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ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA: NATIONAL URBAN PROFILE
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Copyright © United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2011 All rights reserved
United Nations Human Settlements Programme publications can be obtained from UN-HABITAT Regional and Information Offices or directly from:P.O. Box 30030, GPO 00100 Nairobi, Kenya.Fax: + (254 20) 762 4266/7E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.unhabitat.org
This Antigua and Barbuda report and project was prepared and managed by Chief Town and Country Planner, PSUP National Focal Point Denzil Solomon; PSUP National Coordinator Frederick Southwell; Chief Housing Officer, PSUP Focal Point for All Saints Village Carlos Browne; Senior Building Inspector, PSUP Focal Point for St. John’s City Wilbert Burke; Ministry of Agriculture Communication Consultant, Onika Campbell; Director of Agriculture Jedidiah Maxime; Financial Comptroller at the St. John’s Development Corporation, Austin Joseph; Superintendent of the St. John’s Police Station, Ivor David.
This report was also managed by Kerstin Sommer, Alain Grimard, David Kithakye, Mathias Spaliviero, and Doudou Mbye in Nairobi.
HS Number: HS/018/12E ISBN Number(Series): 978-92-1-132023-7 ISBN Number:(Volume) 978-92-1-132433-4
DISCLAIMER
The designation employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. The analysis, conclusions and recommendations of the report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), the Governing Council of UN-HABITAT or its Member States. This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union.
Excerpts from this publication may be reproduced without authorisation, on condition that the source is indicated.
Photo credits: © UN-HABITAT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Design and Layout: Florence Kuria
Printing: UNON, Publishing Services Section, ISO 14001:2004 - certified.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
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FOREWORDS 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6
BACKGROUND 7
GOVERNANCE 13
SLUMS AND SHELTER 15
SAFETY AND SECURITY, GENDER AND HIV/AIDS 17
DISASTER MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 22
CULTURAL HERITAGE 25
BASIC URBAN SERVICES 27
LAND 30
PROJECT PROPOSALS
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA 32
SLUMS AND SHELTER 33
DISASTER MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT 34
BASIC URBAN SERVICES 35
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA: NATIONAL URBAN PROFILE
UNITED NATIONS HUMAN SETTLEMENTS PROGRAMME
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FOREWORDS
According to research published in UN-HABITAT’s1 flagship report, The State of the World’s Cities 2010-2011, all developing regions, including the African, Caribbean and Pacific states, will have more people living in urban than rural areas by the year 2030. With half the world’s
population already living in urban areas, the challenges we face in the battle against urban poverty, our quest for cities without slums, for cities where women feel safer, for inclusive cities with power, water and sanitation, and affordable transport, for better planned cities, and for cleaner, greener cities is daunting.
But as this series shows, there are many interesting solutions and best practices to which we can turn. After all, the figures tell us that during the decade 2000 to 2010, a total of 227 million people in the developing countries moved out of slum conditions. In other words, governments, cities and partner institutions have collectively exceeded the slum target of the Millennium Development Goals twice over and ten years ahead of the agreed 2020 deadline.
Asia and the Pacific stood at the forefront of successful efforts to reach the slum target, with all governments in the region improving the lives of an estimated 172 million slum dwellers between 2000 and 2010.
In sub-Saharan Africa though, the total proportion of the urban population living in slums has decreased by only 5 per cent (or 17 million people). Ghana, Senegal, Uganda, and Rwanda were the most successful countries in the sub-region, reducing the proportions of slum dwellers by over one-fifth in the last decade.
Some 13 per cent of the progress made towards the global slum target occurred in Latin America and the Caribbean, where an estimated 30 million people have moved out of slum conditions since the year 2000.
Yet, UN-HABITAT estimates confirm that the progress made on the slum target has not been sufficient to counter the demographic expansion in informal settlements in the developing world. In this sense, efforts to reduce the numbers of slum dwellers are neither satisfactory nor adequate.
1 UN-HABITAT - United Nations Human Settlements Programme
As part of our drive to address this crisis, UN-HABITAT is working with the European Commission and the Brussels-based Secretariat of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group to support sustainable urban development. Given the urgent and diverse needs, we found it necessary to develop a tool for rapid assessment and strategic planning to guide immediate, mid and long-term interventions. And here we have it in the form of this series of publications.
The Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme is based on the policy dialogue between UN-HABITAT, the ACP Secretariat and the European Commission which dates back to the year 2002. When the three parties met at UN-HABITAT headquarters in June 2009, more than 200 delegates from over 50 countries approved a resounding call on the international community to pay greater attention to these urbanization matters, and to extend the slum upgrading programme to all countries in the ACP Group.
It is worth recalling here how grateful we are that the European Commission’s 9th European Development Fund for ACP countries provided EUR 4 million (USD 5.7 million at June 2011 rates) to enable UN-HABITAT to conduct the programme which now serves 59 cities in 23 African countries, and more than 20 cities in six Pacific, and four Caribbean countries.
Indeed, since its inception in 2008, the slum upgrading programme has achieved the confidence of partners at city and country level in Africa, the Caribbean and in the Pacific. It is making a major contribution aimed at helping in urban poverty reduction efforts, as each report in this series shows."
I wish to express my gratitude to the European Commission and the ACP Secretariat for their commitment to this slum upgrading programme. I have every confidence that the results outlined in this profile, and others, will serve to guide the development of responses for capacity building and investments in the urban sector.
Further, I would like to thank each Country Team for their continued support to this process which is essential for the successful implementation of the Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme.
Dr. Joan Clos Executive Director, UN-HABITAT
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OVERVIEW“Slums in many cities are no longer just marginalized neighbourhoods housing a relatively small proportion of the urban population; in many cities, they are the dominant type of human settlement, carving their way into the fabric of modern-day cities, and making their mark as a distinct category of human settlement that now characterizes so many cities in the developing world.” - UN-HABITAT
With over half the world population living in cities, it is estimated that one in every three urban dwellers now lives in a slum. The total slum population today exceeds one billion.
The daunting daily challenges poverty-stricken slum dwellers face range from a lack of basic services and infrastructure such as water and sanitation, to a lack of security of tenure and job opportunities.
A large number of them live in the African, Caribbean, and Pacific regions, which is why the European Community, through its agency EuropeAid and the Intra-ACP Fund, provided 4 million Euros for UN-HABITAT’s Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme.
One of the most important impacts of the programme is that it brings together a wide range of stakeholders and urban actors. Local and national government, private and informal sector, civil society, non-governmental organization, academia, and research institute representatives join bilateral and multilateral partners to discuss the major challenges and how best to address them.
Such collaboration is advantageous, especially the involvement of target groups, who often know best how to improve living conditions. Innovative planning, programme formulation, and resource mobilization will reinforce partners as they meet the future demands of our growing cities.
BACKGROUNDThe islands of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda make up one nation. They are situated near the centre of the Caribbean archipelago, and are part of the Lesser Antilles and Leeward Islands groupings. They experience tropical maritime climate. There is little seasonal temperature variation, but there is usually an annual dry season that lasts from December to April and a wet season that spans from May to November. The average annual rainfall is around 1,150 millimeters (less than half that of Dominica’s or any of the other mountainous Caribbean islands), with periodic droughts (occurring roughly every seven years).
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
GEOGRAPHY OF ANTIGUAAntigua, the larger of the two main islands, lies between 61°41’ and 61°54’ West longitude and 17°0’ and 17°11’ North latitude. It is roughly circular in shape, approximately 14 miles (22.5 kilometres) wide and 12 miles (19.3 kilometres) long with a jagged/indented coastline, and is 108 square miles and 280 square kilometres) in area. Antigua developed from a volcano that rose out of the sea about 34 million years ago, and differs from many other islands in that it contains both volcanic and limestone geological features. It is primarily divided into three geological regions: Northeast Limestone Highlands, Central Clay Plains and Southwest Volcanic Mountains/Hills/Valleys.
GEOGRAPHY OF BARBUDAThe island of Barbuda is 30 miles (48 kilometres) to the north of Antigua and is a near-flat coral island of 62 square miles (161 square kilometres) in area. The island is dominated by a large lagoon on its western side. Two-thirds of the island consists of a flat plain raised only a few feet above sea level. The other third, the highlands, is a relatively flat tableland with a maximum height of 128 feet.
Unlike most of the islands which form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea, Barbuda is not of volcanic origin. The island is limestone and represents a coral reef which was raised above the sea in two successive stages.
In the south, the highlands slope down to meet the plain, and on the eastern windward side, the Atlantic Ocean washes up on rocky headlands. Much of the coastline is characterized by beach sands and fringing coral reefs. The island boasts the finest beaches in the Caribbean (and possibly among the finest in the world), one of which is located at Coco Point with spectacular pink sand. The beautiful Low Bay Beach is over 8 miles long.
There are many spectacular caves (one recently discovered cave system on the northern coast is said to rival the famous Harrison Caves of Barbados) and sink-holes (one of the most spectacular and well-known is called, “Darby”).
REDONDAThe tiny uninhabited dependency of Redonda is a rocky volcanic islet about 35 miles to the south-west, and is 0.6 square miles (1.6 square kilometres) in extent. It is a nature reserve and has significant deposits of guano.
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BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
Urban Profiling
The Antigua and Barbuda National Urban Profiling consists of an accelerated, action-oriented assessment of urban conditions, focusing on priority needs, capacity gaps, and existing institutional responses at local and national levels. The purpose of the study is to develop urban poverty reduction policies at local, national, and regional levels, through an assessment of needs and response mechanisms, and as a contribution to the wider-ranging implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. The study is based on analysis of existing data and a series of interviews with all relevant urban stakeholders, including local communities and institutions, civil society, the private sector, development partners, academics, and others. The consultation typically results in a collective agreement on priorities and their development into proposed capacity-building and other projects that are all aimed at urban poverty reduction. The urban profiling is being implemented in 30 African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, offering an opportunity for comparative regional analysis. Once completed, this series of studies will provide a framework for central and local authorities and urban actors, as well as donors and external support agencies.
