an impending challenge food and water security in southern...

McCusker Charitable Foundation

An Impending ChallengeFood and Water Security in Southern Africa

Australia’s Response

INDEPENDENT STRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA’S GLOBAL INTERESTS

NOvEmBER 2012McCusker Charitable Foundation

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Future Directions International 80 Birdwood Parade, Dalkeith WA 6009 Australia

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First published November 2012

An Impending ChallengeFood and Water Security in Southern AfricaAustralia’s Response

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DisclaimerThe views expressed in this publication remain solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policy of Future Directions International, its directors or associates.

Future Directions international is an independent, not-for-profit research institute established to conduct comprehensive research of important medium to long-term issues facing Australia. FDI’s primary aim is to provide informed, balanced advice, which ultimately will result in policy changes that will enhance the quality of strategic decisions at senior levels of the public and private sectors in Australia for the benefit of all Australians.

Future Directions International (FDI) has two roles: to ensure that Australians recognise they are part of a two-ocean continent and that West Australians see themselves belonging to a dynamic, national entity in a developing region of the world.

Much of Australia’s external focus has centred on the Pacific, Southeast and Eastern Asia. With its developing wealth, increasing population, evolving trade and shipping capabilities and expanding geographic, political and security significance, however, the Indian Ocean and its littoral states will play an increasingly important role in Australia’s future.

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To achieve these outcomes, leaders and their policy makers and implementers need to be aware of the geo-strategic complexities of their region. With this in mind, FDI has established four areas of research that embrace the following:

• DevelopmentsintheIndianOceanRegion,includingitslittoralstates; • MeetingAustralia’senergyrequirementsby2030; • DevelopmentsinNorthernAustraliaandtheirimpactontheeconomy,population, infrastructure,environment,securityandforeignrelations;and • ImplicationsforAustraliaofthedevelopingglobalfoodandwatercrises

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Launched in 2000 as the Centre for International Strategic Analysis (CISA), by the then former Governor of Western Australia, Major General Michael Jeffery AC AO (Mil) CVO MC (Retd), FDI has since grown over the past decade to become a respected Australian research institute. As a Perth-based independent research institute for the strategic analysis of Australia’s global interests, FDI has proven itself to be a centre of ongoing influence in shaping government policy and public discussion.

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‘An Impending ChallengeFood and Water Security in Southern Africa

Australia’s Response’

An Impending Challenge; Food and Water Security in Southern Africa, Australia’s ResponseFuture Directions International




Contributors

Future Directions International would like to acknowledge the following people for their valuable feedback and assistance in producing this publication.

Future Directions International

Jay VellaResearch Analyst and Principal Author

Patrick VuResearch Assistant

Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)

Zabeta MoutafisAssistant Director, Southern Africa

Matt KellamProgram Manager, Africa and Middle East Branch

Fiona LordProgram Officer, South Asia Section

Pakwasi Nyamekye Policy Officer, Economics, Rural Development & Infrastructure Branch

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Judith LaffanPrincipal Analyst Agrifood Research

Rob KraussExecutive Officer, Strategic & Intelligence Branch

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)

Dr Nick AustinChief Executive Officer

Dr Simon HearnPrincipal Advisor

Dr Wendy HendersonManager, Research, Communications & Partnerships

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)

Neil McKenzieFormer Chief of Land and Water

Diplomatic Staff

Her Excellency Ms Koleka MqulwanaHigh Commissioner for the Republic of South Africa in Australia

Mauritz LindequeCounsellor: PoliticalSouth African High Commission

Anthony KnoxHonorary Consul General of Madagascar in Australia

Andrew StrangHonorary Consul of Mozambique in Australia

Oxfam

Andrew HartwichRegional Manager, Africa

World Vision

Andrew BinnsResearch and Development Advisor, Energy Implementation

Diarmuid KellyResearch and Development Programme Manager, Food Security and Climate Change

Outcomes Australia

Walter JehneDirector, Healthy Soils Australia

Simon GouldPlanning Coordinator, Healthy Soils Australia


Contents

Foreword 5

Preface 7

Executive Summary 9

Chapter 1 11

The Nature of Food and Water Insecurity in Southern Africa

Chapter 2 15

South Africa

Chapter 3 25

Lesotho

Chapter 4 31

Swaziland

Chapter 5 39

Mozambique

Chapter 6 45

Madagascar

FDI Donors and Sponsors 51

Image: Pal Teravagimov / Shutterstock.com


Foreword

Foreword byHis Excellency Malcolm McCusker AC CVO QC

Governor of Western Australia

This is the first of a series of studies which will examine the availability of food and water in the countries that make up the Indian Ocean littoral.

These studies are important for Australia. They identify where there is a lack of food and water, or will be over the next 15 years, what has caused this to happen and what we, as a nation, might do to alleviate the suffering of many people in the region.

There are good reasons why we should. First and foremost, there is the humanitarian aspect. As a developed country with high standard of living, we have a moral duty to help those less fortunate. And it is also in our best interests to do so, to reduce the potential for conflict in the region, and the number of displaced people. Food and water security is closely linked to national and regional security and to the stability of populations.

This study clearly identifies significant existing and potential food and water security problems. Many factors contribute: increased populations in areas where there is already a shortage of food and water, the serious decline in arable land, food wastage, impoverished people who already contribute much of their income towards food, poor education and low standard of health. The further possible impact of climate change has not been taken into account.

Five countries in Southern Africa have been examined in this publication: South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique and Madagascar. The next study will examine the Middle East followed by further studies which will consider South Asia, Southeast Asia, Eastern Africa and the Indian Ocean states.

The authors of this study have drawn from many sources, and have engaged with numerous people, including those from Australia Government, NGO representatives and most importantly, representatives from countries concerned themselves.

Future Directions International is to be complimented for this important, thought-provoking and highly relevant work.


Preface

Study Concept

This Landmark Study is the first of a series that seeks to determine the food and water situation in the Indian Ocean littoral between now and 2025 in order to determine what role, if any, Australia should play in preventing or alleviating any existing or potential crisis.

