Information for the Julius Caesar Project

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Julius Caesar Quotes:

Cowards die many times before their actual deaths.

I love the name of honor, more than I fear death.

If you must break the law, do it to seize power: in all other cases observe it.

I had rather be first in a village than second at Rome.

Which death is preferably to every other? "The unexpected."

I have lived long enough to satisfy both nature and glory.

I came, I saw, I conquered.

Be aware that Julius Caesar refers to himself many times in the third person – instead of saying, “I conquered many lands,” he would write of himself, “Julius Caesar conquered many lands.” Refer to your textbook reading to also see an example. What can you infer about a person who speaks about themselves in the third person? Or, what inferences can you make about the person who said the quotes above…

A little background on Julius Caesar…. http://rome.mrdonn.org/caesar.html

*All students can use this information!Julius Caesar was a great general and an important political leader in ancient Rome.

During his lifetime, he had held just about every important title in the Roman Republic including consul, tribune of the people, high commander of the army, and high priest.

He suggested new laws, most of which were approved by the Senate. He reorganized the army. He improved the way the provinces were governed.

The Romans even named a month after him, the month of July for Julius Caesar.

When Julius Caesar said he had something to say, the people flocked to the Forum to hear his ideas. His ideas had been good ones. The people trusted him. Julius Caesar told the people that he could solve Rome's problems.

Certainly, the Republic had problems. Crime was everywhere. Taxes were outrageous. People were hungry. Many were out of work. It was easier to use slaves to do work than hire Roman people, but the dependency on slave labor was causing Rome unemployment problem.

The people were angry that their government had not been able to solve the many problems facing the Republic. Julius Caesar spoke publicly to the people about these problems, and promised to solve them if he could. The people supported Caesar. The people wanted to see Julius Caesar in a strong position of power so he could solve the problems facing the Republic. As Julius Caesar became more popular with the people, he also became more powerful. Leaders in the Senate began to worry. They were afraid Julius Caesar might take over the government by force, and rule Rome as a king. After all, Caesar had his own army, one of the finest, perhaps the finest. The leaders of ancient Rome had vowed that the Roman people would never be ruled by a king again. Their worries were justified. They were right. Julius Caesar did want to take over the government.

One of the laws of the original Twelve Tables was that no general could enter the city with his army. Julius Caesar ignored this law. In 49 BCE, he entered Rome with the Roman Legion, and took over the government. The poor people of Rome, who made up the bulk of the population, were glad. The people called him "father of the homeland“. The Senate was furious.

Caesar was now master of Rome and made himself consul and dictator. He used his power to carry out much-needed reform, relieving debts, adding new members to the senate, building the Forum Iulium and revising the calendar. Dictatorship was always regarded a temporary position but in 44 BC, Caesar took it for life. His success and ambition alienated strongly republican senators. A group of these, led by Cassius and Brutus, assassinated Caesar on the Ides (15) of March 44 BC. This sparked the final round of civil wars that ended the Republic and brought about the elevation of Caesar's great nephew and designated heir, Octavian, as Augustus, the first emperor

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Roman Achievements

Roman Buildings: The Colosseum was built of concrete, faced with stone, as were most amphitheaters. The Romans also used concrete (an ancient Roman invention!) to build the dome of the Pantheon, a temple dedicated to all the Roman gods, which even today is still one of the largest single-span domes in the world. They used concrete to build the underwater port facilities at Caesarea in Israel (fantastic technology, still analyzed by modern engineers.)  This site quickly explains how the Romans made concrete. 

Roman Roads:  There is an old expression, "All roads lead to Rome." In ancient Rome, Rome was the heart of the empire. Each time a new city was conquered, a road was built from that city back to Rome. 

Roads were built in straight lines. Many had gutters. Along the side of road, the Romans built road signs called milestones. Milestones did not give any information about other towns in the area. Milestones told how far it was back to Rome.

The Romans built thousands of miles of wonderful roads, to connect every part of the empire back to Rome. Up until about a hundred years ago, people were still using these roads, as roads! In recent years, instead of building new roads, modern engineers simply covered many of the old Roman roads with a coat of asphalt. The Romans did a wonderful job building roads!

To help people find their way, while traveling these roads, the Romans more or less invented the milestone which grew increasingly wordy, and increasingly tall, to be easily readable from a vehicle. Some are 6 feet tall. The milestone usually gave the mileage to the nearest large city, sometimes to an intermediate place as well; and the date and perhaps who paid for the road.