METHODOLOGY
The Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme consists of three phases:
Phase one consists of the rapid profiling of urban conditions at national and local levels. The capital city, a medium-sized city, and a small town are selected and studied to provide a representative sample in each country. The analysis focuses on seven themes; governance; slums and shelter; safety and security, gender and HIV/AIDS; disaster management, climate change and the environment; cultural heritage; basic urban services; and land. Information is collected through standard interviews and discussions with institutions and key informants, in order to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) of the national and local urban set-ups. The findings are presented and refined during city and national consultation workshops and consensus is reached regarding priority interventions. National and city reports synthesise the information collected and outline ways forward to reduce urban poverty through holistic approaches.
Phase two builds on the priorities identified through pre-feasibility studies and develops detailed capacity-building and capital investment projects.
Phase three implements the projects developed during the two earlier phases, with an emphasis on skills development, institutional strengthening, and replication.
This report presents the outcomes of Phase One at the local level in Antigua and Barbuda.
URBAN PROFILING IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
The urban profiling in Antigua and Barbuda is one three similar exercises conducted in Malawi; the other urban profiling centres are St. Johns and All Saints.
Representatives from Antigua and Barbuda who included local and national government, private and informal sector representatives as well as civil society and Non-Governmental Organizations, academia, research institutes, and bilateral and multilateral partners elaborated together where major challenges are and how best to address them. The aim was to develop options for formal inter-agency collaboration in order to create a coordination body integrating a wide range of urban stakeholders in a single response mechanism.
REPORT STRUCTURE
This report consists of:
1. a general background of the urban sector in Antigua and Barbuda, based on the findings of the Antigua and Barbuda City Assessment Report, a desk study, interviews, and a city consultation. The background includes data on administration, urban planning, the economy, the informal and private sector, urban poverty, infrastructure, water, sanitation, public transport, street lighting, energy, health, and education;
2. a synthetic assessment of the following seven main thematic areas: governance; slums and shelter; safety and security, gender and HIV/AIDS; disaster management, climate change and the environment; cultural heritage; basic urban services; and landin terms of the institutional set-up, regulatory framework, resource mobilization, and performance; this second section also highlights agreed priorities and includes a list of identified projects;
3. a SWOT1 analysis and an outline of priority project proposals for each theme. The proposals include beneficiaries, partners, estimated costs, objectives, activities, and outputs.
1 SWOT - Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
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DEMOGRAPHICS
The 2001 Population and Housing Census placed the resident population of Antigua and Barbuda at 76,886. The census had projected the population for the year 2009 to be 85,632 and for 2010 to be 90,801 with 42,642 males and 48,159 females.
In 2006, the crude birth rate was put at 14.7/1,000, the crude death rate was 5.9/1,000 and the infant mortality was rate was 16 per 1,000 live births. There were no reported maternal deaths in 2006 and the Total Fertility Rate was 2.24 children per woman. Approximately 30 percent of the population lives in poverty.
There has been up until recently, a steady inflow of immigrants and in 2001, this inflow represented 21.3 percent of the population. Because of more stringent controls now being exercised by both the Immigration and Labour Departments, the inflow of immigrants today is significantly less.
Saint John’s City, in Antigua, is the capital city of Antigua and the largest urban centre. The 2001 Population and Housing Census for Antigua and Barbuda estimated St. John’s population to be 24,451. The second largest and second most important urban centre is All Saints, located near the centre of Antigua.
Most residents of Antigua and Barbuda are of African ancestry. Within the last two decades, however, there have been significant numbers of immigrants from various Latin American countries (most notably the Dominican Republic), China, Italy, and Guyana (Indians) which has changed the racial/ethnic landscape to some extent. The population that is of African descent comprises 91 percent of the total2. Anglicanism is the predominant religion.
2 Antigua and Barbuda 2001 Census of Population and Housing.
PRINCIPAL SETTLEMENTS
Name Population
Saint John’s 24,451
All Saints 3,900
Liberta 2,560
Potters Village 2,066
Source: http://www.citypopulation.de/Antigua.html
TABLE 1:
POPULATION BY PARISH
Parish Total Male Female
76,886 36,109 40,777
St, John’s City 24,451 11,400 13,051
St. John’s Rural 20,895 9,754 11,141
St. George’s 6,673 3,166 3,507
St. Peter’s 5,439 2,595 2,844
St. Phillip’s 3,462 1,643 1,819
St. Paul’s 7,848 3,652 4,196
St. Mary’s 6,793 3,212 3,581
Barbuda 1,325 687 638
Source: 2001 Census of Population and Housing for Antigua and
Barbuda.
TABLE 2:
THE URBAN SITUATION
The first settlement was established by the English in the 17th Century in the southern part of Antigua, in the area now known as Old Road. The growth of sugar demanded many workers and so large numbers of slaves were imported from Africa.
Antigua and Barbuda were surveyed between 1746 and 1748. Antigua was divided into six parishes for civic and social purposes.
PARISHES OF ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
Parish Name Acres Female
St. John’s 17,955 7,271.8
St. George’s 6,000 2,430.0
St. Peter’s 8,310 3,365.6
St. Phillip’s 10,881 4,406.8
St. Paul’s 11,941 4,836.1
St. Mary’s 14,190 5,747.0
Barbuda 39,680 16,058.1
Source: 2001 Census of Population and Housing for Antigua
and Barbuda.
TABLE 3:
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THE ECONOMY
Tourism is the most important industry and main national income earner, contributing about 70 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 85 percent of foreign exchange earnings. Warm dry climate, a large number of fine white sandy beaches and good location all play an important role not only in the tourism sector, but in the growing cargo and cruise passenger transport sector as well.
The on-line gambling and offshore financial services sectors have steadily grown to become areas of significant economic activity that generate additional foreign currency earnings.
Agriculture, fishing and a growing small-manufacturing (furniture, handicrafts and electronics) sector are also contributing to the national economic development.
There is a U.S. Air Force Tracking Station on the north coast of Antigua that the Antigua-Barbuda Government collects land-lease fees from. Properties belonging to expatriates and resident tourists in Antigua also bring foreign exchange to the country. In recent years, the number of Italian property owners in the country has grown appreciably. Antiguans and Barbudans living abroad send remittances home which helps the local economy. However, the recent global economic downturn has caused a reduction in such remittances.
ECONOMIC LANDSCAPE
The Gross National Income of the country had reached USD 810.9 million by 2004. Graph 1 (source) shows the annual percentage growth rate for Antigua and Barbuda over the years.
The services sector constitutes a larger share of the country’s Gross Domestic Product followed by industries. In the year 2005, the services sector accounted for 73.4 percent of the Gross Domestic Product. Major agricultural products in the country are vegetables, cotton, bananas, and livestock. Important industries are tourism, construction and manufacturing. The percentage share of agriculture in the total Gross Domestic Product of the country is declining over the years, while the share of the industry is rising as shown in Graph 2 (source).
Antigua’s settlement pattern was shaped primarily by the plantation system in which communities evolved from housing estate workers living close to agricultural areas. During slavery, slaves were denied land on which to establish their own settlements. However after emancipation, villages began to form. Some of the villages were named in celebration of their freedom such as Freetown, Freemansville and Liberta. Other settlements were established on church land around the chapels for example Jennings, Bendals and Newfield. Later settlements developed around trading towns, ports and forts.
The first town established in Antigua is believed to be Falmouth in 1632. Antigua’s first capital and port was established in Parham in 1663 and became the centre of sea trade. In April 1668, an Act was passed proposing that a town be built on St. John’s Harbour. St. John’s was one of the earliest trading posts (established in 1675), along with Parham, Falmouth, Bermudian Valley, and Old Road.
St. John’s was designed as a city in 1842. The decline of the sugar industry in the 1920s resulted in a reduction in export activities at Parham. Consequently, many businesses moved from Parham to St. John’s. St. John’s City is now the natural administrative capital and primary service and commercial centre in country.
The heaviest concentration of settlements in Antigua occur around St. John’s City and along All Saints Road which connects St. John’s to Falmouth. In contrast, the southern and eastern areas of Antigua are characterized by a dispersed pattern of mainly small settlements, the dominant pattern being one of small villages strung along the roads. Expansion of linear settlements enveloped a substantial portion of land over recent decades.
The first permanent settlement in Barbuda began in 1667. The Codrington family leased the island from England for many years. The island serves as a supply station to Antigua for marine resources, cattle, provisions and leather goods. Barbuda remained in the possession of the Codrington Family until 1860 when it became part of Antigua; and in July 1870, the Codrington family relinquished their lease. The capital, Codrington, was named after this influential family and it remains the only settlement in Barbuda.
Whereas St. John’s City is the national urban centre, All Saints and Codrington serve as sub-national centres. Parham, the English Harbour and Falmouth area, Old Road and Bolans all serve as special-development settlements where there are various mixed concentrations of tourism, heritage, fishing, agricultural, residential, commercial, and recreational activities.