Subsequent studies will cover the following regions:

¾ Middle East,

¾ South Asia,

¾ Southeast Asia,

¾ East Africa, and

¾ Indian Ocean States.

Each country will be considered as follows:

¾ Is there an existing, or potential, food and water shortage?

¾ If so, what has caused this?

¾ What is the likely impact of the food and water shortage locally, within the country and regionally?

¾ What impact, if any, is there likely to be on Australia?

¾ What is the country’s government doing about it and what is the role of foreign governments and

Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)?

¾ Is there a role for Australia in humanitarian and security terms? If so, what is the nature of this role

in relation to government, NGO and Community Based Organisations?

A range of individuals and organisations were contacted, including government agencies, NGOs, academics and officials and research institutes of the countries concerned.

Overview of Southern Africa Study

Africa has the highest level of food insecurity in the world, with one in three people suffering from chronic food hunger. The water situation is similar; one in three people live in drought-prone areas. 45 per cent of people earn less than one dollar per day, 67 per cent of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods and the sector accounts for 80 per cent of employment and generates a substantial proportion of the region’s foreign exchange earnings.

These statistics are compounded by the prospects of population growth and increased urbanisation, demand for greater access to fresh water, declining arable land, food wastage and the challenges likely to result from climate change.


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Australia’s Role

Australia has the capacity to share with African countries research and technological developments and the delivery of training and education. But much needs to happen.

Another green revolution is needed to sustain the production of more quality food with lower inputs while the health of soils and landscapes is regenerated.

To do this farmers must be recognised as having a critical role in achieving these outcomes despite climate extremes and commercial and market stresses.

To quote Bill Gates, poor farmers are not the problem; they are part of the solution.

Acknowledgements

FDI is grateful to the McCusker Charitable Foundation for its generous contribution, advice and encouragement.

FDI wishes to thank representatives of a number of government departments and agencies, NGOs and members of the diplomatic and consular staff for their contribution.

Major General John Hartley AO (retd)CEO and Institute DirectorFuture Directions International


Executive Summary

According to the definition adopted by the World Food Summit, food security exists when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. The minimum daily intake level to achieve this is 2,100 calories. A country is considered water secure when there is continuous, secure access to potable water. Many communities in Southern Africa do not meet the requirements for one or both of these, with national development and individual wellbeing suffering as a consequence.

The high prevalence of food and water insecurity in Southern Africa has consequences for humanitarian, socio-economic, political and security related issues. It hinders development and may lead to regional instability. The quality of life of those affected is severely diminished, due to poor health, restricted coping methods and reduced income-generating capacity. Australia has a humanitarian and security interest in the assured availability of and access to food and water in the countries of the Indian Ocean, including those of Southern Africa. The following points represent this publication’s key findings for the Southern African region. The key findings for each individual country are listed at the beginning of their corresponding chapters.

� Endemic poverty in Southern Africa is a significant barrier to achieving universal food security. Relatively low per capita income and high unemployment reinforce a poverty trap and consequent food poverty. Food price volatility is the greatest threat to the food security of poor people.

� Agriculture in Southern Africa is characterised by low productivity. Progress is hindered by a lack of technology among rural cultivators. Sub-standard farming practices and inefficient markets restrict the supply and distribution of food in the region.

� Southern Africa’s fertile farmland is suffering from soil erosion due to over-exploitation and frequent natural disasters. The onset of climate change will increase the severity of land degradation. A deteriorating environment threatens the viability of sustainable agriculture and economic development.

� Large tracts of land are unused or underdeveloped. Increasing investment by foreign entities in food-for-export and biofuel production, through purchase of fertile land, prioritise profit ahead of local food security. The continuation of this practice will be to the detriment of Southern African livelihoods in the long term.

� Urbanisation will continue to proceed at a rapid rate. Urban food and water insecurity will increase alongside growing cities, particularly in informal settlements in the peripheries. Overcrowding and minimal infrastructure have the potential to form urban crises in both food and water in the future.

� Poor health both results from and causes food and water insecurity. Mainland Southern Africa’s AIDS epidemic erodes the food security of carriers and their carers. Exceptionally high rates of under-nutrition are observed throughout the region, particularly in children. These have little prospect of improving unless the region’s critical elements of insecurity are addressed.

� Access to clean water is often non-existent in disadvantaged rural and urban areas. Inadequate infrastructure and poor distribution techniques greatly increase the cost of clean water to poor people. Water insecurity worsens poverty and hunger, and has led to illness and death, particularly among children.


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� Effective cross-border water management is crucial to providing sufficient water resources to all, whether for consumption or irrigation. The politics of water security directly affect the livelihoods of millions of people in Southern Africa, where numerous transnational river basins exist.

� The Australian Government assists the countries of Southern Africa to achieve the UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Australia supports regional development primarily by imparting its expertise in agricultural research and practice.

11An Impending Challenge; Food and Water Security in Southern Africa, Australia’s ResponseFuture Directions International

The Nature of Food and Water Insecurity in Southern Africa

1CHAPTER

In Southern Africa, many factors have led to the insecure status of millions of people. These can be attributed primarily to the agricultural, economic and environmental dynamics of the region. Agriculture in Southern Africa is characterised by lower-than-average productivity and inadequate infrastructure. Smallholder farmers often employ unsustainable practices, which threaten future food production. Compounding the situation, the economies of the south, though structurally different from one another, all display factors that are detrimental to food and water security. While there are promising growth indicators, each economy is, to a degree, still feeling the effects of the global financial crisis. High unemployment, rising food and fuel prices and endemic poverty are major contributors to the region’s insecurity. Other key contributing factors include conflict, poor governance and limited access to capital for farmers. Environmental factors, however, have the greatest effect on food and water security. Drought, desertification and ecosystem degradation are leading to calamitous and prolonged episodes of insecurity, from which the affected areas struggle to recover.

