anatomy lecture
TRANSCRIPT
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General Histology
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What is Anatomy?
• Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure
• Branches of Anatomy– Gross: Large structures– Surface: Landmarks– Histology: Cells and Tissues– Developmental: Structures change through life– Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
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Anatomical Directions• Anatomical position• Regions
– Axial vs. Appendicular• Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
– Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)– Medial vs. Lateral– Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)– Superficial vs. Deep– Proximal vs. Distal
• Anatomical Planes– Frontal = Coronal– Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section– Sagittal
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The Animal Cell Structure
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Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that have a similar structure and perform a related function
• Four types of tissue– Epithelial– Connective– Muscle– Nervous
• Most organs contain all 4 types• Tissue has non-living extracellular material
between its cells
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Tissue Types in the Human� Epithelial
� primarily used for protection� Connective
� primarily used for support� Nerve
� primarily used for control� Muscle
� primarily used for movement
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EPITHELIAL TISSUE: sheets of cells cover a surface or line a cavity
(tissue type #1)
• Functions– Protection– Secretion– Absorption– Ion Transport– Slippery Surface
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Characteristics of Epithelium
• Cellularity• Specialized Contacts• Polarity
– Apical vs. Basal
• Supported by Connective Tissue• Avascular• Innervated• Regenerative
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Classification of Epithelium-based on number of layers and cell shape
• Layers– Simple – Stratified– Psuedostratified
• Stratified layers characterized by shape of apical layer
• Shapes– Squamous– Cuboidal– Columnar– Transitional
Pg 71
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Naming Epithelial Tissues• Epithelial tissues are named in the following
manner:First word: Number of layers (simple, stratified, pseudostratified)Second word: Shape of cell (squamous, cuboidal, columnar)Third word: Describes the apical surface if there are structures (cilia or microvilli) or materials present (keratin).
From the name given you can tell much about the tissue. For example pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelial. What can you tell from the name about the tissue?
1. It is one cell- layer thick. 2. It is column shaped. 3. It has cilia on its apical surface.
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Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Simple squamous: This type is found lining blood vessels and is called endothelium. It is also in the alveoli or airs of of the lungs. This tissue allows the rapid exchange of materials by diffusion and osmosis from cell to cell.
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Types of Epithelial Tissues• Stratified squamous: This
type of epithelium is present in areas where there is wear and tear on the tissue which are constantly having cells sloughed away or being rubbed off by abrasion. There are two types of stratified squamous. Keratinized and Non-keratinized. Keratin is a layer a waterproof protein on the apical surface of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (skin).
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Mouth, throat, esophagus, urethra, skin (keratinized)
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Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Stratified squamous: Stratified squamous epithelial non-keratinized lines the oral cavity and the esophagus and the vagina of the female reproductive system.
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Types of Epithelial Tissues• Stratified squamous: Stratified squamous
epthithelium keratinized Keratin is a layer a waterproof protein on the apical surface of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (skin).
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Types of Epithelial Tissues
• Simple cuboidal: Simple cuboidal cells are common in secretory glands and in the collecting tubules where they are involved with reabsorption of materials as urine is being produced.
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Kidney tubules, glands, lining of terminal bronchioles, etc.
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Types of Epithelial Tissues• Simple columnar: Simple columnar is located in various areas
of the body. It is commonly found in the lining of the small and large intestine where it is involved with absorption of molecules from digested food and re-absorption of water. In the small intestine the apical surface of these cells have microvilli present on their surface and specialized gland cells called goblet cells which produce and secrete mucus.
microvilli on apical surface
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Glands, bronchioles, stomach, intestines, bile ducts, etc.
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Types of Epithelial Tissues• Pseudostratified columnar ciliated: This tissue appears to
be stratified but is actually one layer of irregularly shaped cells. The apical surface of these cells have tiny, hair-like projections called cilia, which are involved with the movement across the surface of the cells. This epithelial tissue also has the mucus secreting goblet cells present. This tissue forms the lining of the trachea, bronchi, and lining of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts) of female.
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Lines nasal cavity & sinuses, auditory tubes, trachea, bronchi
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Sweat gland ducts, salivary gland ducts, etc.