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2000-01 2005-06 2006-07
GRAPH 1: GDP GROWTH (ANNUAL PERCENTAGE)
GRAPH 2: PERCENTAGE SHARE OF VARIOUS SECTORS IN TOTAL GDP
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120
1980 - 1981 1990 - 1991 2000 - 2001 2005 - 2006
Industry Services Agriculture Manufacturing
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REGISTERED BUSINESSES
In 2009, the Antigua and Barbuda Intellectual Property and Commerce Office had 993 business name registrations. For the year ending 2009, 159 companies were incorporated. In 2010 (February), 17 companies had been incorporated.
FOREIGN TRADE
Major export items in the country are food, machines and petroleum products. The country's export partners are Italy, Germany, Poland, and Singapore. Major imports are food, machines, chemicals, and oil. The country depends mainly on China, Germany, Singapore, and USA for its imports.
Graph 2 shows the level of exports and imports of merchandise goods in the country over years.
The country’s economy is largely dependent on the services sector. Tourism accounts for more than 50 percent of the country’s total Gross Domestic Product. The country is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) (http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/antigua-and-barbuda/structure-of-economy.html).
The global economic crisis has resulted in the decline of USA’s demand for imports and reduction in the number of tourists visiting the country, which has had a negative impact on the economy of Antigua and Barbuda. Efforts are underway to introduce a new ferry service that will reduce travel costs and facilitate movement of people and goods throughout the region.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)
The Human Development Index for Antigua and Barbuda is 0.868. The country is ranked 47 out of 182 countries.
By looking at some of the most fundamental aspects of people’s lives, the Human Development Index provides a much more complete picture of a country’s development than other indicators. Countries with the same Human Development Index levels can have very different levels of income and countries with similar levels of income can have very different Human Development Indexes.
GRAPH 3: LEVELS OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS (USD MILLIONS)
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2000 - 2001 2005 - 2006
Exports Imports
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SQUATTING
Squatting has become a more serious in problem in recent times for the following reasons:
1) Land prices keep soaring and therefore some low and middle income earners feel they have no choice but to squat on vacant land. A quarter acre of land in the suburbs that sold for about ECD 12,000 in the 1980s is now on the market for ECD 80,000 and above.
2) The traditional inexpensive crown land market is no longer within reach for most land buyers, as there is on average about 300 Government land plots for sale annually while the waiting list is between two to three thousand applicants. Additionally, even the prices of crown land have risen over time making this land unaffordable for the poor.
3) The huge influx of Caribbean immigrants over the past few decades has resulted in much of the cheap available land being bought, and raised the demand and prices of lands.
4) Rich expatriates and resort tourists have come to Antigua in recent years and bought land at prices that are many times above the local price rate. Therefore, some locals are reluctant to sell their lands to locals at affordable rates when they can fetch much higher prices from foreign buyers.
5) Some squatters are aware that if they remain squatting on a piece of private land for 15 or more years, they will by law be able to claim squatters-rights to the land.
6) Even though it is against the law, some squatters have been able to obtain electricity form the Antigua Public Utilities Authority and water services.
7) Many land owners in Antigua reside in other countries and so are not able to regularly check their land for encroachers; and when squatters are found on their land, it is difficult to mount a strong defence against them from overseas.
8) Government agencies that have the responsibility for monitoring and evicting squatters are under-staffed and under-equipped to deal effectively with this problem which has become fairly widespread.
SQUATTER CONDITIONS AT PIGGOTTS VILLAGE (NORTH CENTRAL)
Several shanty-type squatter houses are located on crown land and are situated on the edges of a small circular pond. This pond always contains water as it is fed by an underground spring (the rock-type in the area is limestone which is permeable). Animal waste is also directly disposed off in the pond. The pond is also littered with garbage and building rubble.
This situation creates a serious health risk, not only for the squatters but also for the villagers. Further, the aquifer below ground that feeds the spring is also contaminated resulting in the contamination of wells all over the village that are fed by this aquifer.
These squatter houses are supplied with illegal electricity connection from the Antigua Public Utilities Authority. Legally, only persons who own land or have legal right-of-use from the land owners have access to electricity.
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SAFETY AND SECURITY, GENDER AND HIV/AIDS
CRIME
Antigua and Barbuda is classified as having a low to moderate crime rate, compared to the average for industrialized countries. However, in recent years up until 2009, a wave of crime seemed to be on the rise. According to the new Commissioner of Police Vere Brown, the murder rate in 2010 was less than half that for 2009 and also the rate of rapes came down by nearly 300 percent. The overall crime figure by the end of December 2009 was 2407 crimes, but by the end of December 2010 it had reduced to 1960. (Source: Interview of Antigua and Barbuda Commissioner of Police Vere Brown, December 22, 2010. View this on the Internet: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0gdUuPEpgA).
The capture, death and prosecution of a number of rape suspects in the last couple of years have led to the reduction of rape incidences for the period 2010-2011. The public have contributed to the recent crime reductions, as people have been more forthcoming with crime information.
The communities that were most affected by the spate of rapes in the mid to late 2000s are located in and around St. John’s City and include: Grays Farm, Green Bay, Ottos, Browns Avenue, Martins Village, Whenner Road, Nut Grove, Golden Grove, and Johnsons Village. In an effort to fight rape, women’s groups like Women Against Rape (WAR) and Professional Organization for Women in Antigua and Barbuda (POWA) launched a media campaign to sensitize and educate the public on ways to protect women against rape. The Police Force
set up a special Rape Unit to specially handle rape cases, and it also stepped up its “community policing campaign” to win the confidence of the public so that persons with crime information would feel free to share this information with the Police. In addition, a confidential 1-800 telephone hotline for reporting incidences of rape was made available. Further, notices were published in newspapers, aired on the electronic media and posted on billboards in various communities asking persons to report any crime information they may have.
The Government claims that the increase in crime can be attributed to the increase in deportees from the United States. The Caribbean Community and Common Market delegates met with the US Department of Homeland Security to discuss this issue. They suggested that criminal records of all deportees be provided to the countries. The British High Commissioner to the Caribbean has stated, however, that recent studies have shown that there is no definitive or significant link between criminal deportees and actual crimes committed in the Caribbean region.
In further efforts to curb crime, a number of senior Canadian “Mounties” (police) were appointed on contract to top positions in the Antigua and Barbuda Royal Police Force, where their considerable experience in crime-fighting and police administration were put to good use. When the contract of the Canadian holding the post of Antigua and Barbuda Commissioner of Police expired in 2010, Mr. Vere Brown, a man with considerable police training and a decorated police
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career, was appointed in his place. In addition, 48 new police constables were recruited to the Police Force in 2007.
Women representation in governance and leadership positions account for 40 percent in most government institutions.
GENDER
It was found that low paying jobs tend to keep women in poverty and limit their ability to provide for their children. Their efforts to cope by taking on more than one job resulted in their children being left unattended for long periods, and falling prey to abuse and delinquency.
In St. John’s City and the rest of Antigua, both men and women have equal access to housing loans and mortgage financing but not necessarily equal opportunities. Women’s lower level of income poses a greater limit than men on the size and quality of housing they can access and procure, especially when a woman is the head of a single-parent household.
Teenage pregnancy is also a major challenge in the society. School girls who become pregnant are sometimes forced to drop out of school. Pregnancy usually means the end of formal education for girls, if they do not choose to attend the post-school and adult education programmes.
In the estimation of the Gender Affairs Division, immigrant female workers are most likely to suffer abuse. They are exploited financially, sexually and physically, are often forced or pushed into prostitution and are victims of human trafficking. Their passports are often taken from them and they end up being held hostage with no way of escape.
The resource constraint faced by the Gender Division limits the extent to which it can tackle these problems. However, by cooperating with other agencies, it has been able to make positive steps in dealing with these problem. It distributes information leaflets to private clinics and is always on the look-out for opportunities to bring issues to the attention of the authorities and to the public at large.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The Antigua and Barbuda Sexual Offences Act (No. 9 of 1995) criminalized marital rape. However, this criminalization extends only to certain circumstances, as follows:
A husband commits the offence of sexual assault when he has sexual intercourse with his wife without her consent by force or fear where there is in existence in
relation to them: (i) a decree of divorce; (ii) a decree of judicial separation; iii) a separation agreement; or (iv) an order for the husband not to molest his wife or have sexual intercourse with her.
The Domestic Violence Act (No. 3 of 1999) provides for protection orders by means of summary proceedings in cases involving domestic violence and related matters.
SERVICES FOR VICTIMS AND SURVIVORS OF DOMESTIC ABUSE
1. Emergency housing operated by the Hour Glass Foundation: While there is no shelter dedicated to victims of domestic violence, a Non-Governmental Organization known as “Hour Glass Foundation” operates Hero House and arranges emergency housing for three to five days for victims of domestic violence. This programme utilizes the homes of volunteers for the placement of persons in need of emergency accommodation. The Directorate has recently collaborated with Hero House enabling the extension of services to skills training and the provision of a building which can be used by a small number of battered women in need of emergency shelter.
2. The Sunshine Home operated by the Salvation Army: The Salvation Army operates the Sunshine Home, an institution for girls in difficult circumstances as well as girls in conflict with the law. It is reported that the main causes of institutionalization are parental abuse, incest and delinquencies. As is the case with other children’s homes in the Caribbean, there is no physical separation made between abused and delinquent girls. The girls are generally admitted to the Home pursuant to a Fit Person’s Order granted by the Magistrate Court in response to an application made by the Citizen’s Welfare Department.
3. Hotline for domestic violence: The Directorate of Gender Affairs operates a hotline for domestic violence. The hotline is serviced by a group of trained volunteers under the supervision of the Directorate.
THE HIV/AIDS EPIDEMIC
Known as the ‘gateway to the Caribbean’ since the end of the 18th century because of its advantageous location, Antigua and Barbuda is considered a minor trans-shipment port for the illegal transport of narcotics bound for USA and Europe. The existence of this passage way has had an impact on drug use and other social behaviours, especially among the country’s youth.