Agriculture

Despite abundant land for cultivation, the Southern African agricultural region remains underdeveloped. Due to an historic lack of rural investment, much of the region is characterised by lower-than-average productivity, with a substantial production gap between potential and actual crop yields. This contributes to current food insecurity and, unless productivity is improved, may lead to future food crises, particularly given the rapid population growth in Africa with much of the continent relying on food exports from the South. Agriculture is largely subsistence-based, utilising sub-standard methods which contribute to its low productivity. In addition, those areas that do produce a food surplus are not readily connected with areas where there is a deficit. There is a general lack of efficient internal markets and infrastructure in Southern Africa, which prevent prospective agricultural trade. Despite the recent relative decline in the importance of agriculture to national income, it remains an important driver of economic growth. The sector is also a major employer and is crucial to the general welfare of Southern African countries, as well as their food security. Consequently, the lack of agricultural development perpetuates poverty in the region.

Poverty

Recognising that food access is primarily a function of total household income, present and future income levels, as well as food prices, will be significant in determining levels of food security in the region. At present, average per capita incomes in Southern Africa range from US$467 in Madagascar to US$8,070 in South Africa. The average rate of unemployment in the region is 32.5 per cent, while the average poverty rate is 53 per cent. Poverty is a significant barrier to achieving universal food and water security in Southern Africa, with the poor caught in a poverty trap and unable to escape the circumstances that led to their poverty. This reinforcing cycle makes improving conditions extremely difficult. Farmers, in particular, often cannot afford to purchase the agricultural inputs required to produce food and earn an income.

The countries of Southern Africa have experienced intermittently high levels of food inflation, aggravating food insecurity among the poor. The higher rate of food price increase relative to general goods diminishes the ability of households to purchase sufficient food and limits their access to alternative livelihood strategies aimed at survival. Sustained access to adequate nutrition is requisite to security in food and fluctuating food prices therefore play a significant role in contributing to food insecurity. The interaction between household

Jay VellaFDI Research Analyst


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income and food prices is as important to food security as agricultural production and supply. Those with insufficient income to purchase an adequate supply of food are at the greatest risk of food insecurity, particularly when faced with inflating food prices.

Environment

The fertile farmland of Southern Africa is under threat from severe soil erosion; primarily the result of poor farming practices, such as over-grazing and over-cropping. Concurrently, surface and ground water sources are being abstracted beyond their replacement rate. Over-exploitation of the environment threatens the sustainability of agriculture in the region, and prevents the attainment of universal food and water security. Frequent natural disasters, too, pose a significant danger to the security of the region. Droughts - the number one cause of food and water insecurity - and floods regularly devastate communities, undermining progress towards achieving security. Compounding the damaging effects of environmental exploitation and natural disasters, climate change is emerging as the greatest challenge to a secure future. A changing climate is predicted to increase the severity and frequency of dry spells and alter rainfall patterns, which will accelerate land deterioration. Arable land is likely to diminish through desertification, reducing the available area for food crop cultivation. The Earth’s declining fertility is the most significant impediment to future food and water security. The potential for climate change to generate unfavourable conditions in the region will threaten the livelihoods of millions of people in Southern Africa, as well as the attainment of the UN’s Millennium Development Goals.

Urban Insecurity

When assessing the state of food and water security in Southern Africa, special consideration must be given to urban areas. While income plays an important role in food security nation-wide, additional factors come into play in an urban setting, making the situation worse. They primarily relate to the design of residential districts and the location of food retailers, particularly within low-income areas. Access to food markets and regulations on informal food vending limit not only purchase and sale opportunities, as well as the variety of food available to many urban dwellers. A contributing factor to urban food insecurity has been the pace at which urbanisation has proceeded in Southern Africa over recent decades, reflecting trends across much of the developing world. Rapid population growth has led to overcrowding at the periphery of many urban centres. The construction of infrastructure is often unable to keep pace with new settlements; the result has been concentrated areas of poor people, with minimal access to services.

Small-scale farming is often identified as a possible solution to urban food insecurity, though its success rate appears to be overstated. A household’s ability to grow crops is only slightly diminished in an urban setting. The prevalence of urban agriculture, however, is not particularly high. Home-grown crops play an insignificant role in a community’s food security, owing to the reliance of urban inhabitants on purchased food items. Another factor that appears to have an impact on urban food security is the high cost of housing relative to total income. Poor urban households generally tend to have little disposable income. With urban housing costs continuing to increase in the region, urban food insecurity will remain a distinct concern over the next decade. Urbanisation also has implications for water security. Higher population density places additional pressure on water sources, while urban development reduces the quantity and quality of water, particularly when poorly designed.

Health

The health of individuals is the greatest indicator of food and water insecurity. Malnutrition rates are exceptionally high throughout Southern Africa, with causes relating to poverty and insufficient access to nutritious food and clean water. Malnutrition, specifically under-nutrition, results in poor physical growth and development in children, producing lasting effects which persist into adulthood. The most common


outcomes of under-nutrition include stunting and, more severely, wasting. Secondary effects in under-nourished children include poor general health, low resistance to infections, a lack of energy and decreased cognitive ability, all of which limit a child’s development and its prospects for the future. Further, an enduring high under-nutrition rate among children results in decreased economic output and productivity for the region, and impedes efforts to eradicate poverty.

More devastating to much of Southern Africa is the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS, which compromises all aspects of food security. It also leads to an increased vulnerability to poverty, leaving households highly susceptible to changing circumstances. Obtaining or maintaining employable skills for use in the workforce is problematic for HIV sufferers. HIV indirectly impacts food security through its effect on the availability, access and stability of food. It affects food availability of food by reducing agricultural output. The ability to engage in either small-scale farming or commercial agriculture is significantly curtailed by the disease. This leads to less food cultivated at the household level and a reduced agricultural workforce. Accessibility to food is compromised by lower income levels, mainly caused by the reduced working hours that result from caring for HIV sufferers or contracting the virus. In both cases, food purchasing power for households and individuals is eroded. In addition, HIV has an impact on food stability, in that it weakens the household structure, leaving it vulnerable to sudden ‘shocks’, such as loss of employment, death or a failed harvest.

