An Introduction to Rhetoric

AP English Language and Composition H. Lawrence

Rhetoric DefinedAristotle: Rhetoric is "the faculty of

discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion."

Plato:  [Rhetoric] is the "art of enchanting the soul." (The art of winning the soul by

discourse.)Philip Johnson: "Rhetoric is the art of

framing an argument so that it can be appreciated by an audience."

Andrea Lunsford:  "Rhetoric is the art, practice, and study of human communication."

Lou GehrigNicknamed “The Iron

Horse,” Lou Gehrig was one of the most talented and accomplished men to ever play the game of baseball. His accomplishments on the field made him an authentic American hero and his tragic early death made him a hero.

http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/lougehrigfarewelltobaseball.htm

Why is this an effective speech? Context (or occasion):Lou

Gehrig delivered this speech at an Appreciation Day held in his honor on July 4, 1939. He gave the speech between games of a doubleheader.

The more important context is the poignant contrast between the celebration of his athletic career and the life-threatening diagnosis he had received.

Why is this an effective speech? Purpose: Within the given context, Gehrig’s

goal is to remain positive by looking on the bright side – his past luck and present optimism – an downplaying the bleak outlook. Makes only one reference to his diagnosis

“bad break” Thesis (or claim or assertion): Gehrig’s is

crystal clear: “He’s the luckiest man on the face of the earth.”

Subject: Gehrig knows his subject – baseball in general, the New York Yankees in particular.

Why is this an effective speech? Speaker: Though Gehrig is a

baseball champion, he is not a polished orator or a highly sophisticated writer; therefore, as a speaker, he presents himself as a common man, modest and glad for the life he’s lived.

Audience: Fans and fellow athletes, both those in the stadium and those who will hear the speech from afar, and people rooting for him on and off the field.

Why is this an effective speech? Gehrig’s understanding of

how these factors – subject (main idea), speaker, and audience – interact determines his speech: a plainspoken, positive appreciation for what he has had, and a champion’s courageous acceptance of the challenges that lie before him.

One commentator wrote, “Lou Gehrig’s speech almost rocked Yankee Stadium off its feet.”

The Rhetorical Triangle

The Rhetorical Triangle or the Aristotelian Triangle Interaction

among subject, speaker, and

audience determines the structure and language of

the argument.

Persona of speaker/writer

Audience

Subject

AppealsThe writer/speaker uses appeals to support

his/her meaning: EthosLogosPathos

EthosNames the persuasive appeal of one's character,

especially how this character is established by means of the speech or discourse.

Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy.

Aristotle claimed that one needs to appear both knowledgeable about one's subject and benevolent.

Cicero said that in classical oratory the initial portion of a speech (its exordium or introduction) was the place to establish one's credibility with the audience.

A person’s reputation or background might provide them ethos. The writing itself might provide ethos by being balanced, reasonable, sincere, knowledgeable, etc

LogosNames the appeal to reason. Aristotle wished that all communication could be transacted only through this appeal, but given the weaknesses of humanity, he laments, we must resort to the use of the other two appeals.

PathosNames the appeal to emotion. Cicero encouraged the use of pathos at the conclusion of an oration, but emotional appeals are of course more widely viable.

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ArrangementAnother element of rhetoric is the

organization of a piece, what classical rhetoricians called arrangement.

The Classical Model: IntroductionNarrationConfirmationRefutationConclusion

IntroductionExordium Introduces the reader to the subjectIn Latin, exordium means “beginning a web”Should draw in the readers by piquing their

interest Often establishes ethos

NarrationNarratioProvides factual information and background

material on the subject at handBegins the developmental paragraphs, or

establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing

Level of detail of this section depends on audience’s knowledge of subject

Appeals to logos and pathos

ConfirmationConfirmatio Usually the major part of the textIncludes the development or the proof

needed to make the writer’s case – the nuts and bolts of the essay, containing the most specific and concrete detail in the text

Usually makes the strongest appeal to logos

RefutationRefutatio Addresses the counterargumentIs a bridge between the proof and conclusionUsually recommended to be at the end, but

not a hard-and-fast ruleIf opposing views are well known or valued

by the audience, a writer/speaker will address them before presenting his/her own argument.

Mostly appeal to logos

ConclusionPeroratio May be one paragraph or severalBrings the essay/speech to a satisfying closeUsually appeals to pathos and reminds audience

of the ethos established earlierRather than simply repeating what has gone

before, the conclusion brings all the writer’s ideas together and answers the question, so what?

The classical rhetorician’s advice is that the last words and ideas of a text are those the audience is most likely to remember.

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Patterns of Development

Another way to consider arrangement is according to purpose.

These patterns of development include a range of logical ways to organize an entire text or, more likely, individual paragraphs or sections.

NarrationRefers to telling a story or recounting a

series of events. Can be based on personal experience or on

knowledge from reading or observation. Chronology usually governs narrationsIncludes concrete detail, a point of view, and

sometimes dialogueNarration is not simply crafting an appealing

story; it’s crafting a story that supports your thesis.

Writers often use narration as a way to enter their topics.

DescriptionClosely related to narration because both

include many specific details. Unlike narration, description emphasizes the

senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels.

Often used to establish mood or atmosphereRarely is an entire essay descriptive, but

clear descriptive writing can make an essay more persuasive

Process AnalysisExplains how something works, how to do

something, or how something is/was done. The key to successful process analysis is

clarity: it is important to explain a subject clearly and logically, with transitions that mark the sequence of major steps, stages, ,or phases of the process.

Comparison and ContrastA common pattern of development;

juxtaposes two things to highlight their similarities and differences.

Used to analyze information carefully, which often reveals insight into the nature of the information being analyzed.

Often required on examinations where you have to discuss various aspects of two pieces of text

May be organized subject-by-subject or point-by-point

Classification and Division By answering the question, What goes

together and why? Writers and reader can make connections between things that might otherwise seem unrelated.

Most of the time a writer’s task is to develop his or her own categories, to find a distinctive way of breaking down a larger idea or concepts into parts.

DefinitionTo ensure that writers and their audiences

are speaking the same language, definition may lay the foundation to establish common ground or identifying areas of conflict.

Defining a term is often the first step in a debate or disagreement.

In some cases, the definition is only a paragraph or two; in other cases, it takes up the whole essay.

ExemplificationProviding a series of examples – facts,

specific cases, or instances – turns a general idea into a concrete one; this makes your argument both clearer and more persuasive to a reader.

A writer might use extended examples or a series of related ones to illustrate a point.

Aristotle taught that examples are a type of logical proof called induction. That is, a series of specific examples that leads

to a general conclusion.

Cause and EffectAnalyzing cause and effect can be a powerful

argument. It is important to carefully trace a chain of

cause and effect and to recognize possible contributing factors.

Cause and effect is often signaled by a why in the title or opening paragraph.

SourcesThe Language of Composition by Renee H.

Shea, Lawrence Scanlon, and Robin Dissin Aufses

http://rhetoric.byu.edu/canons/Canons.htmhttp://www.americanrhetoric.com