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Death from HIV related illnesses were among the ten leading causes of death and in the age group 20-59 years, AIDS was the leading cause of death (30 deaths which represented 9.8 percent of all deaths) in this age group.
The economy depends heavily on tourism for foreign exchange, employment and Government revenue. This dependence, coupled with the introduction of casinos and gambling spots, has resulted in the growth of sex work.
HIV is no longer just a health issue; it is also a social issue, a human rights issue and an economic issue. This disease affects young adults just as they are in the most reproductive years of their lives, when they should be contributing to the economic development of the country and raising their children. It also affects young women and leaves many children as orphans.
The first case of AIDS in Antigua-Barbuda was reported in December 1985 in a homosexual male. Since then and up to the end of September 2007, a cumulative total of 663 persons have tested positive for HIV and a cumulative total of approximately 250 AIDS cases were reported to the AIDS Secretariat. A total of 163 persons have died from AIDS related causes, giving a 65 percent case fatality rate. Since the advent of free Anti Retroviral Treatment in September 2004, the death rate among HIV positive persons has remained below 10 persons per year. Heterosexual transmission is the leading mode of acquiring HIV.
The available data indicate that the economically active population is most affected by the AIDS epidemic with the majority of notified cases of HIV occurring in persons between the ages of 20 and 54 years. In the 25-29 year age group, there are more HIV positive women than men. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the most at-risk groups are the youth and homosexuals. The total number of people dying from HIV related causes was 163, giving a 65 percent case fatality rate.
Majority of people with HIV/AIDS are in the age group 15-49. Of the 110 confirmed HIV cases for the period January 2006 to the end of September 2007, 86 people were between the ages of 15 and 49 and out of the 86, 33 were male and 53 were female.
STATUS OF THE EPIDEMIC
Deaths from HIV-related causes are among the ten leading causes of deaths in all age groups, and in the age group 20-59, AIDS is the leading cause of death.
Some determinants of the epidemic include multiple sexual partners, prostitution, sex tourism, inconsistent condom use, and underlying psycho-social and economic factors, which include an increasing migrant labour population.
POLICY AND PROGRAMME RESPONSE
A National AIDS Committee (NAC), under the direction of the Chief Medical Officer (CMO) and comprising of members from the Ministry of Health, Education and Home Affairs, Civil Society and Faith-Based Organizations was appointed in 1985 after the first AIDS case was diagnosed.
The National AIDS Programme (NAP) has a functioning Secretariat headed by an AIDS Programme Manager and operates as a unit within the Ministry of Health. The AIDS Secretariat is the coordinating body for all HIV/AIDS efforts and works closely with other Government ministries, people living with HIV/AIDS and the civil society to implement HIV/AIDS strategies and programmes. It also serves as the focal point for the collection and dissemination of information about HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and related issues.
In keeping with the Strategic Plan for the National Response to HIV/AIDS 2002-2005, which was developed in 2001, the National AIDS Programme has been incorporated into the existing public health infrastructure. Several policies and procedural manuals have been developed to guide the operations of the National AIDS Programme and provisions have been made for the establishment of the Office of an Ombudsman to deal with issues pertaining to workers rights including those associated with HIV/AIDS.
PREVENTION
The PMTCT (Preventing Mother-to-Child Transmission) Programme continues in which 99 percent of pregnant women are tested for HIV and those who test positive receive anti-retroviral drugs free of charge. In addition, HIV-positive mothers are given infant formula and discouraged from breast-feeding. Voluntary Counselling and Testing services are available at all community health centres, private medical offices and hospitals in Antigua and Barbuda. Free HIV testing is provided at the public laboratory and is available for all pregnant women and their partners. Standard drug kits for managing Sexually Transmitted Infections are provided by the Ministry of Health. Condoms are also provided free of the charge by the Government.
TREATMENT, CARE AND SUPPORT
A Clinical Care Coordinator who heads the Clinical Care Team was appointed in 2005. This appointment serves to standardize and improve the quality of care and treatment for people living with HIV/AIDS as well as strengthen surveillance and monitoring and evaluation of the National AIDS Programme. Anti Retroviral Drugs are dispensed at no cost to people living with HIV/AIDS from the hospital pharmacy at the public
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hospital. The Health, Hope and HIV Network, a support group for people living with HIV/AIDS, is active and continues to work with the National AIDS Programme in HIV/AIDS education activities. The Tri-Star Alliance targets at-risk men who have sex with men (MSM) and educates them on HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections. It also continues to work with the AIDS Secretariat and other partners involved in the response to the AIDS epidemic.
Other HIV/AIDS control activities include: social marketing of condoms; school-based HIV/AIDS education for youth; Voluntary Counselling and Testing programmes for sex workers, homosexuals and other most-at-risk populations; and programmes to ensure safe injections in health care settings. A mechanism to ensure that people living with HIV/AIDS receive appropriate medical care, home care and supportive palliative care has been developed.
Treatment, care and support strategies include:
1. Establish a comprehensive treatment, care and support unit for people living with HIV/AIDS.
2. Establish a system for follow-up care for people living with HIV/AIDS.
3. Provide standardized services for inaccessible vulnerable groups in a more comfortable environment.
4. Conduct a country wide assessment of Orphans and Vulnerable Children as well as develop and implement policies on the management and care of Orphans and Vulnerable Children.
5. Develop systems and train staff to ensure high-quality HIV testing and counselling services.
POLICY AND LEGISLATION
1. Build an enabling framework of legislation and rights by reviewing and revising existing policies and laws relating to insurance and HIV/AIDS testing, immigration of HIV positive persons, and the protection of human rights.
2. Revise and update the existing policy framework on HIV/AIDS and disseminate widely to all stakeholders involved in the response to HIV/AIDS.
3. Review and revise existing policies and programmes which relate to access to health services by youth; the deliberate and reckless transmission of HIV/AIDS; access to medicine; and the disclosure of HIV/AIDS status.
4. Revise the Labour Code to include policies on HIV/AIDS.
5. Implement the HIV/AIDS Workplace Policy in the public and private sectors.
6. Develop anti-discriminatory legislation by revising existing legislation and policies that promote or reinforce stigma and discrimination.
7. Promote the existence of a Human Rights desk.
EDUCATION AND PREVENTION
1. Develop an effective behaviour change programme for the population through a comprehensive strategy which aims to bring about lifestyle changes in the population.
2. Design and disseminate age-appropriate messages using various art forms and involving target populations and popular artistes (especially in the music industry) in the design of these messages.
3. Ensure that messages (posters and brochures) are displayed in non-traditional outlets and popular places.
4. Train teachers in sexual and reproductive health so that they can discuss these topics comfortably with students.
5. Improve the provision of PMTCT (Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission) services countrywide.
6. Provide standardized Voluntary Counselling and Testing services at easily identifiable sites.
7. Improve collaboration between the agencies involved in the distribution of condoms.
8. Increase the number of sites for the distribution of condoms using non-traditional outlets.
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Establish a Monitoring and Evaluation Framework and System to track the performance and impact of the National AIDS Programme as well as provide evidence-based information to local stakeholders for decision-making and to international donors for funding. There is need to:
1. Improve monitoring and evaluation skills (capacity building).
2. Develop procedures and guidelines for the Monitoring and Evaluation Framework so that the efficiency and effectiveness of interventions of the National AIDS Programme can be documented and reported.
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3. Request technical support to develop the Monitoring and Evaluation Framework and System;
4. Strengthen the data collection process of the National AIDS Programme - ensure that information is collected, collated and disseminated on a timely basis to local, regional and international partners involved in the response to HIV/AIDS.
THE CARIBBEAN HIV/AIDS ALLIANCE (CHAA)
The Antigua Country Office of the Caribbean HIV/AIDS Alliance (CHAA) was officially launched in October 2008. The Caribbean HIV/AIDS Alliance currently has one key project in Antigua, the Eastern Caribbean Community Action Project (EC-CAP).
In Antigua, heterosexual sex is the main mode of HIV/AIDS transmission. However, stigma and discrimination, homophobia and prohibitive legal frameworks attached to homosexuality and sex work have increased the vulnerability of sex workers and homosexuals to HIV/AIDS. The national response has traditionally utilized broad-based messages targeted at the general population, without focus on vulnerabilities for specific populations. While important steps have been made to ensure universal access, people living with HIV still face stigma and discrimination which prevents access to care and support services. Community Based Organizations are overstretched and lack the capacity and funding to make a significant response.
The Caribbean HIV/AIDS Alliance Antigua Country Office is addressing these gaps by directing targeted messages to key populations through sustained interventions conducted by Community Animators and by strengthening Government and community organizations to respond to the epidemic. Over the past two years, the Antigua office has scaled up its work, supporting key populations to make safer sexual choices and enabling them to access and utilize services provided by the Government and community organizations. The Alliance has also supported the development of a community based counselling and rapid testing programme. Between May and December 2009, 1,360 people were provided with counselling and rapid HIV testing through the National AIDS Programme, with technical and financial support from the Caribbean HIV/AIDS Alliance.
HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
Assessing human trafficking in Antigua and Barbuda (www.antiguasunonline.com/columns/gender-joournal/248527-assessing-human-trafficking-in-antigua-and-barbuda.html)
(www.antiguasunonline.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=248527:assessing-human-trafficking-in-antigua-and-barbuda&catid=72:gender-journal&Itemid=88)
The victims identified by the USA in Antigua and Barbuda’s case were women trafficked from Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Dominican Republic, for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced domestic work. The report further stated that well-financed businessmen traffic women into the four main, illegal brothels that operate in Antigua, as well as to private residences that operate as brothels.