Solutions to Insecurity

The most effective tool for mitigating food insecurity in Southern Africa is improving agricultural productivity. Increasing the yield per hectare of a diverse variety of crops is necessary to feed the region’s rapidly expanding population. The transfer of technologically advanced inputs and valuable farming education to areas which suffer from a lack of productivity would produce vast gains in agricultural output. The focus of governments, international organisations and NGOs should also be on addressing the economics of food insecurity. Alleviating poverty is crucial to ensuring a food secure Southern Africa region. Creating employment opportunities through sustainable economic development will assist in bringing millions of food insecure people out of poverty. Food price volatility impacts the poorest people in Southern Africa. Attention must be directed toward stabilising world food prices and limiting the impact of unexpected price-spikes.

Beyond food and income, improving social conditions in the region would prove beneficial to reducing insecurity. Governments must ensure equitable access to food and water for people of all communities. The empowerment of women, who contribute greatest to the production and preparation of food at the household level, needs to be achieved in order for Southern Africa to advance. As yet, women face difficult obstacles which perpetuate food insecurity. These include a lack of access to fertile land, a lack of access to financial services, being left out of decision-making for the allocation of resources and inferior rights and status within the household.

The changing climate will pose an additional, overriding barrier to achieving universal food and water security. Governments, communities and organisations together must combat its negative effects. Concurrently, the quality of land and water catchment areas must be restored, following decades of mistreatment. Education programmes must be implemented to prevent the further degradation of Southern Africa’s fertile soil. To avoid future water crises, better resource management is required. Competent people and programs are needed to coordinate the equitable distribution of water and maintain adequate reserve supplies. Where possible, infrastructure will need to be updated to ensure efficient transportation of water to rural communities. This includes reducing prices so that water becomes more affordable to all citizens, as is not currently the case.


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Australian Government Development Assistance 2011-12

Australia’s foreign assistance focuses on achieving the UN’s Millennium Development Goals, particularly poverty alleviation, by supporting and promoting sustainable economic development and effective governance. Ensuring food security and safe access to clean water and sanitation are priorities in Australia’s humanitarian goals, with Australian government organisations involved in numerous programs in Southern Africa that target these key areas. The Government collaborates with Southern African and Australian NGOs, helping to bolster the resilience of vulnerable people. Utilising its expertise in agricultural research, water management and sanitation systems, Australia enhances the food and water security prospects of the region by imparting knowledge and coordinating on-the-ground activities. A brief account of Australia’s activities is outlined in each country analysis.



South Africa

2CHAPTER

KEy POINtS

• South Africa is a major producer of food in the Southern African region. Food poverty, however, is a concern in particularly poor communities. Estimates indicate that 14 million people are vulnerable to food insecurity.

• Rapid urbanisation is placing pressure on South Africa’s water security. Severe water shortfalls are expected over the next two decades.

• Malnutrition rates are exceptionally high throughout the country, the result of localised food insecurity. The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is a significant barrier to achieving universal food security.

• Substantial state financial support, together with NGO initiatives in water education and food aid, assist in improving the conditions for people at risk of food and water insecurity.

• Australia has contributed over $120 million in development assistance to South Africa since 1994.


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Agricultural Overview

South Africa covers an area of 1.2 million square kilometres and consists of seven separate climatic regions, ranging from semi-desert to subtropical. It has 3,000 kilometres of coastline, featuring numerous commercial ports and fisheries. This diverse setting allows for a wide variety of marine and agricultural produce. Agriculture in South Africa consists of both highly-developed commercial farming and subsistence-based production in remote rural areas. It is an advanced, well-developed sector that invests heavily in research and development. The most important limiting factor for agriculture in South Africa is the availability of water, affected, in part, by the uneven distribution of rainfall across the country.

Agriculture is a significant component of South Africa’s economy, though not the leading contributor to national GDP as in other South African Development Community (SADC) countries. It is self-sufficient in virtually all major commodities; also producing an exportable surplus, which is in high demand in Africa and Europe. Due to its summer harvest season coinciding with winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is well positioned to supply agricultural goods to a number of wealthy, developed nations. Its status as a net-exporter also means it plays an important role in food security for the Southern African region. The most important crops produced are cereals and grains, particularly maize, which is a staple in Southern African diets. Fruits are also significant for export revenue, accounting for up to 40 per cent of the income derived from food exports. Since the 1980s, the farming sector has been increasingly deregulated. The sector has experienced large reductions in subsidies and continues its progress towards liberalisation, in accordance with the government’s national economic policies.

Current Population

South Africa is a diverse country with multiple ethnicities and languages. In 2011, the total population was estimated to be 50.59 million people. Around 80 per cent of the population are African; 9 per cent are of European origin; 9 per cent are mixed race (known locally as ‘coloured’); and 2.5 per cent are Indian/Asian. Almost one-third (31.3 per cent) are younger than 15 years of age and 7.7 per cent are aged 60 years or over. Life expectancy in South Africa is towards the lower end of the global scale at 54.9 years for males and 59.1 years for females. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was estimated to be 37.9 deaths per 1,000 births. A significant contributor to this high mortality rate is childhood malnutrition. The high prevalence of AIDS, too, causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers overall life expectancy. Of all deaths in South Africa in 2011, 43.6 per cent were related to AIDS. The impact of AIDS on food security is addressed later in this paper.

Among South Africa’s diverse and dynamic population are a large number of illegal immigrants, estimated to be as many as 5 million. They originate from a range of African countries, such as Malawi, Mozambique, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and even Somalia; though Zimbabwean nationals account for the vast majority, following the collapse of that county’s economic system. The relative wealth of South Africa compared to its neighbouring countries is the drawcard for illegal immigrants, with the average South African being six times better off than an average Zimbabwean, for example, and twenty times better off than a Malawian. This influx undoubtedly places added pressure on South Africa’s ability to satisfy domestic food and water demand, particularly given that the majority of illegals end up in the outlying areas of cities that are already at risk of food insecurity.