There seems to have been no formal traffic code, including what side of the road to drive on; but there were various laws about what you could and could not do on a given type and location of road, and when you could do it. Roads were considerably less crowded, and much less travel than today. The real danger on a road was ambush by highway robbers, which shows that a traveling vehicle could be alone on any given stretch of road.

Roman Aqueducts: As cities grew, the ancient Romans needed more fresh water. To solve this problem, they built aqueducts. These were massive construction projects.

An aqueduct, properly speaking, is the entire conduit - from fresh water spring to town.  (CONDUIT—A natural or artificial channel through which fluids may be conveyed).

Where aqueducts had to cross valleys, some were built above ground, on arches. Most of the time, they were underground conduits, and sometimes conduits lying right on the ground. These conduits could be made of clay or wood, covered or encrusted with stone. The pipes inside the conduits, that carried the water, were made of lead, which in turn required vast mining enterprises and then transportation to get all this pipe out into the field all over the empire, although most of the lead was mined in Spain.

What is extraordinary about the aqueducts is the planning that must have gone into their construction. Since the ancient Romans didn't use pumps, aqueducts had to be positioned at a relatively constant gradient for dozens of miles. You try building something that drops by only 100 feet in 40 miles....and you'll begin to understand why scholars refer to the ancient Romans as such great builders!

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Roman Laws

The ancient Romans formulated many of the laws that most countries use even today. Roman laws were applicable to all Romans, irrespective of his position in the society. Here are a few of laws of the ancient Romans. The laws were written on metal tables and were organized into twelve sections. Therefore, they were known as "The Twelve Tables". These tables were displayed at the various Roman forums or meeting places in all the Roman cities. Here are a few laws that were in use during the ancient Roman civilization.

A law that is used by many countries even today - "A person is innocent until proven guilty". If you have summons from the court, you are expected to attend the court. Else, you could be taken by force to

the court. Capital punishment would be imposed on a person found guilty of giving false witness. No one is allowed to hold meetings after nightfall.

Ancient Roman Empire was not only powerful but also vast. The glory of the Roman empire and its civilization lasted for almost 1,000 years. The Roman myths and their mythology still fascinate readers.

Constantine was the first Roman emperor to embrace and practice Christianity. He also legalized the worship of the Roman gods. However, there were constant clashes between the clans who practiced Christianity and those who worshiped Roman gods. Hence, the historians opine one of the causes of the downfall of the Roman Empire was the lack of religious unity.

Concrete

Concrete - a Roman invention - was made from a changing recipe of lime mortar, volcanic sand, water, and small stones ("caementa," from which the English word "cement" is derived). The mixture was placed in wooden frames and left to dry and bond with a facing of brick or stone in a procedure somewhat like the casting of statues in bronze or other metals. When the concrete was completely dry, the wooden molds were removed, leaving behind a solid mass of great strength, though rough in appearance, which was often covered afterward with stucco or even sheathed with marble revetment.

Despite this, concrete walls were much less costly to construct than walls built of imported Greek marble or even local Italian tufa and travertine. The advantages of concrete, however, go well beyond economy of construction, for it is possible to fashion shapes out of concrete that cannot be achieved by masonry construction, especially the huge vaulted and domed ceilings (without internal supports) that the Romans came to prefer over the post-and-lintel structures of the Greeks and Etruscans.

The use of concrete enabled the Roman architect to think of architecture in terms radically different from those used by earlier builders. Roman architecture became an architecture of space rather than of sheer mass.

The Romans used a cement made only of lime to manufacture a concrete with aggregates of broken bricks and stones. This cement slowly dissolves in water, but it becomes almost as strong as modern concrete when mixed "with pozzolana," a volcanic ash found at Pozzuoli near Naples. The Romans did not invent concrete, but a combination of pozzolanic concrete and outer surfaces of excellent stone, or good brick of burnt clay, allowed them to erect the majestic and massive structures which survive to this day.

Ideal as it is for construction, concrete too has some unfortunate properties. If not properly wetted, or cured, while it hardens, it shrinks and cracks, allowing humidity to rust the reinforcing bars. Moreover it continues to stretch or shorten, creeps, under constant tension or compression loads, up to three or more years after hardening.