In its assessment of Antigua and Barbuda, the TIP 2009 Report indicated that brothel managers confiscated passports and threatened women with detention until they repay the brothel owner for travel and other expenses. The report further stated that some victims trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation had been given work permits as “entertainers” to legally enter the country.
However, it is important to note that not all women and men brought in to Antigua and Barbuda or transported throughout the Caribbean to work within the sex trade are victims of human trafficking. For many, sex work is a choice, albeit a complicated, socially and economically complex one.
The Protection Project - Antigua (www.protectionproject.org/human_rights_reports/report_documents/antigua.doc)
Available data suggests that trafficking occurs primarily for the purpose of prostitution. Sex tourism is also part of the trafficking infrastructure in Antigua and Barbuda. There are reports of trafficking in children for sexual exploitation and pornography. In 2001, the police arrested and charged four people in connection with an ongoing investigation into an alleged child prostitution and pornography ring. Girls as young as 13 were being sexually exploited. The ring was discovered after one of the girls was forced to have an abortion.
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
HISTORICAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
WINDS / HURRICANES
An unusually large number of hurricanes and storms had struck Antigua and Barbuda within a narrow ten year period: Hurricane Hugo (1989), Hurricane Luis (1995), Hurricane Marilyn (1995), Hurricane Georges (1998), (Hurricane Jose, 1999), and Hurricane Lenny (1999).
Hurricane Luis was by far the most devastating. This hurricane damaged or destroyed 90 percent of buildings in Antigua and Barbuda for the following reasons:
• The cyclone was very huge in size and had a very slow forward speed, and so lingered over the islands for a long time.
• The winds were very strong, bordering between Categories 4 and 5.
• Because the last two hurricanes to strike Antigua were all the way back in 1950, modern building codes, methods and materials had become lax. This caused most buildings to become vulnerable to wind and rain damage.
DROUGHT
Antigua and Barbuda are prone to periodical drought, which occur every seven years. Even though the Northeast Trade Winds that constantly blow across the country are warm and laden with moisture, Antigua and Barbuda suffer bouts of drought due to their low topographies which do not trigger rain. Further, Antigua is one of the most deforested countries in the Caribbean after Haiti, and this too has the effect of not attracting rainfall. The lack of widespread forests further exacerbate drought conditions since forests normally perform the function of retaining rain water runoff and helping to retain water on the land.
STORM SURGE
Storm surges are a part of hurricanes and storms, and have done much damage to coastal built development. The reasons for this are as follows:
1. Since Antigua’s main industry is tourism and the island’s coast is lined with an abundance of fine beaches, numerous hotels, villas, condominiums, and tourist residential properties are built on the coast. Therefore, when storm surges occur there is a lot of property damage, which negatively impacts the country’s tourism industry.
2. Further, some beaches suffer severe sand-loss during the storm surges, which has an adverse impact on the tourism-based economy.
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FLOODS
The impacts of floods in Antigua have become particularly acute in recent years for the following reasons:
1. There are frequent and severe cyclones, attributed to the consequences of Global Warming and Climate Change.
2. People have built homes in swampy, low-lying areas that are naturally prone to flooding.
3. The construction of buildings in water courses and the backfilling of water courses, ponds and other wetlands, has had the effect of blocking the natural flow and catchment of surface runoff, leading to flooding.
4. Natural and man-made drains have been blocked by community solid wastes, uncontrolled vegetation growth and soil deposits.
Some of the areas that have been seriously affected by flooding and mudflows include: Osbourn/north Pigotts areas, North Sound leading into Fitches Creek, Parts of Paynters Community, York’s New Extension, Halcyon Road in the vicinity of McKinnons and Yorks Village, and Golden Grove New Extension.
HILL-SIDE FIRES
Hill-side fires over recent years have caused the die-back of hill-side and hill-top forests and their replacement by the invasive Lemon (Fever) Grass. The shallow roots of the Lemon Grass cannot hold and anchor the hill-side soils the way the deep root of forest trees could, as a result the hill sides today are experiencing significant levels of soil erosion. Further, the loss of forests results in the loss of habitat for many fauna; there is therefore a reduction of both plant and animal biodiversity on the island. These fires are normally initiated by natural means such as lightning or by human activities.
EARTHQUAKES
Like most of the islands in the Eastern Caribbean, Antigua and Barbuda lies on a convergent plate margin – where the crustal plate beneath the Atlantic is colliding with the Caribbean Plate. Because of this, these islands experience frequent earthquakes. Most of these earthquakes are mere tremors, but occasionally a very powerful one may strike and cause a lot of damage to buildings and to the local economy. Two such
earthquakes occurred in Antigua in 1843 and again in 1974.
The National Office for Disaster Services (NODS) acts as the secretariat for disaster management and services in Antigua and Barbuda. Disaster services are sub-divided according to districts, each headed by a district coordinator. A number of organizations and agencies comprise the National Disaster Plan, some of which are as follows; Red Cross, Fire Brigade, Royal Police Force, Defense Force, Coast Guard, Shipping Agents, Central Board of Health, and Mount St. John’s Medical Centre among others.
Disaster risk is included by law in private and public urban planning and development. The problem is with enforcement of these laws due to the following reasons:
1. Lack of manpower and technical know-how.
2. Unclear legal framework and mandates between various agencies. The mandates of these agencies in some instances overlap and in other instances are disconnected.
One example of non-enforcement of disaster risk regulations is the widespread use of corrugated galvanized sheets for property fencing, which is against the law, since they pose a serious threat to life during a hurricane.
In the midst of a disaster, the National Office for Disaster Services is temporarily disbanded and the National Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) becomes operational in its place until the disaster comes to an end. The Prime Minister is head of both the National Office for Disaster Services and the National Emergency Operations Centre.
When disasters occur it is the poor, the elderly, the disabled, and women and children who are most at risk and most unable to cope.
Local communities assist in identifying risks and reducing the impacts of disasters by reporting activities such as illegal mining and unauthorized burning of solid waste.
The National Emergency Operations Centre is responsible for accessing funding outside the Government’s budget, for example, from the private sector, from regional bodies (through the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency – CDEM), and from international agencies and concerned groups.
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One “best practice” case study of urban disaster risk reduction involves the clearing, cleaning, straightening, deepening and widening of critical water ways in various communities, so as to avert flooding in the event of heavy and persistent rain. This exercise is normally undertaken just before the annual hurricane season that commences on June 1st. Involved in this activity is the Public Works Department, the Central Board of Health and the National Solid Waste Management Authority.
The National Office for Disaster Services aims to reduce urban disaster risk by conducting year-round training for government and private groups, and for the civil society in general.
The National Office for Disaster Services is financed from a relatively tight budget from the central Government. However, projects are funded by regional and international agencies.
Disaster management in Antigua and Barbuda is guided by the Antigua and Barbuda Disaster Management Act, No. 13 of 2002.
Cases of public/private partnerships in disaster risk reduction include:
1. District Disaster Committees have members who possess dump trucks, backhoes and other heavy-duty equipment that they put to the service of the community.
2. Car dealers donate vehicles to disaster service organizations such as the National Office for Disaster Services, the Red Cross, the Police Force and Defence Force.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND SEA LEVEL RISE
Human induced global warming, to which the contribution of the Caribbean countries is minimal compared to that of the rest of the world, is recognized as one of the defining global challenges of the twenty-first century. According to the fourth assessment report of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), global temperatures are projected to rise between 1.4°C and 6.4°C over the period from 1990 to 2100, while, as was said at the International Scientific Congress on Climate Change held in Copenhagen in 2009, the global sea level is expected to rise by one metre or more in the same period.
As a result, the biggest challenge for Caribbean cities, particularly for coastal and small island developing states like Antigua-Barbuda, is the possible need to relocate people in response to the flooding caused by sea-level rise. Sea-level rise has been occurring, mainly as a result of the surge in greenhouse gas emissions, with is causing global warming and the melting of polar ice and mountain glaciers.
Slum areas are anticipated to be the most vulnerable to extreme weather events such as hurricanes and droughts and to sea-level rise. The low-lying areas of coastal cities are also more susceptible to erosion, flooding and storm surges. A list of such areas in the vicinity of St. John’s City include: Perry Bay, Green Bay, Fibrey, Lower North Street, Lower Villa, Lower Fort Road, and Yorks.
Inhabitants of marginal areas may be forced to migrate to urban areas (where infrastructure and social services are already under a lot of stress as a result of population pressure), if farming becomes less productive due to changing climatic conditions. In most Caribbean countries, farming depends entirely on the quality of the rainy season. The productivity of fisheries will also be affected.
The management of pollution, sanitation, waste disposal, water supply and public health, in addition to the provision of adequate infrastructure in urban areas, could become more difficult and costly under changed climatic conditions.
African, Caribbean and Pacific populations are expected to be at risk from increased incidences of vector-borne diseases. A warmer environment could open up new territories for Malaria. Altered temperature and rainfall patterns could increase the incidences of Yellow Fever and Dengue Fever.
The Environment Division in Antigua and Barbuda is to craft a comprehensive policy to address the possible impacts of climate change on the coastline and the watersheds. The aim is to determine the possible impact on both human health and the economy. The Environment Division has issued a warning to developers to adhere to the Development Control Authority guidelines concerning “set-back limits” for buildings on the coast. The Division is encouraging developers, regardless of the scale of the development, to adhere to the guidelines, which were developed for the protection and conservation of both property and environment.