Population Growth

Despite a birth rate that exceeds its death rate, population growth in South Africa has been decreasing annually for the last decade. The most recent recorded growth rate, between 2010 and 2011, was just 1.10 per cent, down from 1.12 per cent the previous year. There are numerous causes for this slowing growth, though it is primarily due to an increasing AIDS infection rate and a positive net emigration rate. In recent


years, political turmoil (caused by instability in the ruling ANC), economic globalisation and a considerable crime problem, have combined to catalyse a widespread exodus of people from South Africa. This has caused a substantial drain on the country’s human capital, with a large proportion of those leaving being highly skilled or tertiary-educated. South Africa must have all its resources available to combat the threat of food and water insecurity, therefore emigration invariably has a negative effect on solving the country’s problems.

According to surveys, the primary driver for emigration among South Africans is the fear of crime. With more than 50 killings per day, it has one of the highest per capita murder rates in the world. Particularly devastating for food security and agriculture in general in South Africa, is the growing number of attacks on white farmers. Many of these farmers, who are often very experienced, are being forcefully removed from their land. Whether these attacks are racially motivated or opportunistic, the result is a substantial reduction in farmers with vital agricultural skills. In rural areas, crime has brought about the risk of a national agricultural collapse, due to the flight of skilled farmers. South Africa’s projected population to 2025 is limited by the abovementioned negative factors. According to the United Nations, the country’s population should increase by between three and five million people over the next decade.

Income

Per capita income in South Africa is high for a developing country. The World Bank’s Development Indicators place it 75th in the world, with a per capita income of $US8,070. Its economy had been strengthening consistently following the end of the apartheid era, until the recent global financial crisis. Economically, it is considered a leader among the countries of the SADC. Nevertheless, the national poverty rate is high at 22 per cent. High domestic food prices demand coping strategies from all households, though poorer households have a limited capacity to implement such strategies to mitigate the deterioration of their food security.

Around one quarter of poor households engage in small-scale agriculture. While this practice may be viewed as assisting the food security situation of low income families, the reality is that just four per cent of their income is derived from this activity. Across all levels of affluence in South Africa, salaried employment represents the highest source of income. Statistics show, however, that poorer households tend to derive their income from multiple sources. These sources include farming, overseas remittances, government grants, capital income and self-employment, in addition to participation in the labour market. Earnings from the non-formal economic sector also contribute to a household’s collective income. The diversification strategy adopted by poor households leads to a greater reliance on purchased food items and the consequent susceptibility to price fluctuations.

Noting the importance of income, South Africa’s future food security will depend, in part, on the country’s economic outlook. Strong real GDP growth, managed well, will assist in raising household incomes and their ability to purchase food. In recent decades, the country has undergone a transformation from an agrarian and mining based economy, to a sophisticated manufacturing and services-based economy with strong future prospects. As the country recovers from the global financial crisis, output growth is expected to improve substantially. During 2009, its economy contracted by 1.7 per cent, but grew the following year by 2.8 per cent. In 2011 the economy grew by 3.7 per cent and in 2012 is expected to grow by a further 4.3 per cent. On the back of its strong economic performance, the IMF expects South Africa’s GDP to keep expanding at around 4 per cent a year over the next five years. In the current global financial environment, predictions beyond five years are hazardous. Robust demand from rapidly developing nations for its natural resources, however, should lead to consistent and steady growth to 2025, which bodes well for per capita income levels.


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In spite of South Africa’s projected growth, unemployment levels remain a distinct concern. In the first quarter of 2012 the unemployment rate was 25.2 per cent. This worrying level is expected to persist in the coming years. In fact, this figure conceals the true state of South Africa’s unemployment problem, as measurements do not include discouraged workers who have ceased looking for employment. Further analysis of South Africa’s labour market reveals inequitable patterns with respect to race, gender and geography. The unemployment level among non-white South Africans is far greater than the national average. This is widely seen as the legacy of apartheid schooling, where education levels similarly deviated according to race. Divergence also exists between sexes, with females accounting for the vast majority of the unemployed. Perhaps the most striking feature of South Africa’s unemployment problem, and detrimental to its food security, is the remarkably high prevalence of unemployment among people who live in informal township-settlements on the outskirts of cities. Jobless rates in these areas are as high as 57 per cent, which is a major contributing factor to South Africa’s urban food insecurity.

Food Security

South Africa is a major food producer. While agriculture is no longer the basis of its economy, it remains an important component for both employment and the domestic supply of food. The country possesses an advanced sector that produces a vast variety of grains, vegetables, fruit and livestock. The range of produce provides for adequate levels of nutrition and food diversity within the country, which produces more than it consumes. It relies on imported food for just 10 per cent of its consumption. South Africa is an important food exporter both to the immediate region and to Europe, particularly in maize and fruit. Despite being a net exporter of food, however, there are large sections of South African society that cannot be considered food secure. In fact, 35 per cent of its population, or more than 14 million people, are estimated to be vulnerable to food insecurity. This is due to the great disparities in food access between communities and households across the country.

The unbalanced nature of food security in South Africa reflects the country’s continuing social and economic inequities. Stemming from the pre-1994 apartheid era, different sections of the population are faced with varied circumstances with respect to education, employment, health and nutrition. Many facets of South African society have improved over the last two decades. Food security and nutrition, however, remain key obstacles to achieving national equality. At present, the country must contend with the double challenge of both under- and over-nutrition, as it undergoes the transition to a developed economy. Despite numerous government schemes, indicators of food insecurity, such as malnutrition rates among children, have remained unchanged over the period since the first democratic elections. The physical condition of South African women is also severely affected by a lack of security in food; as many as one quarter of the females in the country do not have adequate levels of required nutrition and vitamins. This has consequences for the health of future generations of South Africans.

