ANALYZING MEDIA MESSAGESUsing Quantitative Content AnalysisinResearchSecond EdilionDaniel RiffeOhio UniveniryStephen LacyMichigan Srate U"i...",s;ty),'rtderick G. )Ing tile book; and our II udenJ1 wholought u, the moll .bou'l.aching tonlenl an.ly.i,. Fin.lly. OUI dee,,",,'.ppreclatlon gOCl to our f....iIi .. who of'en wonder w!le'het we do .ny_lhlng but .ootenl.n.ly."-DrJolti Riff.-S'OpMO Uu:ty_F",t!uldr G.Fil:o1IntroductionC"",ider lIIe rich di,...iry of foe.. of l!Ie$Indies, all of ,!>em....mp... of qUlntill.lh'. COOltnllnolysi. ICtO$S ""riod: In the late 1940s. ",..,mi'ler.eumined chillie;n tbe in'ema,;"".1polit;cal Iyllembyk>ol;ing .,60 yem "r editorial. infivepres,;worldLao.wen ...... foundIwo CO""""""n' ''''00' intiled by key"r"Propaganda... "cn during the W",ld ....'aI was new and frightening(l.II......II. 1927; Shib '" Jonowilz. 1948). Reinro,.,,,,.."t came in lheform of. 10-V'e "'...age (a bun'l) 1Il the h.lple" and homoS.nwo,ma Iud;"""". andtl>< oommUIIlcator'. de.ired011'.." would oceu,.801M of thedata X'''''ral.din ."pe,imental Slndi.. or me.ug.s andtbeit .rr.c" On a"l'ud int.,pre,.d 'upportlngth.,e,,,ulI'l'Ii,,,,. of pow.rful eff..".,Of COIl"', 1M anumplion that audiencemember1unifQlmlyhelpless and p... wu. major one. Metbodologisu warnd of the ortir"'ilHty of cI'OPria,e; Ill"" (1964) ql>C:01i""ed,Ile "moral ymmetry'" (p. J22Jof "",h vie'" of lhe publi.Nonetheless. content Inlly."foundI legitimltehome withinlhepowerfoI effects""...peC:il.conflic'ing condo.ions of the pow.rful and limited effoel! Ipproach...Rathe"h.n heing ,he ,osul, ofany .ingle cau"" (e.l.. the menlg.).com-munica,i""effec" ,.floe'ntain.ed .uuc,,'ed ethnic or g.odor ste"""-Y1"" '0 &11''01'I.ues'i"", .boonhowtho.. "cr=ty",," "'"l...med in,lie publicmind(Grecnbo'll&Brand. 1994). They hanI"",led "' conlcn, nf dayhme$OOpOfl"rut>uIUSII,hOWlbee orvey. ",.eal.d lhat .'I""ore '0 lel i,i"" crime andviol.""" "".,..Iated...i'h con.omen .i.... of their _n odds of,,,,,I ..o,ld c,iminal victimi ..,ion (Gerbo.,. G'ou. Mor,an. &:SiJllOriclh. 1994). Also. they hi.... analyzed rna".rnenl of politicll i.-'uell on atld offmedia'. cQII'enl agend. du'in, political carnpalillS.I"omin, llIal re oilel'$ elll rec"llni.. llIe priori'ies1oomali," live issuesInd iss"" Illriool emph..i,. placement. alld repeated eo,..ge).internalize ,b., agenda. and lben 0," il .. Ibasi. for vOling(McComb. &: Sh..... 1972; McComb< & 2(02).Conl.nlon.lp.. remain. on impofworkingundef 1hc Of o"onl di........(e.g" 'omadocoor eanl>quak.,). j""",aJi." prod lUId fil ter me '"I\esin way, ,ha, differ from routi"" newl wOIk (Whitney. 