Augustus [Gaius Octavius] (63 B.C.-A.D. 14)The first Emperor of the Roman Empire, Augustus – born Gaius Octavius – was the great nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. As sole Emperor, he ruled for 41 years and built Rome into a strong sovereignty, establishing a standardized government, border security, postal service, and currency; creating a police andfire department, and a legal system; building roads, bridges, aqueducts, and many buildings; and restoring temples. Horace, Livy, Ovid, and Virgil formed the Golden Age of Roman Literature under the reign of Augustus, and his reign was the beginning of the Pax Romana (Peace of Rome), an era that signifies the prime of the Roman Empire; it ended in 180 with the death of Marcus Aurelius.

Octavius was born in Rome and was four years old when his father died. His mother, Caesar’s niece, supervised his education in language and philosophy; and at 12 years old, Octavius made his first public speech – the eulogy at his grandmother’s (Caesar’s sister) funeral. He served as a Roman priest, celebrated Caesar’s victorious return to Rome in 46, and endured several hardships while traveling to Hispania to assist Caesar in a battle with Pompey’s sons. Some historians note that it was the determination of Octavius to join Caesar in battle that prompted Caesar to make Octavius his heir. Octavius was in Apollonia (in Albania) when he heard about Caesar’s murder, but didn’t know he was Caesar’s heir until he reached Brundisium (Brindisi in Puglia). There, Octavius was able to gain the support of Roman soldiers and financial backing and made his way to Rome.

In 43, Octavius formed an alliance with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to create the Second Triumvirate, sharing the powers of the title of Emperor. A series of battles and struggles for power led Octavius to become sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 31. In 27, Octavius was named Emperor of the Roman Empire and took the name Augustus. He ruled until his death in A.D. 14. During his ruleJesus was born, and Augustus ordered the census that brought Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem.

Source: http://www.italianhistorical.org/page55.html

Mark Antony: Early Life and Alliance with Julius CaesarMarcus Antonius was born in Rome in 83 B.C., the son of an ineffective praetor (military commander) and

grandson of a noted consul and orator, both of whom shared his given name. After a largely misspent youth,

he was sent east as a cavalry officer, where he won important victories in Palestine and Egypt. In 54 B.C. he

went to Gaul to join his mother's cousin Julius Caesaras a staff officer. In 49 B.C. he was elected a tribune and

served as a staunch defender of Caesar against his rivals in the Senate.

During Caesar's first yearlong dictatorship, Antony was his second-in-command. By 48 B.C. he was in Greece,

supporting Caesar's left wing at the Battle of Pharsalus. A year later, Antony's violent expulsion from the

Senate by anti-Caesar factions gave Caesar's legion a rallying point as they crossed the Rubicon River,

igniting the Republican Civil War. When Caesar assumed his fifth and final consulship in 44 B.C., Antony was

his co-consul.

As the Ides of March approached, Antony heard rumors of a plot against Caesar but was unable to warn him in

time. Antony fled Rome dressed as a slave but soon returned to protect his friend's legacy from the senators

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who had conspired against him. He took charge of Caesar's will and papers and gave a stirring eulogy for the

fallen leader.

Mark Antony and OctavianIn his will Caesar had bequeathed his wealth and title to his posthumously adopted son Octavian. Antony was

reluctant to hand his old friend's legacy to a 17-year-old, and quickly became a rival to the future emperor. In

43 B.C. their armies first clashed. Antony was driven back at Mutina and Forum Gallorum, but had proved a

formidable enough leader that Octavian preferred to ally with him.  Along with their lesser rival Lepidus,

Octavian and Antony formed the Second Triumvirate, splitting Rome’s provinces between them: Octavian

would rule the West, Antony the East and Lepidus Africa. Within a year, Antony defeated Caesar's assassins

Brutus and Antonius at Phillipi, eliminating the two remaining leaders of the Republican cause in a battle that

established his reputation as a general.

Mark Antony and CleopatraIn 41 B.C. Antony began an affair with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, who had been Caesar's lover in the last

years of his life. The queen gave birth to twins, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, but Antony was forced

to return to Rome to deal with the aftermath of his wife and brother-in-law’s failed rebellion against Octavian.

The Senate pushed for conciliation between the triumvirs, pressing the recently widowed Antony to marry

Octavian's sister Octavia Minor in 40 B.C. In 37 B.C. the Triumvirate was renewed. Antony returned to

Cleopatra and fathered a son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. The lovers grew more public in their relationship,

participating in deification ceremonies where they took the roles of the Greco-Egyptian gods Dionysus-Osiris

and Venus-Isis. More provocatively, they paraded their three children and Caesarion (Cleopatra's son by Julius

Ceasar) in costumes as legitimate royal heirs, flaunting Roman law's refusal to acknowledge marriage with

outsiders. Politically, Antony grew more and more entwined with the Egyptian kingdom, having turned to

Cleopatra for help following his failed expedition against the Parthians in 36 B.C.