Rising food prices pose the greatest threat to South Africa’s poorest people. In recent years, the average price of food items in South Africa has been increasing faster than the economy’s consumer inflation level. Annual CPI inflation in 2011 was 5 per cent, within the central bank’s target range, while food inflation was recorded in January 2012 at 10.3 per cent. The effect of food inflation on South Africa’s population is substantial, especially given the country’s abundance of food resources. Therefore, it is a lack of affordability and manoeuvrability, due to these price rises, rather than a shortage of supply, which renders millions of South Africans food insecure.

Food security is further impacted by the government’s land reform policies, but it is uncertain whether that impact is positive or not. There are arguments both for and against a positive effect. To date, the process has focused on land redistribution and land tenure. Land reform in South Africa is designed to empower low-paid, usually black, farmers by allowing them to become farm owners. Allocations are made in a manner that reduces individual parcels of farmland. Due to inverse farm size productivity, agricultural


output is supposed to increase, benefiting household and national food security. The costs associated with smaller plots are also reduced, and the hope is that employment opportunities for family members will follow. Arguments against the scheme posit a reduction in productivity due to the loss of skilled farmers. Furthermore, because the land is cheap or even free to new farmers, there is no incentive to be productive, which also diminishes total national production.

When analysing the state of food security in South Africa, special consideration must be given to urban areas. Surveys in targeted urban communities show that those households qualifying as food secure are in the minority, indicating much work needs to be done to ameliorate the position of South Africa’s food insecure urban population. Present figures place South Africa’s urban dwellers in the majority at 60 per cent of the population; this percentage is expected to increase over the coming decades, as economic opportunities within cities continue to grow.

Water Security

In South Africa, rainfall is distributed unevenly across the country, with some areas prone to drought. This affects provincial agriculture by determining which crop may be grown in each area. Nation-wide, agriculture uses almost 50 per cent of the country’s total water supply, with around ten per cent of its arable land, or 1.3 million hectares, under irrigation. This equates to 8.4 billion m3 of water consumed annually. Despite the importance of irrigation to the sector, The National Water Authority has capped allocations at their current levels due to limited water availability. Irrigation practices, however, are reasonably efficient and crop yields are quite high, making South Africa’s agricultural sector, as a whole, very productive. Importantly, 80 per cent of agriculture in the country relies on rain-fed land.

Total annual rainfall in South Africa is just half the world average. Catchment issues further reduce its small water supply; South Africa’s rivers are generally narrow and shallow, characterised by a weak flow and high evaporation rate. It shares most of these rivers with neighbouring countries, including Lesotho, from which it also receives 10 per cent of its run-off surface water. Placing the highest pressure on South Africa’s water supply are the country’s growing urban areas, which use 3.5 billion m3 annually. Water access levels in urban areas are at 99 per cent. Their increasing demand is outpacing supply, necessitating new strategies for reducing usage. In rural locations, access to clean water is at 78 per cent. The majority of rural inhabitants depend entirely on groundwater, which is very limited. It is worth noting, however, that water efficiency and access have improved dramatically since 1994.

Potential for Crises to 2025?

South Africa presents a unique challenge to the achievement of food security in the Southern African region. It finds itself as both a recipient of international food aid and a regional leader tasked with averting potential crises. Furthermore, there is the paradox of abundant food amid widespread food insecurity, both of which are unlikely to disappear over the next decade. The dominant feature of its food insecurity emanates from entrenched inequality, owing to decades of segregation and uneven opportunity. Disparities in all facets of living standards renders a proportion of the country’s population vulnerable to future food insecurity. This problem will persist in the medium-term.

When compared with other food insecure African countries, South Africa is unlikely to become a focal point for international efforts to alleviate the problem. Yet millions of its people live in an insecure food environment. Given that an overall sufficiency in food will remain, the country’s future food security status will largely depend on the implementation of just and equitable governance and the improvement of conditions for the poorer segments of the population. Achieving universal food security will involve education, wider employment opportunities, stability in food prices and improved health services. Programs run by state and non-state bodies so far, should ensure that the situation does not deteriorate. For the


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situation to improve, however, efforts must be intensified and directed at food insecurity’s root causes of unemployment and poverty.

Positive factors for South Africa’s food security status between now and 2025, include its relatively strong agricultural sector and projected economic growth. If the country can offset the loss of skilled farmers in rural areas caused by emigration, it will go a long way to ensuring an adequate supply of food is maintained over the next decade. Despite the drain on agricultural knowledge, it is very unlikely that food shortages will become an issue. Consistent economic growth, as forecast by the IMF, will generate the financial resources required to allay food insecurity, by addressing social inequality. Since 1994, the growth of South Africa’s economy has assisted progress in improving food security, though poverty remains a key obstacle. For the foreseeable future, robust demand for South Africa’s natural resources from other rapidly developing economies, will continue to strengthen the government’s ability to address food insecurity, and potentially raise income levels.

At first glance, its moderate population growth may also be seen as a positive factor. Underlying causes, however, make the relationship between food security and population growth complex. On the one hand, the trends of high emigration and AIDS related death will, from a purely numerical perspective, lead to a manageable increase in population size. On the other hand, these factors worsen food security; therefore, should the trends reverse, the negative consequences of each factor will be mitigated. Recognising the damaging effects of diminishing human capital, organisations have been established with the aim of encouraging the repatriation of South Africans living abroad. In spite of this, it is reasonably unlikely that South Africa will experience a large-scale return of emigrants in the near future.

The country’s rate of urbanisation will continue to overwhelm resources and infrastructure. The urbanisation rate is expected to increase by 1.2 per cent a year until 2015. Beyond this, rates will likely continue to increase, though at a slower rate. This scale of change is by no means exceptional when contrasted with those of other African nations, but the poor current situation of township-settlements, means that the process will be enough to make solving urban food insecurity difficult. The threat of urban food insecurity in South Africa will persist. Regional food security is also having a significant impact on the likelihood of a future crisis. Projections of food insecurity in other Southern African countries are far worse than for South Africa. This means that South Africa will have to cope with the added responsibility of being Africa’s economic and political power. It will need to take into account a likely inflow of future food refugees and an increasing outflow of aid. Current regional food crises are likely to become persistent, compounding the future challenges South Africa are likely to face.