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CULTURAL HERITAGE IN AND AROUND ST. JOHNS
Much of the old town of St. John’s still has plenty of wooden and stone buildings and the original street grid-layout. Even in the very heart of the Central Business District, you will find large two-storied buildings, small shops and one or two room cottages, appearing as they did in the 1840s, surrounded with small flowers and vegetable gardens and overshadowed with large mango, breadfruit, coconut, and plumb trees.
Most of the historic buildings of St. John’s City have the lower floor of masonry construction with the upper floor built of wood. Originally, the thick 18 to 24 inch masonry walls of the lower floor were said to keep the inside of the building cool during the day in the very hot tropical climate and also act as a barrier to termite attacks of the wooden floor above. The upper wooden floor was supposed to allow the building to better survive earthquakes. The early one-and-a-half storey houses were built with the lower floor of masonry serving as storerooms (cellars) and/or workshops, with outside steps leading to the wooden floor above. Some old buildings have been carefully renovated or restored.
Many of the early town activities still survive today as well: street-side hucksters selling traditional foods and confectionaries from wooden trays; hawkers along the street-sides selling brightly coloured clothes, home utensils and locally-made brooms. Therefore, despite the many instances of modernization, St. John’s City has
managed to maintain much of its quaint appearance, charm and rich culture. All this is very important for Antiguan’s identity as a people and for the country’s developing heritage tourism industry.
A list of some of the historic sites that are of touristic value in St. John’s are: Government House, The Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine, The St. John’s Court House, The Ebenezer Methodist Church, Prince Klass Memorial, Westerby Memorial, V.C. Bird Memorial and V.C. Bird Statue, The Country Pond, and Redcliffe Quay.
CHALLENGES IN RESTORING/MAINTAINING HERITAGE BUILDINGS IN ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
• Limited available finances and the high cost for restorations and maintenance.
• Lack of will due to the colonial stigma associated with old colonial buildings.
• Many people simply do not see the value of heritage buildings and their potential for heritage tourism.
• Some people simply have a preference for modern-designed buildings rather than old colonial-styled buildings.
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• Some repair and restoration projects may take a long time.
• Shortage of the requisite expertise and skill in the country needed to restore these historical buildings.
• Expensive and hard-to-come-by specialized/customized materials may be required.
• The original materials and fixtures (such as cut stone blocks, bricks and cannon guns) of some heritage sites have been stolen and are hard to replace.
• Many old buildings are too degraded and weakened to be easily restored.
• Old buildings tend to be more susceptible to disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes and fires.
• It is felt by some that old historic buildings tend to harbour vermin and vagrants.
Other important heritage sites include: Nelson’s Dockyard, Shirley Heights Lookout, Betty’s Hope Estate, Great Fort George (Monk’s Hill Fort), and Fort James.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
The culture of Antigua and Barbuda is predominantly a blend of British and African. An example of British culture in the country is cricket which is the national sport. Antigua has produced several famous cricket players including Sir Vivian Richards, Anderson “Andy” Roberts, Richard “Richie” Richardson, and Curtly Ambrose. Other popular sports include football, boat racing and surfing (the Antigua Sailing Week attracts locals and visitors from all over the world). Though the official national language is English, African culture expresses itself in the dialect that most Antiguans and Barbudans speak daily. African culture is also manifested in their local rhythmic music and dances, as well as in their dress, food and mannerisms. The Warri Game, played on a hollowed-out board with beads, is a popular national game in Antigua and Barbuda that originated from Africa.
American popular culture and fashion have also assumed a heavy influence, especially in recent years. Most of the country’s media is made up of major United States networks.
Family and religion play an important role in the lives of Antiguans. Most attend religious services on Sunday, although there is a significant number of Seventh-day Adventists who observe the Sabbath on Saturday.
The national Carnival held each August commemorates the abolition of slavery. Its festive pageants, shows, contests, revelries, and other activities are now a major national pastime as well as an important tourist attraction.
Calypso, Soca, Reggae, Gospel, and North American Pop are all important music genres in Antigua and Barbuda. Steelpan and steelband music is an important part of Antigua and Barbuda’s musical heritage and culture, and help define the country’s identity as distinctly Caribbean.
Corn and sweet potatoes play an important role in Antiguan cuisine. For example, a popular Antiguan dish, Dukuna (DOO-koo-NAH) is a sweet, steamed dumpling made from grated sweet potatoes and coconut, flour and spices. One of the Antiguan staple foods, Fungi (FOON-ji), is a cooked paste made of cornmeal, Okra and water. Rice, beans and peas, pasta, white-flour bakes/dumplings, fish, chicken, goat, lamb/mutton, salted cod, smoked herring, and beef are also important in the Antiguan and Barbudan diet.
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HEALTH
Health care in Antigua and Barbuda falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and the formulation of health programmes is based on the Government’s health policy. The health sector is influenced by population size and distribution, employment levels and migration.
Government policy aims at providing health care for all citizens. Greater emphasis is being placed on health promotion, protection and prevention strategies, as well as improved sanitation. There is also evidence that while some aspects of the primary health care are excellent, there are instances where the quality of health care provided by community clinics and ambulatory services were not sufficient and that many areas of deficiency exist which could adversely impact the poor in the society. The Ministry of Health should therefore strengthen health service delivery capacity as well as increase medical supplies and improve the quality of health services in Antigua and Barbuda.
Health services are provided by both the public and private sector and primary health care services can be found within a 3.2 kilometre radius of every major community. The health system is semi-decentralized with health care divided among the Ministry of Health, Community Nursing Services, the Central Board of Health, and the Barbuda Council as well as the decentralization of pharmaceutical services (The Minster of Health, the Honourable John Maginley stated in the National Business Plan for Health).
The health system is financed through public taxation, Medical Benefits Levies, private insurance, private donations, and the Social Security Fund. User fees, the main source of revenue in the private sector, have a negligible role in public sector financing. During the period 2001-2005, Government expenditure on health averaged 12.6 percent of the national budget. The recurrent expenditure on health in 2004 was USD 27.9 million and the estimated recurrent expenditure on health was USD 24.5 million.
The country is subdivided into six medical districts, each of which is assigned a District Medical Officer (DMO). Health care services in Antigua and Barbuda are provided at the following institutions: Holberton Hospital, Mount St. John’s Medical Centre, The Adelin Medical Centre, The Hannah Thomas Hospital, Spring View Hospital, The Clear View Mental Hospital, The Fiennes Institute, various community health clinics, and various medical facilities distributed throughout the country.
WORLD BANK EASE OF DOING BUSINESS REPORT - ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA (JUNE 2008 - MAY 2009)Zone 1
Eastern District Newfield
Bethesda
Freetown
Pares / Seatons / Glanvilles
Willikies
Parham / Crabbs
All Saints Area Liberta
Cobbs Cross
John Hughes
Swetes
All Saints District All Saints
Zone 2
Southern District Old Road
Bolans
Johnson's Point
Jennings
Bendals
Gray’s Farm 1 Gray's Farm Health Centre
Five Islands
Gray’s Farm 2 Brownes Avenue Health Centre
Zone 3
St. John’s 1 Bishopsgate St. Health Centre
St. John’s 2 and Potters Ottos Newtown Clinic
Potters Clinic
Northern District Cedar Grove Clinic
Judges Hill
Clare Hall Clinic
Pigotts Clinic
Source: NPDP, 2001
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CHALLENGES
In Antigua, the commitment to decentralize health services in order to develop local health districts did not yield the expected results. The system is still centrally managed, and patients from rural areas continue to travel to St. John’s for x-rays, laboratory, and drug services. The Spring View Hospital in Barbuda is usually closed on weekends, with staff on call. Provision of adequate medical services in Barbuda is hindered by the lack of modern laboratory facilities, which necessitates that basic tests be performed in Antigua (Source: GENIVAR, “State of the Country Report for Antigua and Barbuda - including Redonda”. Draft. Trinidad and Tobago, January 2010).
EDUCATION
The education system in Antigua and Barbuda follows the British pattern. Since 1973 Antigua and Barbuda has free and compulsory education for boys and girls aged 5 to 16. Pre-school is available for children from ages 3 to 6. Primary education, compulsory for all children up to age 12, is provided for five or six years. Secondary education, lasting four or five years, is offered upon the successful completion of a qualifying examination (the Primary School Common Entrance Exam). Private schools have their own qualifying examinations, while public schools use a standard test.
Post secondary education is offered at the Antigua State College and at the local branch campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI). The Antigua State College offers a two-year program in five departments: Teacher Training, the Advanced Level in General Education, Commerce, Engineering, and Nursing. Upon completion of the program, students take exams to earn certificates from external institutions such as the University of the West Indies, Cambridge University and the Royal Arts Society of London. Students attending the local branch campus of the University of the West Indies complete one year or two years of studies and then continue their studies at another campus in Jamaica, Trinidad or Barbados.
The 90 percent literacy rate indicates that the education system is reasonably successful in imparting basic skills. Despite this achievement, problems still exist. Educational supplies and facilities are inadequate. In addition, there exists a high percentage of untrained teachers at all levels. These instructional deficiencies contribute to a national shortage of skilled labour. Efforts are currently underway by the Ministry of Education to provide training to as many teachers as possible.
In the 1980-1981 school year, primary-school enrolment was 10,211 students, 78 percent of whom were in public schools. Out of a total of 436 primary-school teachers, 82 percent were in the public system. Secondary schools had a total of 5,687 students and 321 teachers. 66
percent of the students and 71 percent of the teachers were in the public system. The state college consisted of 329 students, although most were from Antigua and Barbuda, some students also came from Anguilla, the Turks, Caicos Islands, and Montserrat. The two special education schools had a combined enrolment of thirty-seven students, instructed by thirteen teachers (http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/95.htm).