Meanwhile Octavian grew in strength, eliminating Lepidus from the triumvirate on a pretext of rebellion. In 32

B.C. Antony divorced Octavia. In retaliation, Octavian declared war, not on Antony but on Cleopatra. The

fighting occurred in western Greece, where Antony had superior numbers but fell time and again to the brilliant

naval attacks of Octavian's general Agrippa. After their combined forces were defeated at Actium, Antony and

Cleopatra’s remaining ships made a desperate flight back to Egypt, pursued by Agrippa and Octavian. As

Octavian entered Alexandria, both Antony and Cleopatra resolved to commit suicide. Antony, thinking his lover

already dead, stabbed himself with a sword but was then brought to die in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra was

captured but managed to kill herself via a poisonous snakebite. After Antony's death his honors were all

revoked, his statues removed. Cicero, Antony's great rival in the senate, decreed that no one in the dead

general's family would ever bear the name Mark Antony again. Octavian was now emperor in all but name.

Three years later he was granted a new honorific, Augustus, and ruled Rome for the next four decades.

Source: www.history.com (This History Channel Website)

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EyeWitness to History

The Assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BCIn January of 49 BC, Julius Caesar led his army across the Rubicon River in Northern Italy (see Caesar Crosses the Rubicon, 49 BC) and plunged the Roman Republic into civil war. Caesar's rival, Pompey, fled to Greece. Within three months Caesar controlled the entire Italian peninsula and in Spain had defeated the legions loyal to Pompey.

Caesar now pursued Pompey to Greece. Although outnumbered, Caesar crushed the forces of his enemy but not before Pompey escaped to Egypt. Following Pompey to Egypt, Caesar was presented with his rival's severed head as a token of friendship. Before leaving the region, Caesar established Cleopatra as his surrogate ruler of Egypt. Caesar defeated his remaining rivals in North Africa in 47 BC and returned to Rome with his authority firmly established.

Caesar continued to consolidate his power and in February 44 BC, he declared himself dictator for life. This act, along with his continual effort to adorn himself with the trappings of power, turned many in the Senate against him. Sixty members of the Senate concluded that the only resolution to the problem was to assassinate Caesar.

Death of a Dictator

Nicolaus of Damascus wrote his account of the murder of Caesar a few years after the event. He was not actually present when the assassination occurred but had the opportunity to speak with those who were. He was a friend of Herod the Great and gathered his information during a visit to Rome. His account is thought to be reliable.

The Plan:

"The conspirators never met openly, but they assembled a few at a time in each others' homes. There were many discussions and proposals, as might be expected, while they investigated how and where to execute their design. Some suggested that they should make the attempt as he was going along the Sacred Way, which was one of his favorite walks. Another idea was for it to be done at the elections during which he bad to cross a bridge to appoint the magistrates in the Campus Martius; they should draw lots for some to push him from the bridge and for others to run up and kill him. A third plan was to wait for a coming gladiatorial show. The advantage of that would be that, because of the show, no suspicion would be aroused if arms were seen prepared for the attempt. But the majority opinion favored killing him while he sat in the Senate, where he would be by himself since non-Senators would not be admitted, and where the many conspirators could hide their daggers beneath their togas. This plan won the day."

Brutus Persuades Caesar to Ignore his Apprehensions:

"...his friends were alarmed at certain rumors and tried to stop him going to the Senate-house, as did his doctors, for he was suffering from one of his occasional dizzy spells. His wife, Calpurnia, especially, who was frightened by some visions in her dreams, clung to him and said that she would not let him go out that day. But Brutus, one of the conspirators who was then thought of as a firm friend, came up and said, 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid men, and to insult the Senate by not going out, although it has honored you and has been specially summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the forebodings of all these people, and come. The Senate has been in session waiting for you since early this morning.' This swayed Caesar and he left."

Bad Omens:

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"Before he entered the chamber, the priests brought up the victims for him to make what was to be his last sacrifice. The omens were clearly unfavorable. After this unsuccessful sacrifice, the priests made repeated other ones, to see if anything more propitious might appear than what had already been revealed to them. In the end they said that they could not clearly see the divine intent, for there was some transparent, malignant spirit hidden in the victims. Caesar was annoyed and abandoned divination till sunset, though the priests continued all the more with their efforts.