Severe shortfalls in water supply are expected over the next two decades. The country’s most populous cities, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban and Cape Town, are all likely to face large water gaps as demand increases rapidly. Demand will come from the urbanisation process, specifically from the increasing affluence of those in the middle class and above. Increased usage of showers, toilets and landscaping are expected to account for much of the increased water demand in residential areas. Industrial growth, too, will contribute to increased demand for water, mainly for increased power generation. In some cases, catchment areas close to cities, such as Olifants near Johannesburg, will face demand-supply gaps of up to 39 per cent by 2030. These projections indicate that internal and external water transfers will most likely be required to satisfy domestic and industrial demand. In addition, South Africa will have to become more efficient in its water use to avert catastrophic shortages. Agriculture must also become more productive to be sustainable into the future. This will particularly be the case for rain-fed crops.

Health

South Africa’s persistent problems in securing food and clean water for the entire population are affecting the nation’s health. At present, as in other developing countries, the country is experiencing dual health


crises; the concurrent existence of over- and under-nutrition. The latter is the result of food and water insecurity. Malnutrition rates are exceptionally high throughout the country. Under-nutrition, specifically, is concentrated in rural, black children, the country’s poorest group. Figures suggest that approximately 1.5 million children suffer from this affliction. The bleak reality of under-nutrition due to food and water insecurity has initiated governmental schemes, such as school feeding. To date, however, efforts at reducing rates of malnutrition have been insufficient.

The estimated HIV/AIDS infection rate among the South African population is approximately 10.6 per cent. This equates to a total of 5.38 million people living with HIV. The number of new infections in 2011, for those aged 15 and older, was around 316,900, bringing the adult HIV rate to 16.6 per cent. More worrying still, an estimated 63,600 new HIV infections this year will involve children aged 0-14 years. These remarkable statistics are an impediment to achieving food security in South Africa. The disease prevents progress at all levels; the loss of life, earning potential and livelihood affects numerous South African households. Nationally, HIV results in a reduced labour force and decreased productivity, combined with high associated health costs.

Government and NGO Strategies

Multiple actors are employing varied strategies aimed at improving South Africa’s food security situation and preventing further crises. Operations range from assistance in household farming, to social grants from the government. The organisations have shown varying degrees of effectiveness, though all have contributed to a distinct improvement in food security since the end of apartheid. Recently, the maximum income threshold for people qualifying for social grants was raised, meaning that a further one million South Africans will qualify. They will be added to the many millions who currently receive reasonably generous state support. The government also provides training, land tenure and low level finance, to boost the position of those vulnerable to food insecurity. In times of particular hardship, during the recent global financial crisis for example, the government provides emergency food relief. The following organisations and programs are examples of the extensive work currently being undertaken by South Africa’s government and NGOs:

• South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries recognises the severity of the current food security crisis. It is charged with coordinating the government’s food security programs. It promotes sustainability and the efficient production, handling and processing of food. Its most important role is give early warning of food insecurity and prevent future crises in particularly vulnerable regions.

• To address the high rates of malnutrition caused by food insecurity alluded to earlier in this paper, the government of South Africa has embarked on a Food Fortification Program. Commencing ten years ago, the program aims to reduce instances of malnutrition by adding essential vitamins and minerals to food. In South Africa, the food items receiving fortification are wheat, maize flour and retail sugar; three of the five most commonly consumed basic foods, according to the National Food Consumption Survey.

• In 2009, the government introduced a ‘Medium-term Strategic Framework’ for the five-year period to 2014. It specifically aims to improve the conditions of life for every South African. The framework, and its accompanying document, lists ten government priorities, including rural development and food security. It will encompass agrarian reform, mainly through stimulating food production, and accessing the economic potential it believes exists in poor areas, to raise income levels. It makes provision for the dissemination of agricultural starter packs that will assist in household food security.


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• In 2002, South Africa’s government devised a national Integrated Food Security Strategy. The primary objective of this strategy is to overcome rural food insecurity by increasing the participation of food insecure households in productive agricultural activities. It strives to attain physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food for all South Africans. The strategy has taken a development approach, which uses the assistance of public-private partnerships to address social deficiencies among the population.

• The national Integrated Nutrition Programme (INP) is a comprehensive nutrition strategy that focuses on: children under 6 years old; at-risk pregnant women; and those affected by communicable and non-communicable diseases. It is designed to address and prevent malnutrition in South Africa. The programme focuses on integrating and prioritising nutrition more effectively into national poverty reduction strategies and development budgets. The INP achieves this by supporting community-based programmes, strengthening the public health system and promoting nutrition education.

• The South African government’s 2020 Vision for Water is an education programme for schools, which teaches the efficient use of the country’s water resources. It has been implemented in schools in all nine provinces. The hope is that, through children, efficient water practices will propagate in communities. This has been implemented due to the projected shortage in the country’s water supplies. The rationale is to target young minds early, to teach them responsible water habits that will remain into adulthood.

• The Food and Agriculture Organization is a global arm of the United Nations, tasked with achieving food security in all the world’s regions. It has been present in South Africa since 1997, and assists the country’s food security by providing technical support to the National Department of Agriculture. It enables the government to develop policies, programmes and projects to reduce hunger and malnutrition. It also promotes sustainability in the country’s agricultural, fisheries and forestry sectors.

• Foodbank South Africa aims for a country without hunger or malnutrition. The organisation combats urban food insecurity by feeding the poor, through food rescue and food procurement programs. In rural areas, they assist inhabitants to create and maintain small-scale crops for consumption. Throughout the country, Foodbank assesses the food security situation and distributes food to the areas most in need. It has a direct impact on South Africa’s food security situation.