There has been an increase in primary school enrolment from 71 percent (13,541) in 2000 to 86 percent (11,266) in 2008. When it comes to secondary school enrolment, values from 2007 to 2008 marked a significant decrease from 5,311 students being enrolled in Government secondary schools in 2007 to 1,849 in 2008 - the causes of this data gap are unavailable due to data inconsistencies.
Children who are unable to secure places in secondary schools during the Common Entrance Exams continue at the primary schools for an additional three years. The Census, 2001 data indicates that following secondary school enrolment there is a drastic decline in students pursuing further studies, from 26 percent attending secondary school to only 1 percent attending university.
Data from the Ministry of Education and the Board of Education suggest that some schools are overcrowded, with current enrolment exceeding the capacity of the schools to accommodate them. Incidences of overcrowding are more acute in schools situated in urban areas.
CHALLENGES
Consistent with the National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) 2001, the following issues in the education sector may affect literacy rate, productivity, job availability, and income levels as well as the local labour market/pool:
• Difficulty of keeping students in school beyond the mandatory age of 16. Peer pressure and the lure of employment in the hotel and construction sectors encourage students to leave school at 16 rather than pursue advanced level courses;
• Lack of facilities to accommodate slow learners and the mentally or physically challenged in Barbuda educational institutions;
• Lack of adequate teaching space in Barbuda’s secondary schools. This results in classes being held in nearby public buildings. Expansion of the curriculum to include typing and computer technology courses has resulted in the need for additional classrooms;
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• Inadequate textbooks and school supplies in Barbuda; and
• Poor physical condition of many school buildings in Antigua, due largely to inadequate maintenance and student vandalism.
(Source: GENIVAR, “State of the Country Report for Antigua and Barbuda (including Redonda”. Draft. Trinidad and Tobago, January 2010. )
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LAND
There is an artificial scarcity of residential land in Antigua which is created by private land owners who are unwilling to sell land for housing. Instead, they hold land as a means of financial security, a show of wealth and to pass on to their children. There is also much underdeveloped land in approved subdivisions, or which has been allocated to locals and foreigners who have not develop them. This artificial scarcity is reflected in high prices for land and housing that puts them beyond the reach of low-income and many middle-income earners.
The Government is the largest landowner in Antigua, owning about 42 percent of the land, while 32 percent is privately owned. Data for 1985 was unable to establish the ownership of almost 16,000 acres of land.
Allocation of Government land for development is carried out by various agencies with minimal consultation and coordination. Further, there is no formal land use policy for St. John’s City.
There is a draft land use framework that is under review by the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands Housing and the Environment. In addition, land zoning ordinances are being drafted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Housing, and the Environment.
Land ownership is governed by the Land Laws of Antigua and Barbuda, and land use is regulated by the Development Control Authority and the Environment Division. The Development Control Authority, in partnership with the Environment Division, is currently revising the Draft National Physical Development
Plan that was completed in 2000. If the revised Plan is officially adopted and ratified by Cabinet, it will greatly promote a more rational use of the nation’s limited land resource, a more sustainable use of other natural resources, and help guide future development and infrastructure investment decisions.
INSTITUTIONAL SET-UP
• The Land Registry, under the Ministry of Legal Affairs, administers all Crown Land and keeps land records.
• Land titles fall under the Ministry of Legal Affairs.
• The Survey Department is under the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Housing and the Environment, and is responsible for the laying out of land.
• The Cadastral Department is responsible for maps and aerial photographs.
• The Inland Revenue Department is charged with the task of receiving and collecting land taxes.
• The St. John’s Development Corporation is mandated to implement development goals (land and otherwise) in St. John’s.
• The Environment Division can advise the Development Control Authority to close down an operation that is in violation of the Environmental Act.
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There are a few overlaps in the land institutions of Antigua such as between legislation for the Development Control Authority and for the Central Housing and Planning Authority. They both have legal powers of eviction (although in practice, only the Development Control Authority has been exercising them).
Some of the land legislations need to be updated to deal with the current challenges facing the land sector. According to the National Physical Development Plan Report (2000), there is no mechanism for implementing most of the land laws (no schedules drafted and approved, and implementing agencies not designated or equipped), and where agencies exist there is need for more coordination.
LAND ENCROACHMENT
There is encroachment of built development on fertile agricultural land in many parts of Antigua. In addition, a lot of agricultural land is currently left idle or is under low intensity agricultural use. Failure to exploit their full potential leaves these areas vulnerable to encroachment from built development.
AGREED PRIORITIES
• Land adjudication project in the informal settlements.
• Establishment of a Land Allocation Committee.
• Public awareness on land matters.
• Computerization of land projects.
• Lobbying for passing of the Land Bill.
• Capacity building on proper land management.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND POLICIES ENUNCIATED IN THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN AND THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LAND USE POLICY (NALUP)
1. Proposals for built development on agricultural land must be evaluated to determine whether the type, size and location of such development compromise the viability of agricultural production on surrounding land.
2. Indiscriminate grazing and tethering of livestock should be prohibited, especially in residential areas.
3. Clearing of land and construction should only be carried out with the approval of the Development Control Authority.
4. Prime agricultural land shall not be alienated, for built development, industry or non-agricultural use, without consultations with the Livestock, Crop and Forestry sections of the Ministry of Agriculture.
5. Provision of public utilities or other infrastructure or a proposal of significant economic benefit to a region may cause prime agricultural land to be converted to non-agricultural use. Such conversion must:
• Comply with some discrete planning scheme or amendment; and
• Have the confirmation from the Development Control Authority that there is an overriding need for development for community benefit and a suitable alternative site is not available.
6. Adjoining non-agricultural use and development should not unreasonably fetter agricultural use.
7. Where agricultural land has been encroached or change of use has occurred because of illegal actions and actions contrary to policy, there must be procedures for mandatory reclamation of that land to its rightful use category and guidelines or procedures for application of compensatory penalties, such that will deter such change of use.
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STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Human resources: there are many educated and skilled individuals residing in the country, the population is mostly English-speaking and friendly and stable socio-political conditions.
Unique location: close proximity to the world’s most lucrative market, the USA; directly across the Atlantic Ocean from the world’s second most lucrative market, Western Europe; centrally located within the Caribbean archipelago; less than a day’s sail for cruise ships doing “island-hopping”.
Natural resources that are ideally suited for tourism: bright clear sunny skies and spectacular sunsets; warm weather and sea; cool constant North East Trade Winds; an abundance of beautiful white and pink powdery sandy beaches; attractive turquoise/aqua-marine coastal waters; beautiful under-water sceneries, including coral reefs; and interesting landscapes and land features.
Rich and interesting culture, history, festivals, and sports.
A weak manufacturing sector.
A much reduced agricultural sector, that once was the main-stay of the economy but which now contributes less than 3 percent of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product. Most food is now imported.
Demographics: small size of population which means small local market and low economies-of-scale in business and industry. A small economy is also vulnerable to external economic shocks.
Poor economic linkages - both backward and forward linkages. For example, there are not enough interactions and mutual benefit-exchanges between the two principal industries of the country; tourism and agriculture.
Periodic severe droughts, hurricanes, earthquakes (a few very powerful), occasional significant floods, small land size, poor agricultural soils in some areas, few, if any, mineral resources, and poor forest cover.
Under-exploited marine resources.
The Caribbean Single Market Economy (CSME) – the right to establish businesses and to work in member countries.
The Economic Partnership Agreement (EPAs) – to be able to take advantage of the European market.
Petro-Carib and Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA) Agreements – providing much-needed economic and technical assistance, and the potential for new markets.
There is a lot of potential for national, economic and social advancements by investing more in areas like education and sports tourism.
Natural disasters.
Increased import prices – mainly oil.
Continuing trend of out-migration – the so-called “Brain-drain” - of the country’s smartest, most educated and experienced workers to the developed countries of North America and Europe. Not only are these persons not present to help develop the country, but the country looses the vast resources it expended to educate and train them.
Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Antigua and Barbuda (see flow chart below).
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
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SLUMS AND SHELTER
SLUMSN°1
Project proposal
North Sound Residential Community
LOCATION: North Sound, St. George’s Parish, Antigua, West Indies.DURATION: The entire project will consist of three phases, and is to be completed over a five year period.Phase One is to be implemented over a 30 month period. BENEFICIARIES: For Phase One, Civil Servants and other Government workers. The other two phases will benefit the general public.IMPLEMENTING PARTNERS: The Government of Venezuela and the Government of Antigua and Barbuda (the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Housing, and the Environment and the Central Housing and Planning Authority). ESTIMATED COST: For Phase One, USD 10,000,000.BACKGROUND: The United Progressive Party Government, after it came to power in 2004, recognized a critical need for affordable yet good quality housing in the country. The current demand, by rough estimates, is about 5,000 homes. It thus made the provision of affordable homes one of its major priorities.OBJECTIVES: To provide affordable good quality homes with modern amenities to Government workers in Phase One of the project, and then to the general public in subsequent phases of the project.ACTIVITIES: (1) Vet development plans. (2) Secure project financing. (3) Preparation of building site. (4) Construction of homes. (6) Construction of the necessary infrastructure and amenities. (7)) Negotiate with lending institutions for favourable mortgage terms for home customers. (8) Procure (locally and overseas) needed building materials. (9) Interview and approve prospective home customers. (10) Marketing of the homes.OUTPUTS: For Phase One, a total of 79 homes, as expounded below: (1) 19 Two-bedroom single storey homes, each 855 square feet. (2) 30 Three-bedroom single storey homes, each 980 square feet. (3) 15 Three-bedroom two storey duplex homes, each unit with 1320 square feet floor area. (4) Underground utility services.(5) Community centre. (6) Hurricane shelter. (7) Paved concrete roads, drains and sidewalks. (8) Central sewage system. (9) Three recreational parks. (10) Sporting complex (with basketball and tennis courts). (11) Fenced and gated compound.