Those of the murderers present were delighted at all this, though Caesar's friends asked him to put off the meeting of the Senate for that day because of what the priests had said, and he agreed to do this. But some attendants came up, calling him and saying that the Senate was full. He glanced at his friends, but Brutus approached him again and said, 'Come, good sir, pay no attention to the babblings of these men, and do not postpone what Caesar and his mighty power has seen fit to arrange. Make your own courage your favorable omen.' He convinced Caesar with these words, took him by the right hand, and led him to the Senate which was quite near. Caesar followed in silence."

The Attack:

"The Senate rose in respect for his position when they saw him entering. Those who were to have part in the plot stood near him. Right next to him went Tillius Cimber, whose brother had been exiled by Caesar. Under pretext of a humble request on behalf of this brother, Cimber approached and grasped the mantle of his toga, seeming to want to make a more positive move with his hands upon Caesar. Caesar wanted to get up and use his hands, but was prevented by Cimber and became exceedingly annoyed.

That was the moment for the men to set to work. All quickly unsheathed their daggers and rushed at him First Servilius Casca struck him with the point of the blade on the left shoulder a little above the collar-bone. He had been aiming for that, but in the excitement he missed. Caesar rose to defend himself, and in the uproar Casca shouted out in Greek to his brother. The latter heard him and drove his sword into the ribs. After a moment, Cassius made a slash at his face, and Decimus Brutus pierced him in the side. While Cassius Longinus was trying to give him another blow he missed and struck Marcus Brutus on the hand. Minucius also hit out at Caesar and hit Rubrius in the thigh. They were just like men doing battle against him.

Under the mass of wounds, he fell at the foot of Pompey's statue. Everyone wanted to seem to have had some part in the murder, and there was not one of them who failed to strike his body as it lay there, until, wounded thirty-five times, he breathed his last. "

References:    Nicolaus of Damascus' account appears in Workman, B.K. They Saw it Happen in Classical Times (1964); Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars (Penguin Classics), translated by Robert Graves (1957).

How To Cite This Article: "The Assassination of Julius Caesar, 44 BC," EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2004).

After the assassination, the senators fled, leaving Caesar's body on the Senate floor where it lay for a few hours before three slaves carried it to his wife.

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Where did Cicero grow up? Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero) was born in 106 BC in a small town just southeast of Rome called Arpinum. He was an intelligent child from a wealthy family. He was educated by the best teachers and learned to read and write both Greek and Latin. He also learned about the Greek philosophers and poets.

As Cicero grew older, he began to get a reputation as one of the brightest youths in Rome. He continued to study Roman law and train as a speaker. At this time in Rome, being able to give a good speech (also called oratory) was considered an art. Cicero would become the greatest orator in the history of Rome.

Early Political Career Cicero was a strong believer in the Roman Republic. He wanted to climb the ladder of political office in the traditional manner called the Cursus honorum. He served for a short time in the army and then began his career as a lawyer. He quickly became famous for taking risky cases and winning them. He also incurred the wrath of the Roman dictator Sulla.

His first political office was that of Quaestor in 75 BC for the island of Sicily. He then continued up the political ladder. He became curule aedile in 69 BC, and praetor in 66 BC. Cicero became very popular. He not only won each election he entered, but always got the most votes out of the entire group of candidates. This was rarely accomplished in Ancient Rome. His speeches became legendary and it was during this case that he became known as the greatest orator in all of Rome. Cicero won the case making him very popular among the people of Rome.

Becoming Consul In 63 BC, Cicero was elected to consul, the highest position in the Roman government. During his time as consul Cicero stopped a threat to overthrow the Roman republic. He was given the title Pater Patriae, meaning "Father of the Country", by the Senate for his brave efforts.

Exiled from Rome Throughout his political career, Cicero had watched the rise of Julius Caesar. Cicero was afraid of Caesar's ambition for power. When Caesar asked him to become part of a powerful alliance, Cicero refused. By doing this he made an enemy of Caesar. Not too long later, Caesar had Cicero exiled from Rome. He left Rome for a year, returning in 57 BC.

Civil War Cicero again fled from Rome when Julius Caesar fought Pompey and took control of the city becoming dictator of Rome. Caesar, however, pardoned Cicero and allowed him to return. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, Cicero was not disappointed. He took control of the Senate and tried to get the Roman Republic reestablished.

Death Cicero became a staunch opponent of Mark Antony, one of the leading men who tried to take over for Caesar. When Mark Antony, together with Octavian and Lepidus, took control of Rome, they sought out their enemies. They tracked down Cicero and had him killed. His last words were "there is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly."