anatomy and physiology chap 2 and 3
TRANSCRIPT
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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C H E M
I C A L
B A S I S
O F L I F E
A N A T O M Y A N D P H Y S I O L O G Y
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* L i f e r e q u i
r e s a b o u t 2 5 c h e m i c a l e l e m e
n t s .
* A t o m i c s t r u c t u r e d e t e r m
i n e s t h e b e h a v i o r
o f a n e l e m
e n t .
• I n t e r a c t i o n
a m o n g a t o m s ( f o r i n s t a n c e ,
h o w a t o m s
b o n d t o f o r m
m o l e c u l e s ) i s t h e b a s i s o f
b i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n .
* E a c h k i n d
o f a t o m h
a s a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
n u m b e r o f
p r o t o n s , n e
u t r o n s , a n d e l e
c t r o n s .
* A n a t o m ' s
b e h a v i o r ( h o w
i t i n t e r a c t s w
i t h o t h e r a t o m
s )
i s d e t e r m i n
e d b y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f i t s
e l e c t r o n s .
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- b o d y f u n c t i o n s d e p e n d o n c e l l u l a
r f u n c t i o n s
-
b i o c h e m i s t r y h e l p s t o
e x p l a i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , a n d
d e v e l o p n e w d r u g s a n d m e t h o d s f o r t r e a t i n g d i s e a s e s
-
c e l l u l a r f u n c t i o n s r e s u
l t f r o m c h e m i c a l c h a n g e s
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A T U R E
O F M A
T T E R
A
.
A T O M I C S T R U C T U R E : t h e
u n i v e r s e i s
c o m p o s
e d o f 9 2 e l e m e n t s , e
a c h w i t h u
n i q u e
a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e
A
T O M – t h e s m a l l e s t
u n i t o f m a
t t e r t h a t c a n n o t
b e b r o k
e n d o w n b
y c h e m i c a
l m e a n s
- c o m p o
s e d o f p r o
t o n s , n e u t r
o n s a n d
e l e c t r o n
s
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A T O M
S T R U C T U R E
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B . M O L E C U L E S
– f o r m e d b y 2 o r m o
r e
a
t o m s b o n d e d t o g e t h
e r
C O M
P O U N D S
– 2 o r m o
r e d i f f e r e n
t
t y p e s o f a t o m s b
o n d e d t o g
e t h e r
C . T Y P
E S O F B O
N D S
1 . I O N I C B O
N D S
2 . C O V A L E
N T B O N D
S
3 . H Y D R O G
E N B O N D
S
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O N D - a n a t t r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n a c a t
i o n a n d
a
n a n i o n
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a C l f o r m a t i o n
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o v a l e n
t B o n d
- F o r m e d w h e n a t o m s s
h a r e
e
l e c t r o n s
• H y d
r o g e n a t o m s
f o r m s i n g l e b
o n d s
• O x y
g e n a t o m s f o r m t w o b o n d s
• N i t r
o g e n a t o m s f o r m t h r e e b o n d s
• C a r
b o n a t o m s f o r m f o u r b o n d
s
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P o l a r M
o l e c u l e
• m o l e
c u l e w i t h a s l i g h t l y n e g a t i v
e e n d a n d a s
l i g h t l y
p o s i t i v e e n d
• r e s u l t s w h e n e l e c t
r o n s a r e n o t s h a r e d e q u a l l y i n
c o v a l e
n t b o n d s
• w a t e
r i s a n i m p o r
t a n t p o l a r m o
l e c u l e
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H y d r o g
e n B o n d
• a w e a k a t t r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e
p o s i t i v e e n d o f o n e
p o l a r
m o l e c u l e a n d
t h e n e g a t i v e
e n d o f a n o t h
e r
p o l a r
m o l e c u l e
• f o r m
e d b e t w e e n w a t e r m o l e c u l e s
• i m p
o r t a n t f o r p r o t e i n a n d n u c
l e i c a c i d s t r u c t u r e
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R O T O P
L A S M
!
T h e
l i v i n g p a r t o
f t h e c e l l c o m p o s e d o f o
r g a n i c
a n d
i n o r g a n i c c o
m p o u n d s
!
P r o p
e r t i e s :
1 .
P h y s i c a l – c o l l o i d a l s y s t e m
- s o l – > g e l r e v e r
s a l s
2 . C h e m
i c a l – o r g a n
i c a n d i n o r g
a n i c
c o m p o u n d s
3 . B i o l o g
i c a l - r e p r o d
u c t i o n , m e t a
b o l i s m ,
i r r i t a b
i l i t y , a d a p t a
b i l i t y
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n o r g a n
i c S u b s t a n c e s
W a t e r • m o s t
a b u n d a n t c o m p o u n d i n l i v
i n g m a t e r i a l
• t w o - t
h i r d s o f t h e w
e i g h t o f a n a d u l t h u m a n
• m a j o
r c o m p o n e n t
o f a l l b o d y f l u i d s
• m e d i u m f o r m o s t m e t a b o l i c r e a c t i o n s
• i m p o
r t a n t r o l e i n t r a n s p o r t i n g c h e m i c a l s i n t
h e b o d y
• a b s o r b s a n d t r a n s p o r t s h e a t
O x y g e n ( O
2 )
• u s e d
b y o r g a n e l l e s
t o r e l e a s e e n e r g y f r o m n u
t r i e n t s
i n o r d
e r t o d r i v e c e l l ’ s m e t a b o l i c a c t i v i t i e s
• n e c e s
s a r y f o r s u r v
i v a l
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C a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O 2 )
• w a s t e p r o d u c t r e l e a s e d d u r i n g
m e t a b o l i c r e a c t i o n s
• m u s
t b e r e m o v e d
f r o m t
h e b o d
y
I n o r g a n i c s a l t s
• a b u
n d a n t i n b o d
y f l u i d s
• s o u
r c e s o f n e c e s s
a r y i o n s ( N a +
, C l - , K + , C a 2
+ , e t c . )
• p l a y i m p o r t a n t r
o l e s i n m e t a b
o l i s m
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r g a n i c
S u b s t a n c e s
C
a r b o h y d r a t e s
• p
r o v i d e e n e r g y t o c e l l s
• s u p p l y m a t e r i a l s t o b u i l d c e
l l s t r u c t u r e s
• w
a t e r - s o l u b l e
• m
o n o s a c c h a r i d
e s – g l u c o s e ,
f r u c t o s e , g a l a c t o s e ,
p e n t o s e s
• d i s a c c h a r i d e s – s u c r o s e ( g l u c o s e + f r u c t o s e ) ,
- l a c t o s e ( g l u c
o s e + g a l a c t o s e ) ,
• p o l y s a c c h a r i d e
s – g l y c o g e n ,
c e l l u l o s e
• c o n t a i n C , H , a n d O
• r a t i o o f H t o O
c l o s e t o 2 : 1 ( C 6 H 1 2 O 6 )
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I P I D S
• s o l u b l e i n o r g a n i c s o l v
e n t s ; i n s o l u b
l e i n w a t e r
• f a t s ( t r i g
l y c e r i d e s )
• u s e d p
r i m a r i l y f o r e n e
r g y ; m o s t c o m m
o n l i p i d i n t h e b
o d y
• c o n t a i n C , H , a n d O b u t l e s s O t h a n c a
r b o h y d r a t e s
( C 5 7 H 1 1 0 O 6 )
• b u i l d i n g b l o c k s a r e 1 g
l y c e r o l a n d 3 f a
t t y a c i d s p e r
m o l e c u l e
• s a t u r a
t e d a n d u n s a t u r
a t e d
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• p h o s p h o l i p i d s
• b u i l d i n g b l o c k s a r e 1 g
l y c e r o l , 2 f a t t y a c i d s , a n d 1 p h o
s p h a t e p e r
m o l e c u l e
• h y d r o p h i l i c a n d h y d r o
p h o b i c
• m a j o r
c o m p o n e n t o f c e l l m e m b r a n e s
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• s t e r o i d s
• f o u r
c o n n e c t e d r i n g s
o f c a r b o n
• w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n
t h e b o d y , v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s
• c o m p
o n e n t o f c e l l m e
m b r a n e
• u s e d
t o s y n t h e s i z e h o
r m o n e s
• c h o l e
s t e r o l
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• s t r u c t u
r a l m a t e r i a l
• e n e r g y
s o u r c e
• h o r m o n e s
• r e c e p t o r s
• e n z y m e s
• a n t i b o d i e s
•
a m i n o a c i d s h e l d
t o g e t h e r w i t h
p
e p t i d e b o n d s
P R O T E I N S
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• c a r r y g
e n e s
• e n c o d e
a m i n o a c i d s
e q u e n c e s o f p
r o t e i n s
• b u i l d i n g b l o c k s a r e
n u c l e o t i d e s
• D N A ( d e o x y r i b o n u c
l e i c a c i d ) – d o u b l e p o l y n u c
l e o t i d e
• R N A ( r i b o n u c l e i c a c i d ) – s i n g l e p
o l y n u c l e o t i d e
N U C L E I C A C I D
S
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C T S c a n n
i n g a n d P E T
I m a g i n g
• t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o g i v e a n a t o m
i c a l a n d p h y s
i o l o g i c a l
i n f o
r m a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y
• C T s c a n n i n g u s e s X - r a y e m i s s i o n s t o p r o v i d e 3 - D
i m a g e o f
i n t e r n a l b o d y p a r t s
• P E T i m a
g i n g u s e d r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o
p e s t o d e t e c t
b i o c h e m i c a l
a c t i v i t y i n a s p e c i f i c b o d y p a r t
C L I N I C A L
A P P L I C A T I O N
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C E L L S T R U C
T U R E
A N D
F U N C T I O N
C h a p t e r 3
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h a t i s
a c e l l ?
!
A c e l l i s a
s m a l l m e m b r a n e - b o
u n d s t r u c t u r e
t h a t c o n t a
i n s a l l t h e
r e q u i r e m e
n t s f o r l i f e
.
!
I t i s t h e s m a l l e s t l i v i n g s t r u c t u r e .
!
T h e b a s i c
u n i t o f l i f e
c o m p o s e
d o f o r g a n
e l l e s
a n d i n c l u s i o n b o d i e s
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I S T O R Y O F C E L L B I O
L O G Y
A
n t o n v o n L e e u w e n h
o e k
!
1 7 t h c e
n t u r y D u t c h d r a p e r ,
l e n s g r i n d e r ,
m i c r o s c o p e a r c h i t e c t , a n d m
i c r o s c o p i s t
!
“ i n v e n t
e d t h e m i c
r o s c o p e ”
( 1 6 0 0 s )
!
m a i n t a
i n e d v o l u m
i n o u s n o t e s a n d d e t a i l e d
d r a w i n g s o f h i s v i e w i n g s
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!
1 6 6 5 R o b e
r t H o o k e “ d i s c o v e r e d ” t h e c e l l a n d
c y c l o s i s
!
1 8 3 8 M a t t h
i a s S c h l e i d e n p r o p o s e d
t h a t a l l p l a n t s
a r e m a d e u
p o f c e l l s .
!
1 8 3 9 T h e o
d o r S c h w a n
n p r o p o s e d
t h a t a l l a n i m
a l s
a r e m a d e u
p o f c e l l s .
!
1 8 5 8 R u d o
l f V i r c h o w p
r o p o s e d h i s
t h e o r y o f
b i o g e n e s i s
: A l l c e l l s c o
m e f r o m p r e - e x i s t i n g c e
l l s
( l i f e f r o m l i f e ) . T h i s d i s
c r e d i t s t h e t h e o r y o f
s p o n t a n e o u s g e n e r a t i o
n .
!
J a n E v a n g e l i s t a P u r k i n
j e – t h e f i r s t o n e t o u s e
t h e
t e r m p r o t o p l a s m t o d e s c r i b e t h e l i v
i n g p a r t o f t h e c e l l
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h e C e l l T
h e o r y
1 . A l l l i v i n g t h i n g s a r e c o m p o s e d
o f c e l l s .
- c a n b e
a s i n g l e c e l l o r m a n y c e l l s
2 . T h e c e l l i s t h e s m a l l e s t l i v i n g t h i n g t h a t s
h o w s a l l
o f t h e c h a r a
c t e r i s t i c s o f l i f e .
"
h o m e o s t a s i s ,
m e t a b o l i s m , r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , r e p r o d u c t i o n , e v
o l u t i o n
3 . A l l c e l l s c
o m e f r o m
p r e e x i s t i n g l i v i n g c e l l s
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h y a r e
c e l l s s o
s m a l l ?
•
I n o r d e r t o
b e e f f i c i e n
t i n p r o d u c i n g m a t e r i a
l s a n d
e n e r g y f o r
s u r v i v a l , c e l l s m u s t m
a i n t a i n a s m a l l
s u r f a c e t o
v o l u m e r a t i o .
1 .
T h e s u r f a c e m e m b r
a n e m u s t b
e l a r g e e n o u g h t o
c o n t r o l w
h a t e n t e r s
a n d l e a v e s
t h e c e l l
2 .
T h e v o l u m e o f t h e c e l l m u s t b e
s m a l l e n o u
g h s o
t h a t r e a
c t a n t s c a n f i n d e a c h o t
h e r
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E T H O D
S O F S T
U D Y I N G
C E L L S
1
.
M I C R O
S C O P Y
2
.
C E L L C
U L T U R E
3
.
U L T R A C O N F I G U
R A T I O N /
C E N T R
I F U G A T I O
N
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y p e s o f c
e l l s b a s e d o n c o m p l e x i t y :
!
p r o k a r y o t i c - l a c k s n u c l e a r m e
m b r a n e ;
p o s s e s s e
s n o w e l l - d e f i n e d n u
c l e u s ;
p o s s e s s e
s f e w o r g a n e l l e s ; E x
a m p l e s :
b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r m o n e r a n s
!
e u k a r y o t i c - p o s s e s
s e s n u c l e a r m e m b r a
n e ;
p o s s e s s e
s w e l l - d e f i n e d n u c l e
u s ; m a n y
o r g a n e l l e
s p r e s e n t ;
E x a m p l e s
: p r o t i s t s ;
c e l l s
o f f u n g i , p l a n t s , a n d
a n i m a l s
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E L L S I Z
E
!
m o s t c e l l s a r e
m i c r o s c o
p i c
5 - 1 0 0
m i c r o n s
!
l e n g t h o f
n e r v e c e l l
1 m e t
e r ( m )
!
l a r g e s t s i n g l e c e l l
o s t r i c h e g g
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e l l O r g a n i z a t i o
n
I . T h e P l a s m a M e m b r a n e
1 .
C o m p
o s e d o f a p h o s p h o l i p i d
b i - l a y e r w i t h
e m b e d d e d p r o t e i n
s , c a r b o h y d
r a t e s , a n d
c h o l e s t e r o l
a .
G l y c o p r o t e i n s a n d g l y c o l i p i d s s e r v e a s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
m a r k e r s
b .
E m b e d d e d p r o t e i n s m a y s e r v e a s h o r m o n e r e
c e p t o r s ,
t r a n
s p o r t c h a n n e l s , o r e n z y m e s
i n m e t a b o l i c
r e a c t i o n s
c .
C h o
l e s t e r o l i s a m
e m b r a n e s t a b
i l i z e r
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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"
2 . P l a s m a M e m b r a n e F u n c t i o n s
"
K e e p s t h e c e l l i n t a c t
a n d b e i n g s
e l e c t i v e l y
p e r m e a b l e , i t r e g u l a t e s w h a t e n t e r s o r l e a v e s t h e
c e l l
!
a . D i f f u s
i o n i s t h e r a n d o m m o v e m e n t o f m o l e c u l e s f r o m a n
a r e a o f h i g h e r c o n c e n
t r a t i o n t o a n a
r e a o f l o w e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n
"
s o m e m o l e c u l e s
c a n d i f f u s e a c r o s s t h e p l a s m a
m e m b
r a n e
!
b . O s m o s i s i s t h e m o v e m e n t o f w a t e r a c r o s s a m e m b r a n e
f r o m a n
a r e a o f h i g h e r w a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o a n a r e a o f
l o w e r w a t e r c o n c e n t r a
t i o n
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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!
c . T r a n s p o r t a c r o s s t h e p l a s m a m e m
b r a n e b y a c a
r r i e r
"
S o m e
c a r r i e r m o l e c u l e s r e q u i r e n o e n e r g y ( f a c i l i t a t e d
t r a n s p o r t )
"
O t h e r t r a n s p o r t c a r r i e r s r e q u i r e e n e r g
y ( a c t i v e t r a n s p
o r t )
!
d . E n d o c
y t o s i s a n d E x
o c y t o s i s
"
E n d o c
y t o s i s o c c u r s w
h e n t h e p l a s m a
m e m b r a n e f o r m s a
v e s i c l e
a r o u n d a p a r t i c l e o u t s i d e t h e c e l l a n d b r i n g s t h e
p a r t i c l e i n t o t h e c e l l
"
E x o c y t o s i s o c c u r s w h
e n a v e s i c l e i n s
i d e t h e c e l l f u s e s w i t h
t h e p l a
s m a m e m b r a n e a n d d u m p s i t ’ s c o n t e n t s o u t s i d e t h e
c e l l
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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l c o m p l e x e s o f t h e
C
e l l m e m
b r a n e
1
.
Z o n u l a
a d h e r e n s
2
. M a c u l a a
d h e r e n s
3
. S p o t d e s
m o s o m e s
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h e C
y t o p l a s
m
!
T h e c e l l u l a
r m a t e r i a l o
u t s i d e t h e n
u c l e u s
!
T h e s i t e o f m o s t c e l l u l a r a c t i v i t i e s
!
T h e f a c t o r y a r e a o f t h e c e l l
!
C o m p o n e n t s :
a . c y t o
s o l – s e m i - t r a n s p a r e n t f l u i d t h a t
s u s
p e n d s o t h e r e l e m e n t s o
f t h e c e l l
b . o r g a
n e l l e s
c . i n c l u
s i o n s
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i f f e r e n c e s o f o r g
a n e l l e s a n d
i n c l u s i o n s
O R G A N E L L E S
•
P e r m a n e n t l i v i n g
c o m p o n e n t s
o f t h e c e l l
•
M a c h i n e r y o
f t h e c e l l
e n g i n e e r e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r
o w n f u n c t i o n
•
e x a m p l e s : N
u c l e u s , G . A . ,
m i t o c h o n d r i a , E R ,
l y s o s o m e s , p e r o x i s o m e ,
p r o t e a s o m e s
I N C L U S I O N
S
• t e m p o r a r y , n o n - l i v i n g
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f m e
t a b o l i t e s
• S t o r e d
n u t r i e n t s a n
d
c e l l u l a r p r o d u c t s
• e x a m
p l e s : F a t
d r o p l e t s , g r a n u l e s , p i g m e n t s ,
c r y s t a l s a n d s e c r e t o
r y
p r o d u c
t s
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y p e s o f r i b o s o m e s
1
.
A t t a c h e
d r i b o s o m e s
- l o c a t e d i n t h e E R
- f o r C
H O N s y n t h e s i s
2
. F r e e r i b o
s o m e s
- l o c a t e d i n t h e c y t o p l a s m
- f o r c
e l l u l a r u s e
s
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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"
2 . T h e G o l g i A p p a r a t u s
–
a . A s e r i e s o f f l a t t e n e d s a c k s t h a t a c c e p t m a t e r i a l s f r o m t h e
E R
–
b . p a c
k a g e s , s t o r e s , a n d m o d i f i e s t h e m a t e r i a l s a n d
p l a c e s
t h e m i n v e s i c l e s f o r d e l i v e r y
–
c . a l w
a y s n e a r t h e n u
c l e u s , t h e p r i n c
i p a l t r a f f i c d i r e
c t o r f o r
c e l l u l a
r C H O N S
–
D . f o r m
s v e s c i c l e s , v a
c o u l e s , e t c .
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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y s o s o m
a l a c t i v i t y
1
.
A U T O P
H A G Y – d
i g e s t i o n o f d a m a g e d
o r g a n e l l e s b y t h e
l y s o s o m e s o f t h e c e l l s
2
. A U T O L Y
S I S – d i g e s t i o n o f t h
e i t s o w n
d a m a g e d c e l l s .
- r e l a t e d t o a g i n g
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E . M i t o c h o n d r i a
"
S m a l l d o u b l e m e m b r a n e b o u n d o r g a n e l l e s
"
C o n v e r t t h e e n e r g y s
t o r e d i n g l u c o s e i n t o A T
P
m o l e c u l e s b y a p r o c e
s s k n o w n a
s a e r o b i c
r e s p i r a t i o
n
"
C R I S T A E
– a r e a w h e r e t h e r e i s g r e a t e r A T P
p r o d u c t i o
n
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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. P E R O X I S O M E S
!
M e m b r a n
o u s s a c s c o n t a i n i n g
p o w e r f u l
o x i d a s e
!
F o r d e t o x i f i c a t i o n o f t o x i n s s u c h a s
a l c o h o , f o
r m a l d e h y d
e
!
D i s a r m d
a n g e r o u s f r e e r a d i c a
l s ( h i g h l y
r e a c t i v e c h e m i c a l s
w / u n p a i e d e - w h i c h
c a n
s c r a m b l e
C H O N &
n u c l e i c a c i d s t r u c t u r e s
!
E x . H 2 O 2
- #
H 2 O +
O
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. P R O T
E A S O M
E
!
O r g a n e l l e s r e s p o n s
i b l e f o r r e c y c l i n g o f
c e l l u l a r m
a t e r i a l s
!
W i t h e n z y m e c a l l e d
p r o t e a s e s
!
B o u n d e d
b y m e m b r a n e s
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G . T h e c y t o s k e l e t o n
"
1 . A n e t w
o r k o f f i l a m e n t o u s p r o t e
i n s t r u c t u r e
s
"
2 . P r o v i d e s a n i n t e r n a l f r a m e w o r
k f o r t h e c e l l
"
3 . C e n t r i o l e s a r e s t r u
c t u r e s t h a t o c c u r i n p a i r s i n
t h e c e l l t h
a t o r g a n i z e
t h e m i c r o t u
b u l e s w i t h i n
t h e
c e l l
!
A l s o , g i v e r i s e t o b a s a
l b o d i e s t h a t d i r e c t t h e f o r m
a t i o n o f
c i l i a a n d
f l a g e l l a
!
T Y P E S :
1 . I N T E R M E D I A T E F I L A M E N T S
2 . M I C R
O F I L A M E N T S
3 . M I C R
O T U B U L E S
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Y P E S O
F C Y T O S K E L E
T O N S
1 .
I N T E R
M E D I A T E F I L A M E N T S
* s t r o n
g , s t a b l e , r o p e - l i k e
* f o r m
d e s m o s o m e s
a n d p r o v i d e i n t e r n a l g u y w i r e s
t o r e s i s t
p u l l i n g
f o r c e s o n t h e c e l l
2 .