Upon completion of Phase Three of the project, over 400 homes are expected to have been completed.PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: The project will be implemented in three phases, running sequentially.
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT, CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
High level of coordination of disaster risk reduction activities.
Effective volunteer system at the National Emergency Operations Centre.
Frequent and wide-ranging training.
Very adaptable and resilient disaster emergency system in place.
High level of public support during a disaster.
High turn-over of staff and volunteers.
Inadequate resources (financial and human).
Local partnership agencies often lack adequate internal planning.
Some level of public apathy, especially to non-frequent disasters such as earthquakes.
There is a global shift from disaster preparedness and response to risk management and mitigation.
Training alternatives offer more flexibility, for example, distance learning, more available information and real-time data on the internet.
There are more community-centred initiatives.
Improved disaster risk management technology (computers and accompanying software, satellites, storm-chasing airplanes, weather balloons, and cell phone communication).
Global warming and climate change.
Many people travelling into Antigua and Barbuda. This has contributed to the rapid spread of communicable diseases.
The whole Caribbean region is regarded as a relatively soft/easy target for terrorism.
General apathy to negative physical development practices, such as placing buildings in natural water-ways, clearing land plots of all vegetation, and constructing buildings along the coast without observing the prescribed coastal set-backs.
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Garbage collection in St. John’s City and in the nation is done on a regular schedule.
Responses to public calls and concerns are usually quick.
Waste storage bins are provided for casual litter.
A system is in place for washing of gutters and streets.
The National Solid Waste Management Authority lacks sufficient waste management equipment.
Poor waste storage practices by members of the public.
Widespread littering.
Inadequate enforcement of legislation dealing with matters such as littering.
Absence of a central sewage system.
Illegal hawking.
Garbage recycling.
Ship waste disposal can generate foreign exchange for the country.
External training and conferences offer learning and the introduction of new ideas that can further improve the waste collection and disposal regime.
Considerations for waste-to-energy projects/businesses.
The National Solid Waste Management Authority is partnering with private businesses to ensure proper waste management.
Possibilities exist for accessing funding for a Central Sewage Treatment System.
Increase in population. This has lead to the increased generation of solid waste that is placing a greater burden on the disposal system.
Antiguans and Barbudans are rapidly adopting a consumption lifestyle that comes with their increasing standards of living, this has resulted in the increased generation of waste.
An increase in the number of national events held in the country has led to increased generation of waste, for example: The coming of Cricket World Cup to Antigua; The increase in pre-Carnival fetes in recent years; Love Fest and other large musical shows and concerts; and J’ouverts during the Carnival and other events of the year.
The national landfill is filling up faster than planned.
Lack of funds to hire more waste management personnel.
Lack of political will to make anti-littering enforcement a national priority.
BASIC URBAN SERVICES
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BASIC URBAN SERVICESN°1
Project proposal
Board of Guardians
LOCATION: The Board of Guardians Office is on St. John’s Street (lower), St. John’s City, and it is administered by the Social Transformation Division located on Dickenson Bay Street, St. John’s.
DURATION: Began in the late 1980s and is to run indefinitely. However, it is operated based on a budget that is revised and approved annually.
BENEFICIARIES: People are recommended to the Board for assistance by a church/pastor, relatives, friends, acquaintances, health clinics or doctors and nurses, social workers, police officers, and government and community officers. There are always more people in need than what the project budget allows. Therefore, people must be carefully screened by the Board to ensure that the neediest are the ones given the assistance. Assistance is basically a cash transfer.
IMPLEMENTING PARTNERS: The Board of Guardians has a dedicated staff of nine people. One of them is the Relieving Officer whose duty it is to take the relief funds to the beneficiaries. Some of the staff go out in the communities and assist in home repairs and help people who are disabled (for example, to take their medication). The staff also assess whether or not a recommended person should be helped.
ESTIMATED COST: USD 468,550 (2009/2010 budget).
BACKGROUND: The programme started in the late 1980s under the name, “The Poor People’s Relief Fund”. The initial donations were much smaller than they are currently.
OBJECTIVE: To assist the poor who are not able to help themselves and who have no other source of assistance.
OUTPUTS: (1) Increased standard of living for the very poor and helpless in society. (2) The poor and helpless will be assisted to get a “leg-up” or start in society so that they may eventually be able to depend on themselves.
ACTIVITIES: (1) Financial assistance is given by a card record system and the cards are kept by the individuals. Whenever an individual receives a payment, his/her card is updated. When the card is all filled out, a new card is issued. (2) Beneficiaries receive a stipend every two weeks or every month. (3) For basic home repairs, the Board gives each individual a grant of ECD 2,500. Repairs mostly consist of painting, replacement of decaying boards and fixing weak or leaking roofs. The Board first sends an assessor to document the repair needed, which must then be assessed and approved by the Board. The person in need is then sent to designated hardware stores with a voucher to collect materials. Note that the grant is for materials only. The individual is responsible for providing/paying for the labour.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: Presently, the Board of Guardians and the Social Transformation Division are not always able to tell who are neediest and who are already receiving assistance from other Government relief programmes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Antigua and Barbuda http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda – Education http://countrystudies.us/caribbean-islands/95.htm
APUA – Water Division. Field data (2011)
CARICOM Secretariat, CARICOM Member States Geographic Profiles. Greater Georgetown, Guyana, June 2010.
Cooper, Brian and Bowen, Vincent. “INTEGRATING MANAGEMENT OF WATERSHEDS & COASTAL AREAS IN SMALL ISLAND DEVELOPING STATES OF THE CARIBBEAN – NATIONAL REPORT FOR ANTIGUA & BARBUDA”. 2001.
Country Profile: Antigua and Barbuda www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and...by.../antigua-barbuda
Department of Information in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Economic Development, Tourism and Energy – Government of Antigua and Barbuda, “ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA INDEPENDENCE, Official Independence Magazine”, 1981. Printed by Goodyear Gibbs Ltd., Weybridge, Surrey, England.
Development Control Authority, “NATIONAL PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN – ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA” Draft. Government of Antigua and Barbuda / UNDP/UNCHS/OAS/OECS. 2001.
GEF/IWCAM, Mitigation of Groundwater and Coastal Impacts from Sewage Discharge from St. John’s, Antigua. 2007.
Geography of Barbuda http://www.barbudaful.net/geography.html
GENIVAR/GEF, “Analysis of the State of the Country Report - Antigua and Barbuda”
Government of Antigua and Barbuda, Antigua and Barbuda National Agricultural Land Use Policy. 2007.
Henry, Edward T. A History of Antigua and Barbuda. www.antiguamuseums.org/Historical.htm
Historical and Archaeological Society, “A Guide to Historic St. John’s”. Museum of Antigua and Barbuda, P. O. Box 103, in co-operation with the Ministry of Tourism, St. John’s, Antigua, West Indies.
IMF Executive Board Concludes 2010 Article IV Consultation with Antigua and Barbuda
http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2010/pn1082.htm
Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Antigua and Barbuda: Information on the Resource Available for Female Victims of Abuse. 1997.
Jicky’s Latest News from Barbuda. www.barbudaful.net
Kairi Consultants Ltd. / National Assessment Team of Antigua and Barbuda, “Living Conditions in Antigua and Barbuda: Poverty in a Services Economy in Transition.” 2007.
Knight, Emily, “Growing Up In All Saints Village, Antigua: The 1940s – The Late 1960s”, 2009. Xlibris Corporation, U.S.A.
Macpherson, John, CARIBBEAN LANDS – CXC Edition. Longman Caribbean, Trinidad Ltd. 1993.
Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Housing and the Environment, Antigua and Barbuda Agriculture, 2009. http://agricultureantiguabarbuda.com/news/climate-risk-costly-for-caribbean-countries/
Murphy, Dr. A. Reginald Betty’s Hope Historical Period http://www.archaeologyantigua.org/sites_bettyshope.htm
Nicholson, Desmond V., Heritage Landmarks – Antigua and Barbuda. Museum of Antigua and Barbuda, 1998.
Solomon, Denzil “Antigua and Barbuda Fresh Water Resources and Production”, Development Control Authority, St. John’s, Antigua and Barbuda. 2011.
Tourist Attractions in St. John’s http://travel.mapsofworld.com/antigua-and-barbuda/st-john percent27s/tourist-attractions/
UNCCD, National Action Plan for Antigua and Barbuda (Draft), 2005.
UNDP, Introduction – Antigua and Barbuda. www.bb.undp.org/index.php?page=antigua-barbuda
UNGASS, Country Progress Report: Antigua and Barbuda, 2008.
U.S. Department of State, Background Note: Antigua and Barbuda, 2009. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2336.htm
Statistics Division of the Ministry of Finance and The Economy, “Antigua & Barbuda Summary: 2001 Census of Population and Housing”
Williams, Dr. Allan N., Antigua and Barbuda Country Experience in Land Issues. Land Tenure Centre, Development Alternatives Inc. (Financed by the U.S. Agency for International Development), April 24, 2003.
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CONTACTS:
Alioune Badiane, Director, Regional Office for Africa and the Arab States,
E-mail: [email protected]
Doudou Mbye, Programme Manager, Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme,
E-mail: [email protected]
Kerstin Sommer, Programme Focal Point, Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme,
Email: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]