1981). Oiff.,.n'""'''''''hip, m.nagn mes"S!noted. communi ..tion ""n",ntuoo "",ritl systematic oumitlOtion be-ca"&e of iii l$.umed rol C'u&eOf an""dent of "..of indi.id""lprh.din J""",,,lin..of Man C"",munirn,i""Quo"cr/y. Abouthaveulled,... kindof qu""tila,iveconten, ....,y".in,hisbaM. Afifth of lb01iescudi... lui,.., illVe.ull"ed ,... eff"elS of """'''0'(many. bu' not Ill. u,;nlleXl"'rimeolS)on mem....... l1ld n.arIya third probed innue""., on conl.n,. ulu;lllyneW$ medii .on,eo,.Nearly ,wo-lhi.d. of the lu"",II,m & Mas< Co..munlcatlon Q.a,.,..I, "u.di., lince1998 "' 1'110' ref.ned '00.- di""uuedI,h..,...,i..1con'U' fo.- ,"'ir wo.-k. I mljo.- .hloge .ince the 1997 Iliffe and 1''''';'03,maytil parallel tilee>p noting 'balll>e method _I..., !U.s u>ein .""jonctiOll wi.h otbertt$un:b .....,.Ci . In f""t. despite Shocmat.,and Roc..', (1990) complaint obili"oly \he I",eign nl,ion....re ponf1lyed. Want, oJ.found I "sec< Eu"","an Union pre-'Cntcd in either. ronflictframeoranccOIIOmicconscq...lICes frames. Analy... ofthe number.od..lure orth. li.ted [hanllnslll_cd lIIal ,be tWO frames ditr.,ed ill howlhey .trotted ponidJWIISlboogbt.Finally. inan .ampl. of OIIOIh., Iypc: of muhimod ""o: == s" ,ii':;r",,-' ii! ga:!.';:i "" . n, -1' Ol ... l:: ...nlt";:"fi-3, ... ::;->-"...-;;Sii!.!i" g il",]llg";ri'i '"1" __ "'R"' .. ''is''''' !!.11 -""ij"_. ;;1l';J""'s.,...... ::I\.......... il i"!;;I,ilil"l'i ... l'.::'< :g l:: ;:";, 01: 8"l=Il R."':; if : il :r..,6" i 1': .. t:g"::!': '-'=:R;r:. gEII i 'ili g _2. 'Il.=. ...".'.a.... I....i< '1"3;:",,-,, ,--=:'!!. ... !l"1i! ..... ..,.'!!. "3.... pil ifi;'2:" : ...f;:.__ .... _ A .. _ w...._ " ".. "!!.;;:::1 n to [ .,... .."- - "g-,a-3!r .. ;11"'" Jili" ... _." ....... _ .. n !l"lli\. flo8.x ,.. ... ;>.. ,I"lIld Weide man', O'ons '0 find all .,lon. (0 ..delioR< io Memol..-stJ/ MyN.""'IHJliNU,foundlinleto ppoll Freud', rlin""""In'ion 'hat Scbrebt'" principal problem was ..,ual.I'o-date poycboJ.,.jli... wlto.. work..< were tIOl index.dor ab.tracted) because m",'scool..ly......arcbi. publi,hed bya mll'lOlllYt>f Klenti'" ;n anydi,dpllne.Coo",ot In.ly.i,h.. beenusedI., examine ovolu,ioo.,f Olbo. ac.demic di.cipll .... Fnrexompl., !)uno.n (1991) used100 key woro.meI...Ify ConI. ot of .rticles po bl I,bed in ,woclinicil paye",s'. and "ouilion a, the penon bei., Studied i. nOl .... att ... 0.-&he i, being di.dl110"" ..to inaccu,;bl. participill15 (,"""qpro,idonunt d>e I... Mr. 5licniOflI may be timilCd only by lh. lolly.f. imagl_na';on,tbeod p'''''''-du", nr co,Hut ....Iy... ond lion of the roanife" .0nlCnl of oom",onieOli",," (I'. Ig)--inclojectivI.'. behavior", "..kiDgU1crn10 "'pond to scal ; ...."l" thot the iDV...uptO' ".,ksof the (p. 525).E.ch of ,he.. d.lini'ion, i. u..fnl, shating ."'ph.... on ,he 'y"em-a,ic alld oI>jcctive nalUre of quan,i..ti"" COIItent ..oly.". Wi,hthe ..