M I C R O F I L A M E N T S
* i n v o l v e d i n m o t i l i t y a
n d p r o d u c i n g c
h a n g e s i n t h e c
e l l
s h a p e
.
3 .
M I C R O T U B U L E S
* t u b e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e o v e r a l l s h a p e o f
t h e c e
l l a n d t h e d i s t r i b
u t i o n o f t h e o r g
a n e l l e s
* i m p o
r t a n t i n c e l l d i v i s i o n
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G . C i l i a a n d
f l a g e l l a
"
H a i r l i k e p
r o j e c t i o n s o
f t h e c e l l s
"
R e s p o n s i b l e f o r l o c o m o t i o n i n s o
m e c e l l s ; a l s o ,
m o v e m e n t o f i n v a d i n
g o r g a n i s m s o u t o f t h e b o d y
"
F l a g e l l a a r e r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e i n s i z
e a n d o c c u r i n
s m a l l n u m
b e r s
"
C i l i a a r e s h o r t a n d o c c u r i n l a r g e
n u m b e r s
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E L L P H
Y S I O L O
G Y
!
T h e t h e p
r o c e s s e s
o r f u n c t i o n
s o f t h e c e l l
C E L L T R
A N S P O R T
2 w a y s t h a
t t h e m o l e c u
l e s m o v e t h
r o u g h t h e
m e m b r a n e :
1 .
A c t i v e t r a n s p o r t r e q
u i r e s t h a t t h
e c e l l u s e
e n e r g y
t h a t i t h a s o b t a i n e d f r o m
f o o d t o m o
v e
t h e m o l e c u l e s ( o r l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s ) t h r o u g h t h e
c e l l m e
m b r a n e .
2 .
P a s s i v e
t r a n s p o r t d o e s n o t r e q u i r e s u c h e n e r g y
e x p e n d i t u r e , a n d o c
c u r s s p o n t a n e o u s l y
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- r e q u i r e s
f o r e n e r g y
- r e q u i r e s
o x y g e n
- f l o w o f m
a t e r i a l s i s f r o
m
l e s s e r t o g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n
( d o e s n o t f o l l o w c o n c e n t r a t i o n
g r a d i e n t )
- f l o w r a t e i s f a s t e r
- e x a m p l e s :
E n d o c y t o s i s
P h a g o c y t o s i s
P i n o c y s t o
s i s
E x o c y t o s i s
-
D o e s n o t r e q u i r e e n e r g y
-
D o e s n o t r e q u i r e o x y g e n
- f l o w o f m a t e r i a
l s i s f r o m
g
r e a t e r t o l e s s e r
c
o n c e n t r a t i o n ( f o l l o w s
c
o n c e n t r a t i o n g
r a d i e n t )
-
f l o w r a t e i s s l o w e r
-
e x a m p l e s :
D
i f f u s i o n , S e l e c
t i v e l y p e r m e a
b l e
m
e m b r a n e s , O
s m o s i s ( i s o t o n i c ,
h
y p o t o n i c a n d h y p e r t o n i c
s
o l u t i o n s )
F
a c i l i t a t e d d i f
f u s i o n
A C T I V E
T R A N S P O
R T
P
A S S I V E T R
A N S P O R T
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O L U T I O
N ,
S O L V E N T A N D S O L U T E
!
A s o l u t i o n i s
a h o m o g e n o u s m o l e c u l a r m i x t u r e o f t w o o r m o r e
s u b s t a n c e s .
!
T h e s u b s t a n c e t h a t h a s t h e
g r e a t e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s t h e
s o l v e n t .
I t i s t h e s u b s
t a n c e t h a t d i s s
o l v e s t h e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e ( s )
i n t h e
s o l u t i o n .
!
S u b s t a n c e s t h a t a r e f o u n d i n l e s s e r c o n c e
n t r a t i o n i n s o l u
t i o n s
a r e s o l u t e s . S o l u t e s a r e t h e
s u b s t a n c e s d i s s o l v e d b y s o l v e n t s .
!
W h e n y o u p
u t a s p o o n f u l o
f s u g a r i n a c u
p o f w a t e r , t h e
r e s u l t i s
a s o l u t i o n . T h e w a t e r i s t h e
s o l v e n t a n d t h
e s u g a r i s t h e s o l u t e .
S u p p o s e y o u
h a v e a c u p o f c o f f e e w i t h s u
g a r i n i t ._____
_____
i s
t h e s o l v e n t a
n d_________
a n d________
__ a r e t h e s o l u t e s .
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I F F U S I O N
!
T h e p r i n c
i p l e m e a n
s o f p a s s i v e t r a n s p o r t
!
D i f f u s i o n
- T h e r a n
d o m m o v e m e n t o f
m o l e c u l e
s f r o m a a r e a o f h i g h
e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o a n
a r e a
o f l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
!
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d i f f u
s i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d b
y t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c m o l e
c u l e s i n
!
t h e t w o s i d e s o f t h e m e m b r a n e a n d t h e
e n e r g y t h
a t c a u s e s
t h e d i f f u s i o n
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I F F U S I O N
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n m i n d t h a t :
- t h e m o v e m
e n t i s r a n d o m
- t h e s t e e p e r t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
g r a d i e n t ( i e . t h e b i g g e r t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d l o w
e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) , t h e f a s t e r w i l l b e
t h e m o v e m e n t .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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Y P E S O
F D I F F
U S I O N
1
.
S O L I D O V
E R
a . s o l i d
- M A S T I C A T I O N
b . l i q u i d
- D I G E S T I O N
c . g a s -
T R A N S P I R A T
I O N
2
. L I Q U I D O V E R
a . s o l i d
- P E R S P I R A T I O N
b . l i q u i d
- D I G E S T I O N
c . g a s -
E V A P O R A T I O
N
3
. G A S O V E R
a . s o l i d -
S U B L I M A T I O N
b . l i q u i d
- O X Y G E N A T I O N
c . g a s - R E S P I R A T I O N
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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I F F U S I O
N O F S O L I D O V E R L I Q U I D
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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h a t f a c
t o r s c a n i n f l u e
n c e t h e
r a t e
o
f d i f f u s
i o n ?
!
T e m p e r a t u r e
.
!
T h e s t a t e o f
t h e s o l v e n t ; i . e
. w h e t h e r t h e s
o l v e n t i s a s o l i d , l i q u i d
o r g a s .
!
T h e s i z e o f t h e m o l e c u l e s .
!
T h e s t e e p n e
s s o f t h e d i f f u s
i o n g r a d i e n t .
!
P e r m e a b i l i t y
!
S i z e o f m o l e c u l e s
!
S i z e o f p o r e s
!
S o l u b i l i t y
!
E l e c t r i c a l c h a r g e s
!
M e m b r a n e s
t r u c t u r e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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r o p e r t y
o f D i f f
u s i o n
!
T h e g r e a
t e r t h e s p a
c e b e t w e e
n t h e s e
m o l e c u l e
s t h e g r e a t e r t h e a b i l i t y f o r t h e
m o l e c u l a
r p a r t i c l e s
t o s p r e a d
o u t f r o m o
n e
a n o t h e r .
!
T h e m o r e
p a c k e d t h e m o l e c u l e s a r e i n t h e
s u b s t a n c
e t h e l e s s
s p a c e t o m
a n e u v e r ,
a n d
t h e r e f o r e
, t h e m o r e
d i f f i c u l t f o
r d i f f u s i o n
t o
o c c u r .
!