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Mammary gland ducts, larynx, urethra (males)
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Bladder lining, ureters, and superior urethra
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Features of Apical Surface of Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial cell
Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes
Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
Flagella: (ex) spermatoza
Extra long cilia Moves cell
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Features of Lateral Surface of Epithelium
• Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:– Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate– Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together– Cell Junctions
• Desmosomes-adhesive spots on lateral sides linked by proteins/filaments, holds tissues together
• Tight Junctions-at apical area, plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
• Gap junction- spot-like junction occurring anywhere made of hollow cylinders of protein,
lets small molecules pass
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Pg 80
Desomosomes
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Features of the Basal Surface of Epithelium
• Basement membrane = Sheet between the epithelial and connective tissue layers– Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below– Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet Made of
proteins• Superficial layer• Acts as a selective filter• Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
– Reticular fiber layer• Deeper layer• Support
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Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
• Exocrine Glands– Secrete substance onto body surface or
into body cavity – Have ducts (simple vs. compound)– Unicellular (goblet cells) or
Multicellular (tubular, alveolar, tubuloalveolar)
– (ex) salivary, mammary, pancreas, liver
Goblet cell in small intestine
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Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
• Endocrine Glands– Secrete product into blood stream– Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells– Hormones travel to target organ to increase
response (excitatory)– No ducts– (ex) pancreas, adrenal,
pituitary, thyroidThyroid gland: hormone in follicles (F)
released into capillaries (C)
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4 Types of Connective Tissue
1) Connective Tissue Proper2) Cartilage
3) Bone Tissue4) Blood
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Connective Tissue (CT): most abundant and diverse tissue
(tissue type #2)
• Four Classes• Functions include connecting, storing & carrying
nutrients, protection, fight infection• CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix• Some types vascularized
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1) Connective Tissue Proper
• Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT• Loose Areolar Tissue
– Underneath epithelial tissue– Functions
• Support and bind to other tissue• Hold body fluids• Defends against infection• Stores nutrients as fat
– Each function performed by different kind of fiber in tissue
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• Matrix–Ground substance–Fibers
• Cells
Connective Tissue
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Connective Tissue� Matrix - “non-living” component of connective tissue
� Ground substance� Proteoglycan aggregates - pine tree shaped molecules
� Glycosaminoglycans - neg charged binds Na+ & K+ ….. attract H20
� Hyaluronic Acid - slippery polysaccharride� Chondronectin, Osteonectin, etc.
� forms viscous “adhesive gel” in tissues� Fluid - Contains gasses & nutrients� Minerals – I.E. Calcium salts
� Fibers� Collagen, Elastin, and Reticular Fibers
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Fibers in Connective Tissue
• Fibers For Support– Reticular: form networks for structure & support
(ex) cover capillaries– Collagen: strongest, most numerous, provide tensile
strength (ex) dominant fiber in ligaments– Elastic: long + thin, stretch and retain shape (ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
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In Connective Tissue Proper
• Fibroblasts: cells that produce all fibers in CT, produce + secrete protein subunits to make them, produce ground matrix
• Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid: derived from blood in CT proper; medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to cells; found in ground matrix
• Ground Matrix (substance): part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs interstitial fluid, jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules
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Defense from Infection
• Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first defense• Cells travel to CT in blood
– Macrophages-eat foreign particles– Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction– Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for inflammation
response– White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils-
fight infection• Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
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Areolar Connective Tissue Model
Pg 85Histological slide
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Specialized Loose CT Proper• Adipose tissue-loaded with adipocytes, highly
vascularized, high metabolic activity– Insulates, produces energy, supports
• (eg) in hypodermis under skin
• Reticular CT-contains only reticular fibers– Forms caverns to hold free cells
• (eg) bone marrow, holds blood cells– Forms internal “skeleton” of some organs
• (eg) lymph nodes, spleen
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Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue• Contains more collagen • Can resist extremely strong pulling forces• Regular vs. Irregular
– Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull• (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
– Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions• (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones
Dense regular Dense irregular
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Components of CT Proper Summarized
Cells Matrix
Fibroblasts Gel-like ground substance
Defense cells-macrophages-white blood cells
Collagen fibersReticular fibersElastic fibers
Adipocytes
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2) Cartilage• Chondroblasts produce cartilage• Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells• More abundant in embryo than adult• Firm, Flexible• Resists compression
– (eg) trachea, meniscus• 80% water• Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/low oxygen)• NOT Innervated• Perichondrium-dense, irregular connective tissue around
cartilage– growth/repair of cartilage– resists expansion during compression of cartilage
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Cartilage in the Body• Three types:
– Hyaline • most abundant• fibrils in matrix• support via flexibility/resilience• (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
– Elastic• many elastic fibers in matrix too• great flexibility• (eg) external ear, epiglottis
– Fibrocartilage• resists both compression and
tension• (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus
Pg 125
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Histology of Cartilage
• Hyaline Cartilage
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Histology of Cartilage
• Elastic Cartilage
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Histology of Cartilage
