Union

The Brezhnev Years (1964-1982)The Brezhnev Doctrine – the right of the Soviet Union to intervene if socialism was threatened in another soviet state (Soviet version of the Truman Doctrine)

• Used in Czechoslovakia in 1968

Détente – period of less tensions between the Soviets and AmericansBy the early 1980s, the Soviet Union was in poor shape

• They were dependent on buying grain from capitalist countries

The Gorbachev EraThe Soviet Union under Brezhnev was stable but lacked strong leadership and reform

• Problems of rigid and centralized planning

• Decline in the standard of living for soviet people

Perestroika (restructuring) – a reordering of the economic policy to allow limited free enterprise and some private property (eventually reforms carry over into social and political spheres)

• Creation of a new Soviet Parliament

• Creation of a market economy with limited free enterprise and private property

Glasnost (openness) – Soviet citizens & officials were encouraged to discuss openly the strengths and weaknesses of the Soviet Union

1988-1990 nationalist movements erupt in Soviet Satellite nations after Gorbachev made it clear his government would not intervene

Gorbachev’s policies led to new thinking about world affairs which led to arms treaties and greater independence for Eastern European nations.

Nov. 11, 1989 – The Fall of the Berlin Wall (Symbol of the end of the Cold War)

• Lithuania launched a successful independence movement 1990

The End of the Soviet UnionGorbachev arrested, August 19, 1991; coup fails

Yeltsin gains favor by opposing the coup

Ukraine votes for independence, Dec. 1991, others follow

December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigns and turns power over to Boris Yeltsin, president of Russia

Yeltsin introduces a free market economyYeltsin is reelected to the presidency of Russia in 1996 but resigns in 1999

Brutal war against Chechnya undermined his support• Chechnya wanted to break away and be independent

Vladimir Putin replaced Yeltsin when he resigned

In 2001 launches reforms including • unrestricted sale and purchase of land

• Trying to end organized crime

• Vows to return breakaway state of Chechnya

• Economic reforms

Reform did not resolve Russia’s economic problems

• An estimated 40% of the people live in poverty

The Reunification of GermanyEast German leader Erich Honecker established a dictatorship by using the Stasi or secret police during the 1970s & 1980s.

Unrest due to economic problems in the 1980s

Communist government falls, November 1989

Berlin Wall comes down in November 1989• Symbolic ending of the Cold War

Politically unified, October 3, 1990• Reunification of Germany was accomplished

through the leadership of Helmut Kohl.

The Disintegration of YugoslaviaDeath of Tito in 1980League of Communists ruled until their collapse at the end of the 1980s under the wave of reform movements

Yugoslavia was divided into warring factions over demands for ethnic separation

Slbodan Milosevic, the former leader of the Serbian communist party managed to stay in power by supporting Serbian nationalism

Milosevic rejects these efforts without new border arrangements to accommodate Serb minorities living outside of their borders

Slovenia and Croatia declare independenceYugoslavian army sent to attach Croatia

Army becoming more and more a Serbian Army

1992 Serbs turn on Bosnia-HerzegovinaMilosevic’s government controlled the Yugoslavian army – attacked Croatia

Ethnic cleansing – Serbians killed or removed Bosnian Muslims from their lands

NATO strikes back against Serbia

War in KosovoKosovo had been made an autonomous province of Yugoslavia in 1974Ethnic Albanians and a minority of Serbians War erupted in 1999Kosovo Liberation Army founded by ethnic AlbaniansSerbian forces began to massacre ethnic Albanians in an effort to crush the KLAUS and NATO interveneYugoslavian President Milosovic ousted from office in fall elections, 2000

Brought to trial by an international tribunal for war crimes against humanityDies in prison

Great Britain: Thatcher and ThatcherismProblems in England

Problems of Northern Ireland – fighting between Catholics and ProtestantsDirect rule from London, 1972 – Irish Republican Army lead terrorist attacks against England, example of nationalist terrorismBritish industry was hampered by labor strikes

Politics Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (Thatcherism)Broke power of the labor unions & weakened the Labour PartyThatcherism – used strict measures to control inflationSerous cutbacks to education funding.Military buildup and hard line against communismPopular military victory against Argentina in Falklands WarAttempted to replace property taxes with a flat rate taxAnti-tax riots force Thatcher to resign, November 1990

Tony Blair - Labour Party, became Prime Minister in 1997Popularity plummets over support of U.S. invasion of Iraq

Confusion in ItalyCoalition PoliticsEurocommunism – an attempt to broaden support for communism by dropping Marxist ideologyEconomic recession in the 1970s, economic growth in the 1980sPolitical Corruption

Use of political bribes to secure public contracts

Social problemsRed BrigadePolitical terrorist organization that kidnap which kidnapped children of prominent officials to coerce the government

The Unification of Europe1973: European Economic Community (EEC) becomes European Community (EC) when Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark join

1992 – Maastricht Treaty (formally known as the Treaty of the European Union)

1994: EC renames itself European Union (EU) and focuses on political unification

Committed states of the European Community to an economic and monetary union

2002: Introduction of common currency (euro)

Problems in the 21st CenturyMany Europeans remain committed to a national identity and don’t identify themselves as “Europeans.”

Toward a United Europe: May 2004: Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Cyprus join EU

The End of the Cold War

During the late 1980s, US and Soviet Union move to slow down arms race

1989-1990: Political upheaval in Eastern Europe upset postwar status quo

1991 – Breakup of the Soviet Union