R e q u i r e s
d i f f u s i o n p r e s s u r e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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S M O S I
S
!
i s t h e m o v
e m e n t o f w a
t e r m o l e c u l e s f r o m a r e
g i o n o f
t h e i r h i g h e
r c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o a
!
r e g i o n o f t h e i r l o w e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h r o u g h
a
p a r t i a l l y p e
r m e a b l e m e m b r a n e
!
W a t e r w i l l m o v e b y o s
m o s i s i n t o a
n d o u t o f c e
l l s d u e
t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n w a t e r
p o t e n t i a l b e t w e e n t h e c e l l
a n d i t s s u r
r o u n d i n g s .
!
W a t e r p o t e n t i a l i s t h e c h e m i c a l p o
t e n t i a l o f w a
t e r
a n d i s a m
e a s u r e o f t h
e e n e r g y a v
a i l a b l e f o r
r e a c t i o n o r m o v e m e n t
( B i d w e l l 1 9 7 4 : 5 9 ) .
.
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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o m e B a s i c P r i n c i p l e s o f
O
s m o s i s
!
W a t e r a l w a y s m o v e s f r o m h i g h w a t e r p o t e n t i a
l t o
l o w w a t e r p o t e n t i a l .
!
W a t e r p o t e n t i a l i s a m e a s u r e o f t h
e t e n d e n c y
o f
w a t e r t o m
o v e f r o m h i g h f r e e e n e r g y t o l o w e r
f r e e
e n e r g y .
!
D i s t i l l e d w a t e r i n a n o p e n b e a k e r h a s a w a t e r
p o t e n t i a l o
f 0 ( z e r o ) .
!
T h e a d d i t i o n o f s o l u t e
d e c r e a s e s w a t e r p o t e n t i a l .
!
T h e a d d i t i o n o f p r e s s u
r e i n c r e a s e s w a t e r p o t e
n t i a l .
!
I n c e l l s , w a t e r m o v e s b y o s m o s i s t o a r e a s w h e r e
w a t e r p o t e
n t i a l i s l o w e
r .
"
A h y p e r t o
n i c s o l u t i o n h a s l o w e r w a t e r p o t e n t i a l .
!
A h y p o t o n i c s o l u t i o n h
a s h i g h e r w
a t e r p o t e n t i a l
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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S M O S I
S
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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I A G R A
M
I s o t o n i c S o l u t i o n s : c o n
t a i n t h e s a m e
c o n c e n
t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e
a s a n a n o t h e r
s o l u t i o n
( e . g . t h
e c e l l ' s c y t o p l a s m ) . W h e n a c e
l l i s p l a c e d
i n a n i s
o t o n i c s o l u t i o n , t h e w a t e r d i f f u s e s i n t o
a n d o u
t o f t h e c e l l a t t h e s a m e r a t e . T
h e f l u i d
t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e b o d
y c e l l s i s i s o t o n
i c .
H y p o t o
n i c S o l u t i o n s : c
o n t a i n a l o w
c o n c e n
t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e
r e l a t i v e t o a n o
t h e r
s o l u t i o n ( e . g . t h e c e l l ' s
c y t o p l a s m ) . W h e n a c e l l
i s p l a c e d i n a h y p o t o n i c s o l u t i o n , t h e w a t e r
d i f f u s e s i n t o t h e c e l l , c
a u s i n g t h e c e l l t o s w e l l
a n d p o
s s i b l y e x p l o d e
H y p e r t o n i c S o l u t i o n s : c o n t a i n a h i g h
c o n c e n
t r a t i o n o f s o l u t e
r e l a t i v e t o a n o
t h e r
s o l u t i o n ( e . g . t h e c e l l ' s
c y t o p l a s m ) . W h e n a c e l l
i s p l a c e d i n a h y p e r t o n
i c s o l u t i o n , t h e
w a t e r
d i f f u s e s o u t o f t h e c e l l , c a u s i n g t h e c e
l l t o
s h r i v e l .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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S
u m m a r y o f t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f O S M O S I S
N o c h a n g e
I n a n d
o
u t o f
t h e c e l l
I s o t o n i c
I s o t o n i c
3
. S o l u t e
c
o n c e n t r a t i o n i s
e
q u a l b e t w e e n t h e
s
u r r o u n d i n g
s
o l u t i o n a n d t h a t
o
f t h e c e l l
s w
e l l
T
o w a r d s
t h e c e l l
H y p o t o n i c
H y p e r t o n i c
2
. s o l u t e
c
o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
s
o l u t i o n i s l o w e r
t h e n i n t h e c e l l ,
s
o l v e n t i s h i g h e r
s h r i n k
A
w a y
f r o m t h e
c
e l l
H y p e r t o n i c
H y p o t o n i c
1
. s o l u t e
c
o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
s
o l u t i o n i s h i g h e r
t h e n i n t h e c e l l ,
s
o l v e n t i s l o w e r
C E L L
R X N .
W
A T E R
M
O V ’ T
E N V ’ T
S O L U ’ N
C E L L
S O L O ’ N
C
O N D I T I O N
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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C T I V E
T R A N S P O R T
E x o c y t o s i s i s
t h e r e v e r s e o f e n d o c y t o s i s . I n
t h i s
c a s e m a t e r i a l e x i t s f r o m t h e c e l l . A s w i t h
e n d o c y t o s i s ,
t h e p l a s m a m e m b r a n e i s a c t i v e l y
i n v o l v e d . M a t e r i a l i n a s a c o r v e s i c l e m o v e s
t o t h e
m e m b r a n e a n d w h e n i t m a k e s c o n t a c t t h e
m e m b r a n e o p e n s a n d t h e m a t e r i a l i n s i d e t h e v e s i c l e
p o u r s o u t . N o
t e t h a t t h e p l a s m a m e m b r a n e a n d t h e
v e s i c l e m e m b r a n e f u s e t o f o r m a n e w b o r d e
r f o r t h e
c e l l .
E n d o c y t o s i s b e g i n s w h e n a p a r t i c l e c o n t a c t s t h e
p l a s m a m e m b r a n e o f a c e l l . A n i n v a g i n a t i o n
o f t h e
m e m b r a n e o c c u r s u n t i l t h e p
a r t i c l e i s c o m p l e t e l y
w r a p p e d i n m
e m b r a n e . T h e w r a p p e d p a r t i c l e i s n o w
i n s i d e a v e s i c
l e i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e c e l l . T h e r e a r e
t w o t y p e s o f e n d o c y t o s i s : p h a g o c y t o s i s a n d
p i n o c y t o s i s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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!
T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e
t w o h a s t o d o
w i t h t h e s i z e o
f t h e
m a t e r i a l i n g e
s t e d .
1
. P h a g o c y t o s i s ( c e l l e a t i n g )
i s s h o w n a b o v e a n d o c c u r s w
h e n
s o l i d m a t e r i a
l i s i n v o l v e d . A
w h i t e b l o o d c e l l p h a g o c y t o s i s
b a c t e r i a w h e
n i t i n g e s t s t h e
m a n d b r e a k s
t h e m d o w n i n s
i d e t h e
c e l l .
2
. P i n o c y t o s i s
( c e l l d r i n k i n g ) o c c u r s w h e n s m a l l e r p a r t i c l e s
, s u c h
a s l a r g e m o l e c u l e s , t h a t a r e
i n s o l u t i o n a r
e i n g e s t e d b y a c e l l .
T h e p r o c e s s
i s t h e s a m e a s t h a t s h o w n a b o v e , b u t t h e t y
p e o f
m a t e r i a l t a k e
n i n t o t h e c e l l d i f f e r s
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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E L L U L A
R M E T A B O L I S
M
!
a m a j o r b i o c h e m i c a l p a t h w
a y a l o n g
w h i c h t h
e c e l l s r e
l e a s e t h e
c h e m i c a
l
b o n d e n
e r g y f r o m
t h e f o o d
a n d c o n
v e r t
i t t o u s a b l e f o r m ( A T P )
!
t h e m a n
y s y n t h e s i s o r b r e a k d o w n o
f
m a t e r i a l t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n t h e c e l l .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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E T A B O
L I S M A N D E N E
R G Y :
1
. E N D E R G O N I C
R E
A C T I O N
– t h e s y n t h
e s i s
o f c o m p o
u n d s w h i c
h r e q u i r e e n e r g y o u t
s i d e
t h e r e a c t i n g s u b s t a n c e s
E x . P h o t o s
y s n t e s i s
2
. E X E R G O N I C
R E A
C T I O N – t h e l i f e
p r o c e s s e
s a c c o m p a n i e d b y l o
s s o r r e l e a s e o f
e n e r g y E x . M a i n t e n a c e a n d r e p a
i r , s e c r e t i o
n o f
s u b s t a n c e s , p h y s i o
l o g i c a l
o x i d a t i o n
s
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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E L L U L
A R R E S P I R A T
I O N
!
t h e s e r i e s o f c o m p l e x o x i d a t i o
n r e a c t i o n
s
w h e r e b y
l i v i n g
!
c e l l s o b t a
i n e n e r g y
t h r o u g h b r e a k d o w n o f
o r g a n i c s
u b s t a n c e s
a n d
o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e
m a t e r i a l s
.
!
r e l e a s e o
f e n e r g y b
y t h e o x i d a t i o n o f f u e
l
m o l e c u l e
s b y t a k i n g
o x y g e n a
n d r e l e a s e
c a r b o n d i o x i d e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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C
O M P A R I S O N
O F A N A E R
O B I C A N D A E R O B I C
R
E S P I R A T I O N
M i t o c h o n d r i o n
R e q u i r e o x y g e n
2 P y r u v i c a c i d
f r o m
g l y c o l y s i s
B r e a k d o w n o f
p y r u v i c
a c i d s
C y t o p l a s m
D o n o t r e q u i r e o x y g e n
1 G l u c o
s e m o l e c u l e
( C H O , C
H O N , F a t s )
B r e a k d o w n o f g l u c o s e
t o p y r u v
i c a c i d ,
p h o s p h o r y l a t i o n , l a c t i c
a c i d f o r m a t i o n
1 . S i t e
2 . O x y g e n
r e
q u i r e m e n t
3 . R a w
m
a t e r i a l s / E n e r g
y
S o u r c e
4 . P r o c e s s e s
i n
v o l v e d
K R E B ’ S C Y C L E
G L Y C
O L Y S I S
B
A S I S
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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C o e n z y m e
A ( C o A ) ,
F A D ( F l a v i n A d e n i n e
D i n u c l e o t i d
e )
3 4 A T P ( 1 7
p e r
p y r u v i c a c
i d ) ,
C a r b o n D i o x i d e ,
w a t e r
P Y R U V I C A
C I D
O X A L O A C E T I C
A C I D ( C o A )
A T P , C O 2 , H
P h o s
p h o r y l a s e ,
N A D ( N i c o t i n a m i d e
A d e n
i n e D i n u c l e o t i d e ,
2 A T P , 2 p y r u v i c
a c i d s
( 3 - c a r b o n
s u g a
r ) , l a c t i c a c i d s
C H O ( F A T S , C H O N )
G L Y C O G E N
G L
U C O S E
P Y R U V I C A C I D ,
A T P ,
L A C T I C A C I D S
5 . E n z y m e s
6 . P r o d u c t s
K R E B ’ S
G L Y
C O L Y S I S
B A S I S
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C e l l D i v i s i o n
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C e l l d i v i s i o n i n c r e a s e s t h e
n u m b e r o f s
o m a t i c ( b o d
y )
c e l l s , a n d c o n s i s t s o f :
K a r y o k i n e s i s ( d i v i s i o n o f n u c l e u s )
C y t o k i n e s i s ( d i v i s i o n o f c y t o p l a s m )
A p
o p t o s i s ( c e l l d e a t h ) d e c r e a s e s t h e n u
m b e r o f c e l l s .
B o t h c e l l d i v i s i o n a n d a p o
p t o s i s o c c u r
d u r i n g n o r m
a l
d e
v e l o p m e n t a
n d g r o w t h .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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T h e C e l l C y c l e
T h e c e l l c y c l e i s a n o r d e r l y s e q u e n c e
o f e v e n t s t h
a t
o c c u r s f r o m
t h e t i m e w h e n a c e l l i s f i r s t f o r m e d u n t i l i t
d i v i d e s i n t o t w o n e w c e l l s .
M o s t o f t h e c e l l c y c l e i s s p e n t i n i n t e r p h a s e .
F o l l o w i n g i n
t e r p h a s e , t h e m i t o t i c s t a g e o f c e l l d i v i s i o n
o c c u r s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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h e s t a g e s
o f i n t e r p h
a s e
G
1 s t a g e – c e l l g r o w t h , c e l l d o u b l e s i t s o r g a n e l l e s ,
a c c u m u l a t e s m a t e r i a l s f o r D N A
s y n t h e s i s .
S
s t a g e – D N
A s y n t h e s i s
o c c u r s , a n d
D N A r e p l i c a t i o n
r e s u l t s
i n d u p l i c a t e
d c h r o m o s o m e s .
G
2 s t a g e – c e l l s y n t h e s i z e s p r o t e i n s n
e e d e d f o r c e l l
d i v i s i o
n
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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T h e M i t o t i c S t a g e
F
o l l o w i n g i n t e r p h a s e i s t h e M s t a g e , i n c l u d i n g m i t o s i s
a
n d c y t o k i n e s i s .
D
u r i n g m i t o s
i s , s
i s t e r c h r
o m a t i d s o f e a c h c h r o m o
s o m e
s e p a r a t e , a n d
b e c o m e t h e
n u c l e i o f t h e t w o d a u g h
t e r
c
e l l s .
T
h e c e l l c y c l e e n d s w h e n
c y t o k i n e s i s , t h e c l e a v i n
g o f
t h e c y t o p l a s m
, i s c o m p l e t e .
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T h e c e l l c y c l e
i s c o n t r o l l e
d a t t h r e e c h
e c k p o i n t s :
1 . D u r i n g G
1 p r i o r t o t h e S s t a g e
2 . D u r i n g G
2 p r i o r t o t h e M s t a g e
3 . D u r i n g t h e M s t a g e p
r i o r t o t h e e n d o f m i t o s i
s
D
N A d a m a g e
c a n a l s o s t o
p t h e c e l l c y
c l e a t t h e G 1
c h e c k p o i n t .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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a i n t a i n i n g t h e C h r o
m o s o m e N
u m b e r
W
h e n a e u k a r y o t i c c e l l i s
n o t d i v i d i n g , t h e D N A a n d
a
s s o c i a t e d p r o t e i n s i s a t a
n g l e d m a s s o f t h i n t h r e a
d s
c
a l l e d c h r o m a t i n .
A
t t h e t i m e o f c e l l d i v i s i o
n , t h e c h r o m
a t i n c o n d e n
s e s t o
f o r m h i g h l y c o m p a c t e d s t r u c t u r e s c a l l e d c h r o m o s o m e s .
E
a c h s p e c i e s
h a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n u m
b e r o f
c
h r o m o s o m e s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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I n t h e l i f e c y
c l e o f m a n y
a n i m a l s , o n l y s p e r m a n d
e
g g s h a v e t h e h a p l o i d n u m b e r o f c h r o m o s o m e s .
T h e n u c l e i o f s o m a t i c c e l l s u n d e r g o m i t o s i s , a n u
c l e a r
d i v i s i o n i n w
h i c h t h e n u m b e r o f c h r o
m o s o m e s s t a y s
c o n s t a n t .
B e f o r e n u c l e
a r d i v i s i o n o c c u r s , D
N A
r e p l i c a t i o n
t a k e s
p l a c e , d u p l i c
a t i n g t h e c h r o m o s o m e s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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A d u p l i c a t e d
c h r o m o s o m
e i s m a d e o f t w o s i s t e r
c
h r o m a t i d s h
e l d t o g e t h e r i n a r e g i o n
c a l l e d t h e
c
e n t r o m e r e .
S i s t e r c h r o m
a t i d s a r e g e n
e t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l .
A t t h e e n d o f m i t o s i s , e a c h c h r o m o s o
m e c o n s i s t s
o f a
s i n g l e c h r o m
a t i d .
D u r i n g m i t o s i s , t h e c e n t r o m e r e s d i v i d e a n d t h e n
t h e
s i s t e r c h r o m a t i d s s e p a r a t e , b e c o m i n g
d a u g h t e r
c
h r o m o s o m e s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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F o l l o w i n g m
i t o s i s , a 2 n p a r e n t a l c e l l
g i v e s r i s e t o
t w o
2 n d a u g h t e r c e l l s , o r 2 n →
2 n .
M i t o s i s o c c u
r s w h e n t i s s u e s g r o w o r
w h e n r e p a i r
o c c u r s .
F o l l o w i n g f e
r t i l i z a t i o n , t h e z y g o t e d i v i d e s m i t o t i c a l l y ,
a n d m i t o s i s c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e
l i f e s p a n o f
t h e
o r g a n i s m .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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D
u r i n g m i t o s
i s , t h e s p i n d l e d i s t r i b u t e s t h e c h r o m o s o m e s
t o e a c h
d a u g h t e r c e l l .
T
h e s p i n d l e c
o n t a i n s f i b e
r s m a d e o f m
i c r o t u b u l e s
t h a t
d i s a s s e
m b l e a n d a s
s e m b l e .
C
h r o m o s o m e
s a t t a c h t o t h e s p i n d l e f i
b e r s t h r o u g h
t h e i r
c e n t r o s o m e s .
M
i t o s i s h a s f o u r p h a s e s : p r o p h a s e , m e t a p h a s e , a n
a p h a s e ,
a n d t e l o p h a s e .
M
i t o s i s i n D
e t a i l
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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I n
t e r p h a s e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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P r o p h a s e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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e t a p h a s e
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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e l o p h a s e
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y t o k i n e s i s
C y t o k i n e s i s
, o r c y t o p l a s m i c c l e a v a g e , a c c o m p a n i e s
m i t o s i s .
C l e a v a g e o
f t h e c y t o p l a s m b e g i n s i n a n a p h a s e ,
b u t i s
n o t c o m p l e
t e d u n t i l j u s t b e f o r e t h e n e x t i n t e r p h a s e .
N e w l y - f o r m e d c e l l s r e c e i v e a s h a r e
o f c y t o p l a s m i c
o r g a n e l l e s d u p l i c a t e d d
u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s i n t e r p h a s e .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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y t o k i n e s i s
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e l l D i v i s i o
n i n P r o k a r y o t e s
T h e p r o c e s s o f a s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i n p r o k a r y o t e s i s
c a l l e d b i n a r
y f i s s i o n .
T h e t w o d a u g h t e r c e l l s a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e o r i g i n a l
p a r e n t c e l l ,
e a c h w i t h a
s i n g l e c h r o m
o s o m e .
F o l l o w i n g D N A r e p l i c a
t i o n , t h e t w o r e s u l t i n g
c h r o m o s o m
e s s e p a r a t e a s t h e c e l l e l o n g a t e s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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e i o s i s i n h u m a n s .
H
u m a n s h a v e
2 3 p a i r s o f h o m o l o g o u s
c h r o m o s o m
e s ,
o r 4 6 c h r o m o s o m e s t o t a l .
P r i o r t o m e i o s i s I , D N A r e p l i c a t i o n o c c u r s .
D
u r i n g m e i o s
i s , t h e r e w i l l b e t w o n u c l e a r d i v i s i o n s , a n d
t h
e r e s u l t w i l l b e f o u r h a p l o i d n u c l e i .
N
o r e p l i c a t i o n o f D N A o c
c u r s b e t w e e
n m e i o s i s I a n d
m
e i o s i s I I .
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e i o s i s I s e
p a r a t e s h o m o l o g o u s
p a i r s o f
c h
r o m o s o m
e s .
D a u g h t e r c e l l s
a r e h a p l o i d
, b u t c h r o m o s o m e s a r e s
t i l l i n
d u
p l i c a t e d c o n
d i t i o n .
S y n a p s i s o c c u r s d u r i n g m e i o s i s I
M
e i o s i s I I s
e p a r a t e s s i s t e r c h r o
m a t i d s .
T h e c o m p l e t e
l y h a p l o i d d a u g h t e r c e l l s m a t u r e i n t o
g a m e t e s .
F e r t i l i z a t i o n r e s t o r e s t h e d i p l o i d n u m b e r o f c h r o m
o s o m e s
d
u r i n g s e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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M e i o s i s i n D e t a i l
M e i o s i s i n v o l v e s t h e s a m
e f o u r p h a s
e s s e e n i n
m i t o s i s
p r o p h a s e
m e t a p h a s e
a n a p h a s e
t e l o p h a s e
T h e o c c u r d u r i n g b o t h m
e i o s i s I a n d
m e i o s i s I I .
T h e p e r i o d o f t i m e b e t w
e e n m e i o s i s
I a n d m e i o s i s I I
i s c a l l e d i n t e
r k i n e s i s .
N o r e p l i c a t i o n o f D N A o c c u r s d u r i n
g i n t e r k i n e s i s
b e c a u s e t h e
D N A i s a l r e
a d y d u p l i c a t e d .
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e i o s i s I c o n t i n u e d
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e i o s i s I I ( s i m i l a r t o m
i t o s i s )
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e n e t i c R e c o m b i n a t i
o n
T
h e r e a r e t w o s o u r c e s o f
g e n e t i c r e c o
m b i n a t i o n d u r i n g
m e i o s i s :
1 . C r o s s i n g - o
v e r .
N o n - s i s t e r
c h r o m a t i d s
o f a c h r o m o
s o m e p a i r
e x c h
a n g e t h e i r g
e n e t i c m a t e r i a l .
2 . I n
d e p e n d e n t a s s o r t m e n
t .
H o m o l o g o u s c h r o m o s o m e s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o
d a u g h t e r c e l l s r a n d o m
l y .
3
. S y n a p s i s o
f c h r o m o s o m e s
4
. F e r t i l i z a t i o
n
A
l l e v e n t s a s s u r e n e w g e n e t i c c o m b i n
a t i o n s i n t h e
o f f s p r i n g .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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S y n a p
s i s a n d c r
o s s i n g - o v e r
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d e p e n d e n
t
a s s o r t m e n t
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F e r t i l i z a t i o n
b e t w e e n h a p l o i d g a m e t e s r e s u l t s i n
a t h i r d
s o u r c e o f g e n e t i c r e c o m
b i n a t i o n b e c
a u s e t h e r e i s t h e
c o m b i n i n g o f c h r o m o s o
m e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t i n d i v
i d u a l s
( p a r e n t s ) . T h
e t h r e e s o u
r c e o f g e n e t i c r e c o m b
i n a t i o n
a r e :
1 .
I n d e p e n d e
n t a l i g n m e n t o f p a i r e d
c h r o m o s o m
e s a l o n g
t h e m e t a p
h a s e I
p l a t e
2 . C r o s s i n g - o v e r d u r i n g p r o p h a s e I
3 . C o m b i n i n g o f c h r o m o
s o m e s o f g e n e t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t
g a m e t e s
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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o m p a r i s o
n o f M e i o
s i s w i t h M
i t o s i s
B
e f o r e m i t o s i s a n d m e i o s i s , D N A r e p l i c a t i o n o c c u r s o n l y
o n c e d u r i n g t h e i n t e r p h a s e p r i o r t o c e l l d i v i
s i o n .
M
i t o s i s r e q u i r e s o n e d i v i s
i o n
M
e i o s i s r e q u i
r e s t w o d i v i s i o n s .
T w o d i p l o i d d
a u g h t e r c e l l s r e s u l t f r o m
m i t o s i s
F o u r h a p l o i d d a u g h t e r c e l l s r e s u l t f r o m m e i o s i s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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D a u g h t e r c e
l l s f r o m m i t o s i s a r e g e n e t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l
t o p a r
e n t a l c e l l s
D a u g h t e r c e
l l s f r o m m e i o s i s a r e n o t
g e n e t i c a l l y
i d e n t i c a l t o p a r e n t a l c e l l s .
M i t o s i s o c c u r s i n a l l s o m
a t i c c e l l s f o
r g r o w t h a n d
r e p a i r .
M e i o s i s o c c u r s o n l y i n t h e r e p r o d u c t i v e o r g a n s f o r
t h e p r
o d u c t i o n o f
g a m e t e s .
C
o m p a r i s o n o f M e i o s
i s w i t h M i t o s i s ( c o n t )
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o m p a r i s o n o f M e i o s
i s I I t o M i t o s i s
T h e e v e n t s o
f m e i o s i s I I
a r e l i k e t h o s
e o f m i t o s i s
e x c e p t i n m e
i o s i s I I , t h e n u c l e i c o n t a
i n t h e h a p l o i d
n u m b e r o f c h r o m o s o m e s
.
A t t h e e n d o f t e l o p h a s e I
I o f m e i o s i s
I I , t h e r e a r e
f o u r
h a p l o i d d a u g
h t e r c e l l s t h
a t a r e n o t g e
n e t i c a l l y
i d e n t i c a l .
A t t h e e n d o f m i t o s i s , t h e r e a r e t w o d
i p l o i d d a u g h t e r
c e l l s t h a t a r e
i d e n t i c a l .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/anatomy-and-physiology-chap-2-and-3 138/149
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/anatomy-and-physiology-chap-2-and-3 139/149
T h e h u m a n l i f e c y c l e r e q u i r e s
b o t h m i t o
s i s a n d
m e i o s i s .
I n m a l e s , m e
i o s i s o c c u r s
a s s p e r m a t o
g e n e s i s a n d
p r o d u c e s s p e
r m .
I n f e m a l e s , m
e i o s i s o c c u
r s a s o o g e n e
s i s a n d p r o d
u c e s
e g g c e l l s .
M i t o s i s i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e g r o w t h o f a c h i l d a n d r
e p a i r o f
t i s s u e s d u r i n g l i f e .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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S p e r m a t o g e n e s i s i n h u m a n m a l e s p r o d u c e s f o u r v i a b l e
h a p l o i d s p e r m
.
D
i p l o i d p r i m a
r y s p e r m a t o
c y t e s u n d e r g o m e i o s i s I
t o
p r o d u c e h a p l o
i d s e c o n d a r y s p e r m a t o c
y t e s .
S e c o n d a r y s p e r m a t o c y t e s
d i v i d e b y m
e i o s i s I I t o
p r o d u c e h a p l o
i d s p e r m a t i d s .
S p e r m a t i d s m
a t u r e i n t o s p
e r m w i t h 2 3
c h r o m o s o m
e s .
8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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8/6/2019 Anatomy and Physiology Chap 2 and 3
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D u r i n g o o g e n e s i s , a d i p l o i d p r i m a r y o o c y t e u n d e r g o e s
m e i o s i s I t o p r
o d u c e o n e h
a p l o i d s e c o n
d a r y o o c y t e
a n d
o n
e h a p l o i d p o
l a r b o d y .
T h e s e c o n d a r y
o o c y t e b e g i n s m e i o s i s I I b u t s t o p s a t
m e t a p h a s e I I a
n d i s r e l e a s e d a t t h i s s t a g e f r o m t h e
o v a r y .
M
e i o s i s I I w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d o n l y i f s p
e r m a r e p r e s e n t .
F o
l l o w i n g m e i o s i s I I , t h e r e i s o n e h a p l o i d e g g c e l l
w i t h 2 3
c h
r o m o s o m e s
a n d u p t o t h
r e e p o l a r b o
d i e s .
P o
l a r b o d i e s s e r v e a s a d u m p i n g g r o u n
d f o r e x t r a
c h
r o m o s o m e s .
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o g e n e s i s
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I n
h u m a n s , b o
t h s p e r m c e
l l s a n d t h e e
g g c e l l h a v e
2 3
c h r o m o s o m e s
e a c h .
F o l l o w i n g f e r
t i l i z a t i o n o f
t h e e g g c e l l
b y a s i n g l e
s p e r m , t h e z y g
o t e h a s 4 6 c h r o m o s o m e
s , t h e d i p l o i d
n u m b e r f o u n d
i n h u m a n s o m a t i c c e l l s .
T h e 4 6 c h r o m
o s o m e s r e p r e s e n t 2 3 p a i r s o f h o m o l o g o u s
c h r o m o s o m e s
.
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e n e t i c R e c o m b i n a t i o n i n H u m
a n s
T h e r e a r e t h r e
e w a y s i n w
h i c h m e i o s i s a n d f e r t i l i z
a t i o n
e n s u r e t h a t
a c h i l d h a s a d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n o f
g e n e s f r o m
t h a t o f e i t h e
r p a r e n t :
1 . I n d e p e n d e n
t a s s o r t m e n t o f c h r o m o s o m e s d u r i n g
m e t a
p h a s e I
2 . C r o s s i n g - o v e r d u r i n g p
r o p h a s e I
3 . U p o n f e r t i l i z a t i o n , r e c o
m b i n a t i o n o
f c h r o m o s o m e s
f r o m
d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s ( v i a t h e i r g a m e t e s )
o c c u r s .
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m m a r y
C e l l d i v i s i o n i n c r e a s e s t h e
n u m b e r o f b o d y c e l l s ;
A p o p t o s i s d e c r e a s e s c e l l n u m b e
r .
C e l l s g o e s t h r o u g h a c e l l c
y c l e .
E a c h s p e c i e s h
a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c n u m b
e r o f c h r o m
o s o m e s .
M
i t o s i s 1 . p r o d u c e s d a u g h t e r c e l l s t h a t a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e
p a r e n t a
l c e l l .
2 . h a s f
o u r p h a s e s d
e s i g n e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e
c h r o m o s o m e
n u m b e r .
3 . i s u s e d f o r g r o w t h a n d r e p a i r
o f t i s s u e s .
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M e i o s i s 1 . r e d u c e s t h e c h
r o m o s o m e n
u m b e r .
2 . i n c l u d e s t w o n
u c l e a r d i v i s
i o n s .
3 . r e s u l t s i n n o n - i d e n t i c a l h a p l o i d g a m e t e s .
T h e h u m a n
l i f e c y c l e i n c l u d e s b o t h
m i t o s i s a n d
m e i o s i s .
T h e p r o c e s
s o f m e i o s i s
a n d f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n h u m a n s a n d
o t h e r s e x u a l l y r e p r o d u c i n g o r g a n i s m s r e s u l t i n
o f f s p r i n g w
i t h n e w g e n
e t i c c o m b i n a t i o n .
S u m m a r y c o n t i n u
e d
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E E N D
N I C E D
A Y !