• Fibrocartilage
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Components of Cartilage Summarized
Cells Matrix
Chondrocytes Gel-like ground substance
Chondroblasts(in growing cartilage)
Lots of water
Some have collagen and elastic fibers
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3) Bone Tissue:(a bone is an organ)• Well-vascularized • Function:
– support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs– protect (eg) skull, vertebrae– mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate (inorganic component)– movement (eg) walk, grasp objects– blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
• Osteoblasts: secrete organic part of bone matrix
• Osteocytes: mature bone cells, maintain bone matrix• Periosteum: external layer of CT surrounds bone• Endosteum: internal layer of CT lines cavities and covers trabeculae
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• Compact bone: dense, external layer– Haversian system = osteon
• long, cylindrical structures run parallel to long axis of bone• within each osteon, groups of concentric tubes (lamella)• Lamella: layer of bone matrix all fibers run in same direction• fibers on each lamella runs in opposite directions to one near it• Haversian canal-runs through center of osteon, contain blood vessels and
nerves• Interstitial Lamella- pieces of bone matrix between osteon• Osteocytes between osteons
Bone Anatomy: Compact bonePg 128
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Haversian System = Osteon
lamella
osteon
Pg 131
Pg 132
lamella
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• Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer– Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form
honeycomb• each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes• no canal for vessels• space filled with bone marrow• not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center
Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone
Pg 130
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1
2
3
4
Spongy Bone
Compact Bone
Lamella
Haversian canal
2
1
3
4
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Histology of Bone
• “Ground” Compact Bone
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Components of Bone Tissue Summarized
Cells Matrix
Osteocytes Gel-like ground substance calcified with inorganic salts
Osteoblasts Collagen fibers
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4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue
• Function: – Transports waste, gases, nutrients, hormones
through cardiovascular system– Helps regulate body temperature– Protects body by fighting infection
• Derived from mesenchyme• Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
– Occurs in red bone marrow– In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
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Blood CellsErythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in bloodno organelles, filled w/hemoglobinpick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting
Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 typesfight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
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Histology of Blood and Vessel• Blood Smear
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Histology of Blood Vessels
Artery Vein
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Components of Blood SummarizedCells Matrix
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Plasma (liquid matrix)
Leukocytes(white blood cells)
NO fibers
Platelets
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Muscle Tissue (tissue type #3)
• Muscle cells/fibers– Elongated – Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin
• FUNCTION– Movement– Maintenance of posture– Joint Stabilization– Heat Generation
• Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue(each skeletal muscle is an organ)
• Cells– Long and cylindrical, in bundles– Multinucleate– Obvious Striations
• Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary• Connective Tissue Components:
– Endomysium-surrounds fibers– Perimysium-surrounds bundles– Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
• Attached to bones, fascia, skin• Origin & Insertionpg 235
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Cardiac Muscle• Cells
– Branching, chains of cells– Single or Binucleated– Striations– Connected by Intercalated discs
• Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary• Myocardium-heart muscle
– Pumps blood through vessels
• Connective Tissue Component– Endomysium: surrounding cells
Pg 244
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Smooth Muscle TissueCells
Single cells, uninucleateNo striations
Smooth Muscle-Involuntary2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
Lines hollow organs, blood vesselsConnective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells
Pg 246
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Nervous Tissue
• Neurons: specialized nerve cells conduct impulses– Cell body, dendrite, axon
• Interneuron: between motor & sensory neuron in CNS
• Characterized by:– No mitosis (cell replication)– Longevity– High metabolic rate
pg 322
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Nervous Tissue: control• Support cells (= Glial): nourishment,
insulation, protection– Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
ganglia– Schwann cells-surround axons– Microglia-phagocytes– Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons– Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
ciliated,help circulate CSF• Brain, spinal cord, nerves
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Neuronal Anatomy
• Synapse: cell junction where neurons communicate
• One direction: presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron
• Presynaptic neuron– Synaptic vesicles fuses w/presynaptic
membrane– Neurotransmitters released, – diffuse across synaptic cleft, bind to postsynaptic membrane ٠Creates impulse (action potential) in that neuron
٠Cycle repeats
pg 325
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Anatomy of Nerve
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Histology of Neuron
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Integumentary System
• Skin– Epidermis = epithelium– Dermis = connective tissue
• Hypodermis = connective tissue• Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
– Hair follicles– Sweat and Sebaceous glands– Nails
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Integumentary System
• Functions– Protection
• Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
– Cushions & insulates deeper organs– Prevention of water loss– Thermoregulation– Excretion
• Salts, urea, water
– Sensory reception
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Layers of the Epidermis Stratum corneum
Dead keratinocytes
Stratum lucidumDead keratinocytes
Stratum granulosumKeratinocytesTonofilamentsLamellated & keratohyaline granules
Stratum spinosumKeratinocytesTonofilamentsLangerhans cells
Stratum basaleKeratinocytesMelanocytesMerkel receptors
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DermisHighly innervatedHighly vascularizedCollagen & Elastic fibersMany cell types
FibroblastsMacrophagesMast cellsWhite blood cells
Papillary layer (20%) Areolar CT Hair follicles
Reticular layer (80%) Dense Irregular CT Glands
Sebaceous glands Sweat glands
Smooth muscle fibers
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Hypodermis
• Also called superficial fascia• Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue• Functions
– Store fat– Anchor skin to muscle, etc.– Insulation