-ccp! """"pl.duncri'ically,",t aresubjected to a 'YSlemof b:servali... andompirical veriti""t;o. The ..i_.ntiticm.thodis one,uchsy.t.ro. with il, ..op-by-".p"""oo, """,,rver.""'''lIehe' illl...Mea...,,,,..? W., ,h. dc.iS;""ba\Cd ""the Uoe.oSn>c:n' of rraincd bccQme leu con.in? Did theit macro(!becnti", item). Inbetween ,be.., Itcthemes.indi_idulll ChonvOJ. ifthe poblic_pTiv>1" print_viiool. n.........d.erti""_ment--0... each sc"",. on a .";.b1. and i. diff.ren, f,om "'ben)!nI1 On' .m.nable to "ilhmctieol opera' ions tho' Can lieusedto ",mm";.e or describe the ... 1>01. sel (Riff. 2003.p. 1&2). Fr...mple,u,ing tbe oy".m de..ribed .0,lierrr ..amining di'"rsilyint.Io",ioo od.""i,ing. 0 "ooy migh' ,eport me overog. numller of Afri-can American cloa....te" in children', commen:ial, onlle pcro,., &. M""Co,","wn;ca,h", Quartul, con"n'anoly""o, Riffe "nd rotei'"(1997)found Ihlll of publillltd .looi.1 mighl qualify II tlc5Cript,,,,,:54':'. in>oh'ednofo.mol hypolllese$ '"re"".reh quea'ions. Ind72..Jlcked""ynl'licil Ihwreli,,"l underpinnin,. "amh.",i IndWeav.r(2003) "ported .imil", dau.Re.._IIt ...1.. CQnlinue '0 di5Co"", wlirely n.... '"S'atCb domainswi,b p..>iOU11 Yu pl"'.d m.nage. '" con'e n'. An9/bo hll moo-OW'''O,itorcd tile e.ol ",ion of CORlDluu ka,ion teou I lbe.000ten' of"e >ludy of theprograms (Gtnbc'll, Sberry. 8u....II Kampoldi-Hnilo, &: Smilll1997), Also. fout P'ioI ...qu.nti tative cont.nt anal y.i., ""pcri mentalre...rch,0.- qualitatiy ,escarch,AnoUloI tbc distincti""bot",...n manif.".r>dla-I.nt COIIt.nl. Analy". of manif..t contenlu,umes. II il ,,"'.re. 1"'" willillIe me...ge"what you see is wh., you get," The lIIdividual'IO symbol'. 'Thesemanl;C implication. no'With"anding. this disti,;on I".. clear impli.ca,mn. forquaRlillui"" conteot ,nalr'''_ whioh '" often inWlI, mullipIe cod.... applyingrules10 .",egori reliably ""me communicationCOnten!.Recall, for ...",ple. K....ick... (2004) conical.""lysl. of framesused;n covoring rocial i""". introduced in chapte0 may be .nwilling 01 unable '0 be "..min011,1 """1M' condi-tion. 'ha' can .ffec' tha, ""hedu]., to name bull few. Guided by too... ,edge.nd p e r ~ " " " io dealingwith IIIthe... and 01"". concern.. lhe.",hite.! produc preel .. Ind detailed~ r ..i"".1 inSlnlc,i"", ;lI. mofen. p.int"". Indtil...c,",,""ction ..orkenCaIY)' the: proje infer frflllhe nleIlIl!e to ,he: conlext of i.. pmductionOr otent.n.IYII .. The: relI1;onship of c.,=plUali..tion l.m.nl p..diclin8 lh.ll Slale Of I.vel ofone ".ri.ble i, ...""ialed ..il/1 a ...1. in anol/1e, v.ri.bl . Somelimeotaking lhe formofconditional IllIt.m.nll("if X. theny ~ ) . hypotl>csc. in'1u""til'ltive COnlonl ""a1y.i< may he0$ .impleOS the:I.Pre"ig. newspope" ...ill p....nt l>ntb 1" .au..tionandtbe: .hTU col'ldi,ions nec..sary for demonma';ng .,o..,ion. Eva>though con,en,.n1Iy". i. seldom "ler error< in ncw.p.plng.. thlody...i 11 II,," h... found It>e t\CCCJSlry vlri.lionon the de ponde 0I VOli.b1._If In ;n"s'ig"'''' look.d 011"'0 ""..'. opera';on. 0' T3.nd 0... hidoh111 Sed II 1'2. whereas ,lie e"",,"lor on.Ronald 11..,."" ...0$ labeled carly in hi. p,..iample of new...0-ti.. lbou'lhe Wbi,. 1l000se pubH.I>ed;o llte Post dutillJ ,heReaginpresidency ..de..mine ,h.topic. or new1even'"beingre-portod. '100 role of omci,1 .pokc.pe,..n. in p,riote ....ateh....'Ilodro,on...enng,he"'Kareh ques,ion; ,heresearchde.ign i. "hOI aomc might call a"nullandl>hs" Illneprin, fOf 'he execu,ion of I .pecific c""len, anlly-.;1 '0 enSo", 'M'the .pccific ..""oreh hypo'hesi. "" quellions about relo,ionships or .pecific ..riohlcl a", t.Sled effectily.EUMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGNRe....ch design .,ullly .oidrcoot women and$he PIle".""....,."Hive any'ludie. oflni .... ,.lated p""nome"o bee" conducted Itready1l< enoughknown "'Oldy '0 cnIbl. the rael,d"" ,,, 'e>l vlri.bl.rdl'i"""';!,, lhlt mia"' be in.."h....., or illbe PufPO'e of I!le $Iudy likely (0 be .,plonolOry or descripli",,?Begion; og ",seard",... Indeve" .'pcrienced"".. often Ipprach lhi.Ilep in 'oo"",oa! I mIn",,'. l1>e' .... i.....view of ..i.,in, ......an:bIntitheorythaI ..clude.kllOwIOt dclCribed,may IlOl,,",". open' .""ug" time 'hinking and pondering"'" i ..,.,""...rob. Thi tep ioclude> id(Wlinl wh., mitbl beDb..,vcdin.hecOntcnl if .en,i"bypolh..""d relation.hi! iil.for ..ample. I conlcnlonolyot might wln' t" "1'10'" how.If",,'ivelysoveramenl r.,triction. onpre.. activityin dll>al co""'l""'dcnu. filefrom thoK CORnU'i. l1>e leuo"i"gproc lbat "'ould define the CQ""cp" of ,u'rklion.or>(\ingf the pu'flO'" TIl.,will .uide there..m:hdesign.\\11alBe- Needed 10"">we< II>e 5peefficQt.oelionor r"'ltile Will n0.... l>o...Ill"" II,er.How Wi/! CodM1M Dala Whm They SI'l' III What uniu oreon,ent (,,'ordo"""C', m.nycontent ...Iy",,"lICk,hi, ....n'i.1information. Riffe.ndFreitag',Study of)""'" of publisl>ed cnlCnt .n.ly..s in 100,,,,,U,m &- Mn..C"""""n,,,,,""" Q""nulyfoundonlyofthe'tudie' "'pnodinterCOller reliability...OWIat Kiooof Dar..Wi" 8 Used/ Will "atistical proce_be Whichne$ an: appropriate?Coders apply ,h"rule>lnll .ope",i",,, monit< their P"'I",,'.. and cdi, ""'it ..."k. Rmpluity "'at uanUne andCho,oclcrize "" .. iombi.,. among and be_twcen vanabl",. ou.... "'port ,uolts in "'" foblcm,hal "tldedi.. the research. Are"OIAP". ,111;on>hlp can be 'taIi"ically stron. bul b !ollie import.,,"" f'" KhalIMip or society. " flirl)" JIroO, rel"ion>hip ""l.u bet,,'..n ,,"wly of......thor Ind omountoft.levi.ion "'"&lobin,. P""IlI. w.lCh televi'iOJl duringwinte'"'Ullli" Inowenns there-o..",b queS1iOll .nd fulfillin. the ..tidy', purpose,,

l iU,.!fis

dI i i'"" 1

..!l',I!,.f - "': if"

p;. r l;: prl.l %9. p. 23), ",,,,,arche... mu.' """,;dc, the form. ofcommuoicll;Qaper,an el,mnic sI conte nl fonns face .peei.lproblems. NonIe.. rommunic.ti"" adds dimen.ion. tllli CI7I by comparison cloud ,be manifUi cnlent of communleati",,_ for e..mrle. ,pokenor ,-erta.l communic.lion depend. like Ie". on !he meaning of WOlds Or.ymbol . tMJ,i'aloo in.oI.... ;nfJeClion and tone11111 alJ< mc>-$Oleitself. Forin"on"". I ,ell dc>,';pli.,.., of &lImeo""eonu,ily",vullg. wi'h I number: John Smi'h is It. oilull "'p'.len,"I;"n of"'a, lOme person beoo"",. much mo", vIgue. Ol""n (1994) found Ihll.hecould e.lIbli,h ",liabili'y for coding chlrac,er Ig.. in TV soap op-er.. by u.i"g wid. Ige rong.' (e" .. 2G-30 Y.ln "Id. 30-40 )'eIBold.ele ,j. Thi' mly no,I>< I""obl.m in 'ome 'esclIcripli"" of conlenl based on Idcfm.ble phy.ic.l r temporalboondny or symbolic m..ninl. II minute OfICI.,-i,ionnow. can be.COnlent unitOS can the billf(IUnd in. 0011""';0" "fwords.T""['"-'Def"!icw "" v......Typo ol Uoil> ........ ;" CMI...t _Iy>i>, "'_.,..........__......-,---.....,---_.-......._1IJoiK... _... _................. ....." s.J> .._ ......""'......_., ..__..........._--- _"...._............ _ ...._ ... -._.._..-....-.. ""...",_ _ 0/ _ "".. _"'" ..... -. _.-_ _., .. _...__.. _.-j" .-... Co c__ , __, ..-.. _up""" _.. .-..... TlIo ""' .-, ....'-"-n ...."._.. _ ..... _ ... _ ...... ....,.... ..-".. _ ..__..---II'. _ ....._ ..-....ol_OOOO____ WL _,.... _ _".... ""_...... _, .. ___-"- ...__....._.... __..-.I. "'_ ... .. _ .. _ ....,...._ ... nof........ Fool. ....--,.s,..-__...... ._.. ..... _.. ---...__... _.. ...---1..y ,he cont.nt anolyJl. S,udy uni" fill inlo four 'ypes: .....plinJ.recordinl, cool"', Ind "'a1ysi., and all mu.e be opceified for each """-I.olanaly.;.$;lmpling UrnlS Somp/iJI, "nill are di"'relt .ltmentl Of contto,'h31...be ..1ec1ed fotlludy fromiM...tire oon,en.ofin.. The reae....,bermigh' "'anllo Ja",p1e fromle,tes. wrill"'l>y I penon, papen,new&-popet ...cal>le P"'lI"''''''Wd>URL., TV new oric.. or poIi,ical.pcccbeO. The samplina onit dt record-ing "nil' WOIlld b: for ..mplinl. ,"cordinll. and contcx1 on;ts bee",.ll of'lle... ,ypes"roni" offoct the anaiy,i. of m. d.... Howe.er. the te nn nnnly.iSuni, i.oro! he '" to mean the onits that are analy.ed ""' i>1 ic.ny l rnayor may no' be the..me one. 0....10r'nalyOl',A"ody of vioknee on .. levi.i"" miiht clt'lIOn.e each 0., by a char-a.te. as qgr",.ive or nO! 'lIlI",,,;.e. The.", is the recording On;l. Theunil of miJllt then become Ihe mean nombor of..ts ofaggre..ion ;n elrb televi.ion programor 'he percentaleof oOI,he ...". .. tile orilinll reronlinl unit, ...hich ..... In"ldi,idu>!"" by I ch....,'er.An ""aly.I, unit can ne"orbOl brell< ""'ording unit> into .malle, ""Ito thall tIIeyIittady Ire. Thi.m.....lm i. impo:taot ...henI "'...."'he, plan. to use oriety of ""'",uIl"'f.MOll "udiend ul' lISing ""'"' th... 0"" type of unit in eoch of ,he",type., 0f1efl more tIlan one ..",pliog. "",,,,dinl:. ronte.., or analy'" unitioosed. An enOl pie 1liiy cI Olify the relotion'hip """"'I'hesutudy units.Lacy (1987) ",udied the itni*'t 01 or con.to' as was .uU..,cd in elflier discu.-s;on of lI\,,,,,edcnlS and c""seq"""" of conIc", in thopu:, I (Illi ...,1orne), The ability '0 male such Inr.rellCts i. based On ,,,,,,&ssumplion!'Fir.t. the allocation of phy.iell noin i. not "l>dom. aDd these oJI""._rio... lUulr in identifi.ble conlenl pal\efn.; oec:ood. ,b. lreate' lhe COlIlen' de""'edto ,n '".e, .object. or perwn. ,he lrea,er will be .11d codiog poi"" 'ballil "'....n'lN:.. a""cpt. In ;lrd, OJ lbc meaning ofosing a!WIk"l.. lOU,ce ,ha, i. beinl5todicd more lIwIlhe "ombe, of...ord, pe'>0.Krippc ndorff ( 1980)s. ",,,cdf"","f.ym1>01 ic 0ni.. for usc inconlCo' analyoi>: ay.,oclical. ",f..",.,i.1. propo,ih".al. a.d.hemalic"oilS. Syntactirol "ni""""u, .. di"""IC ooi" in al""8oag. '" medium.Tbe.impl",l syoloclicII"nil inJao,,,'-lI" is'be "",rd. bol ....nl.""...paragraph. anicle.. andbooks are....0.ynlactic... ooilL"unill in ,he Bible would he cblp'c" anrdJ. Knlenc, .,e.)Ihal helpto commookll' """ning. Fo< ;nlu""" toey(1988) 1o WISidIabililyv. iostabilily. globalilY v. peciflCily. and intemalily", externalily).The ","kin,. for were used 10 predkl oulcome. at e.enrsinvol.io,'he politician. who made lhe ".l.mem.H".selbee and Ellion (2002) ud "sl.r. me n"as pl"opos;' iOlla1un;rs'" Sl"dy howna,ionalaDdre,;o",,1 framedhale crime. inT.... andWyomin,. They.... re ,uidew arc lhe.. diffe",nlIypcs of theme analy.;s applied?Abelmanand N.u.ndOff (1985) cla"ifi.d 5-min ..gm.nll of religious pros..mmin8 in lerms of "'hc'hcrrhc 'heme of etch wu polilical. ooeial. 0< ",ii-Biou. Thi, 'ypc of",.dyi, .oo,'''en' "',h,"" 1101", (19M) andBcrel",n (Il/S2) u,e"ft"" tenll themjcc', i, u$Cd,o dauify the contenl. Fa- thc oak< of dori,y, the lC.ma"bj' ,hem,,'ic "nirs i, u,ed rOf 1I01s,;", and BerellOn', (1952) Iherne,and lite 'erm .".e,"",1 ,hem",ie "ni" i, u",d f", Kril'P"ndrff', ( 1980)'bematic uni..,uol.,i (1969)"'Iued 'bat th.matic units may be lhe""," u",ful '0content IOlly,is beelu", th.y Illowthe Mudy of nlnell, a"i'ude.,I>I!.lier.. and othe, internal.'.... of th" commuoicator. How..er. unillif>-..,1,inB'aluel, at'i'ude.. IOd I>I!liefs c,eatediffi lty in aohi.-iD!:reli.bili'yo.rnong cde.... Thematic uoill can II", ale ,a1idily prob-leD" because clues'Dintero.l ""es of cDmmuniCllorsiD,ol". more,ban manife" content.A ponicul"ly p"'milin, aPl""*'b 'D thematic uDi" de\ieloped du,-in, ,be .....' few l of framinl (Rc=e. Gllldy, '"Granl, 2001). A,I lcm1,fro",inBh.sbeenuoed widely, and Tankard(2001)lhra: com"",n defini,ion. from 'he academic Ii,era-lUte. lie 'n"esledtlI. lollow;oaasI oompr.""nsivedefini,ion, '"Af."",e ill I ceotrll ",glOiIina idea for n.... CODLen'lha, ,uPlllies a cOn_'ex,.lId .uU.,,, ..ba"he i..ue is ,hroogll Ihc use or sclcction, emphl_si., e:oclu.ioo. IOd elabora,ion"(Tlnklrd, 2001, pp. 100_101).Numerous ..\ldie., bolb quaHtati'CaDd quanlila,ive, bl''' u.edtheCODCep< o( framinB "'i,h variety 0('0 opera'ionali ,;"". of thaIn-cw,1'l" ""pl. !'or ....mple. Winf.. ld011ee.u'e they l wllen llle ....I.m.nlS lboUloobjeelS lIkeprn'.nLK....hon _nCoot""tand Siudy Unit.SnHly unilS m..sl be fIi"""$. theme).Identifying tlH: approp.-I.Le Infonn.tlon uni" foeca'egory has multiple .ubeateg-ri.. wirh 0"" number eoch.....r,ththe mul,i ...riable appr"':h. eacb subcategorybecomes a variablewi,bOnenumber for h..ing ,be variablecllar"",eri,,", andone for oot havinglhat eharacteristie. The mullivariable approach allowstbe sarne articletnbe placed into"""" rhlnone classification. It is particularly useful if Iunil nCeli be, ",," the "umben are equal.TIley are called i..""..1""'0$"..... heel. each ime,,'al;$ "'10.110 alllb." in,"...II. Tbe dilf....."". betwe01'\"lescripliveldjet'" "oOt, by whelht. chey ein fa""" of tuninll I forw'ha'Vl'(KIJd .ndange. lhe S..,.,td 0 1. IgainS! tu"inl. or n.u.ra!.2. Clan .,,,,,,,un_elas. 'lruclure il limilar 10 If'OUpinll. bull""IrouP' ha.'" a hierarchical relation. with ""me ela.." {Of lIroups} "".iOI hil"'" Cllao oth. Deese (1969) laid. "Abmaccly. a ca"SOfiealsHucCu'. e." be ."prc..nc.das ahi'meslic policy. All or the...... present form of dimeo-,ionol "".Iilll.. 51""i,,1 "'I'",u.,olilmnndOI", AIiIm could bedese.ibed along J-po;nl seal..., good-bad.and .., on. Tho u"" of ,uch mod.1s .Ilow.conlcnl ....115 10 pl.,.., co",pl"" ......ningn.ched In ,ymbol.Foe ",..mplc. Dougl...nd Olson (1995) de""loped pali.1 .p-p' h conlenl in on e.perimen,al 'lndy. In rhi. >rudy, 308 ",u_lien '" epi>Odc. frumI] ,el.>i,i"" Iiluali"" """",dies and fill.doul que>lioooair...boul familyOouglondOl..,nilleolified Ih.... fu IIC' io", dull ...plai...d aboll I84"" oflh. ,vial;oo inprol!Jllm. Tho.. function, (C.\p,..,i>ene.., =eprh'ene.., and ..,k"",cIUrc) K....., apal i,1 di olen,ion. of coot. nt IhaIcan diff1110.. 'yp.. or prog,"m, ba..d on ramily ... Ialion.S. AbJ"oc',,,In,iona-BOlhse.lend m.p. "'I"""'nl offorl 10make 1'.gIl'g.""lICre'e. They ore practic.1....y. of lhinkinganda1,,*,, "",,e"pl>_5001" of 'hnse .bsrracl concepr.,..ch as f,;"ndOIl and ,he vietim to cla..ify .g-gre..i>ebeh..ior in 'ele>i,ion coolenl. Tho..,,,,,,,imes ,ublle """.cept of """,..i",, was d.finednOl by beh.vio.. of the .gg""sor.OWl" 511Ch II hillinB. but by ,Ix: impact "" ,Ix: vic';m,. Palter .,aJ. "'U' di ..,insui,lM:d b(lpolit. of bad. llnd bright i',,(,push. of dark, The>l'binorr IttuC'u"" .,.., fte. fOWldin eo,u,o,. >!tllough cOIICcpl'"oedIMl' I>< ' ......ght of inlhe.. ,.mI,.In 'he fieldf jmu".li.m. repone'"'re ..,umro to Ix: either ...hj,;v. 0.- objcc definition. ",cdIn a jlfO!ocol for u,ignlna numl>en 'af)'... im ,he 'ype of told of .."..,61 the IMicle ,lie recording Un;', "ate-rnenl! ... ithin IlK I"ick rouldt>eostrtlC,iotl.$, E.plici, codini;n"ruclion. ttl-quire tllal rccordini and cOllte.l uni" be defined in IS much dellil ..i. pos.ib!e.ndpractical. Themo,e dellilcdthedefinitions, tbehighe, thereliability. Howevc', a ,e,earebe. mwa be .areful nor 10be.., detailed tomakctbe 'pplic";on of tbe coding instructinntoodifficult.Defining tilere< .... of un'plin!,A isub.., t or un;ts from tl>< n' ire 1"'l"'111;OObei"udled.TI>me play.lbat Wt Ili'l of playa .,'.ilable to the ",....eber. A ..mple of plly. randomlylaken fromthi.liSi would he.onld maltc de'"whether ,he inference concern, CrIltnt. time. or boiIlre iLobl!he."x1y 'lllooid be I "".,ubullhi. i, rare. TheclHI,'cnicncc oamplc oflc. i. oood l>tcIUse lbt content WI' collected in I.....ynol ... I".dto,be "od(.pU'''''"'', Alibruy. for.>ample. lob-..,rib, ),oS,I.. 'Times, and the Chk"g" T,ibte)l 100 ilability. An "ft.ntype of purpos;". sample i. con-secutive-uni, Pmpllnl. which in""lv '.killll a serie. of ""n,en' pr-dured during. ruin lime. Coont .n.ly,int loe>! n...."'..'. during.2.....k I"'riod i c""..culive-d.y sampl. Coooecutive-day ..mplingc.n be impon.n',,'hen s'udyint. con'inuint ....... ur fe.turn s''Y ber .ole eonnec,ed.", n,s ,,. nnot becumincd odcqu.,.1ynlhcrwi... Such..mpl oftcn or. found io Iludie. of .I.clio", .nd.on'inuingcon'lOv.....ie.o.Problems Wilh Nonprobabilil)'SamplesThe m.in rn....n n""probability ..mpler< uoed i. diflkuily io con.cl-ing conn!. A ,..nil. ,be av.il.bili,y of .Onteo' thenOlu,e ofthe ,.....ch. Tbe OI"",y of loc.1 lelevi.ion ne,,'. p'ovid... good cumpie. 1.c.1 TV nc.......' rc ...",Iy av.il.ble outside ,he panicul .. m..kc!. A ,e.ul,. ,he p'''I!,.m> muS' be taped in ,be ..... of origin. Astudy'rying '0 g......h.. """ide. oingle m.orkCl migh' =lui ... p"p\cOJoundthe country '0 tape .........SI.Ilou;cve,. the problem.",.ping loc.l UCIlI' on ll.I,io",,1 ",.1. can beovercome ... i'h adequate funding. For example. the Projec, forExcelIe.... in Jou,naliOJll (PEl. 20021....hich illocated .1 Colntnbia Unh'.,li'yand.poo""edby the NiemanI'oulld",ionat H>rvlldandTheCommi"cc of Concerned Journ.lilll. collected "",iunal "mple. of Il>-.al1esech.,at:rerislie. include ,he m"n. median (Ihe middle score in a serie'lJnugedfromlow '0 high). andmode (litemo" f,oque", "'''''' value) will beequll; ohll the .ample meam will be on ei,lI