• Africare is a multinational NGO that works to improve living standards in Africa. Its work in South Africa has focussed on the empowerment of the country’s rural poor, particularly addressing the negative consequences of the apartheid era. Presently, Africare is engaged in providing comprehensive AIDS-HIV services in Eastern Cape, which indirectly improves South Africa’s food security situation.

Australia and South Africa

Australia’s relationship with South Africa is underpinned by firm two-way trade links and strong people-to-people ties. Around 115,000 South African expatriates live in Australia, with 7,500 Australians living in South Africa. The two countries cooperate under the banner of numerous multi-national organisations; for example, the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Cairns Group and the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation. Australia’s bi-lateral development assistance for South Africa is gradually being superseded by a more regionally focused approach. While South Africa remains an important partner, the new policy takes into account the importance of the wider regions of Southern and Eastern Africa in Australia’s Indian Ocean strategic region. Prior to this foreign policy shift, Australia’s


bi-lateral activities with South Africa dealt with the areas of public sector reform, local government links, education and rural resource management, each of which indirectly impacts that country’s food and water security.

Since the democratic elections of 1994, Australia has contributed over $120 million in development assistance to post-apartheid South Africa. According to the most recent estimates listed on the website of Australia’s Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the value of Australian aid to South Africa in 2006-07 was $5.5 million. While Australia’s has traditionally focused its aid program in the Asia-Pacific region, the growing significance of South Africa as a trading partner has corresponded to a significant increase in financial support in recent years. Despite this increased assistance, however, Australia’s aid to South Africa still remains relatively modest. The current contribution to the entire African continent represents just 5 per cent of Australia’s aid program. Present assistance programmes include scholarships for South African citizens, community-based NGO projects, democracy building and trade liberalisation.

Australia’s aid to South Africa takes a focused approach, to maximise its effectiveness and impact. Australia aims to assist it in progress towards the millennium development goals, particularly in the areas of food security, maternal and child health, and water and sanitation. It is in these areas that Australia believes it has the greatest expertise and experience to offer. Both countries share a similar climate and soil-type, therefore, environmental similarities open up numerous opportunities for the transfer of industry expertise and first class agricultural practices developed in Australia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), for instance, are working with African institutions to increase the productivity of farming in Sub-Saharan Africa, including South Africa.


Australia assists in human resource development through the award of scholarships. In 2012, 24 scholarships will be offered in the areas of agriculture, environment and others.

Funding has been provided under the Africa Australia Community Engagement Scheme (AACES) to increase equitable access to sustainable water and sanitation services.

As part of the Australia-Africa Partnership Facility, Australia assists South Africa in long-term economic infrastructure planning and environmental management.

AusAID has provided funding to Australian and African NGOs whose programs focus on HIV and AIDS prevention and care, food security and poverty alleviation.

*The information provided here represents only a sample of the total development assistance provided to each country.

View of Katse Dam wall in Lesotho, Southern Africa


Lesotho

3CHAPTER


KEy POINtS

• Lesotho is in the high-risk category for developing future food crises. Presently, food insecurity affects more than 500,000 people, or one quarter of its population.

• Water is the primary national resource of Lesotho, both for domestic use and revenue generation. If supplies are distributed equitably, Lesotho has the capacity to remain water secure into the future.

• Health problems present serious challenges to achieving universal food security. Lesotho has one of the world’s highest rates of HIV-AIDS infection, while malnutrition affects a large proportion of the country’s children.

• Lesotho receives aid assistance from regional and global partners. It benefits from an early warning system that continually checks for signs of food insecurity.

• Through Australia’s regional assistance programmes, Lesotho benefits in the key areas of agriculture and food market efficiency.


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Population

Lesotho has a population of 2.2 million people. The majority - 60.2 per cent - are aged between 15 and 64 years. The country has a substantial youth population, which accounts for 35.3 per cent of the total. Average life expectancy stands at 40 years, though Lesotho’s high infant mortality rate, estimated to be 65 per 1000 births, distorts this figure. Those who survive infancy, have a greater life expectancy. Lesotho’s HIV epidemic further impacts life expectancy; the country has one of the highest infection rates in the world at around 23 per cent. The population is mostly situated in rural areas, with only 25 per cent in urban towns and cities. Lesotho’s population is subject to moderate swings in urbanisation and migration trends. Urbanisation to 2015 is predicted to be 3.4 per cent per year. The country’s net migration rate is -8.15 migrants per 1000; a negative rate mainly associated with Lesotho’s traditional migrant workforce in South Africa, though outward migration has slowed recently as demand for labour has decreased. The departure of skilled workers, particularly those in professional and technical fields, is debilitating Lesotho’s workforce and its ability to deal with current food crises. Population growth in Lesotho is quite low at 1.02 per cent. The country is projected to have a population of around 2.48 million people in 2025.

Income

Lesotho is one of the poorest countries in the world, with a per capita income of US$1,400. Half of the population lives below the poverty line, while a great proportion of Basotho people are dependent on foreign remittances for their livelihood. The leading cause of Lesotho’s lack of individual wealth is the country’s high unemployment rate, which currently stands at 45 per cent. The economy of Lesotho was severely impacted by the recent global financial crisis, owing to its openness and its integration with South Africa. Thus, current employment opportunities are scarce, though there are signs of recovery in certain sectors. Of those with work, nearly half are employed in the apparel industry, the primary commercial activity in the country. Subsistence farming is the main source of income for many Basotho. In fact, nearly 60 per cent of households earn the majority of their income from agriculture and livestock. More than 95 per cent of these households, however, do not produce sufficient food to satisfy their requirements.

Lesotho is, to an extent, financially dependent on the African Growth and Opportunity Act, an initiative of the United States to assist economic growth and living standards in Africa. The deal provides Basotho manufacturers with direct access to U.S. markets, which has benefited the country through job creation and consequently higher employment. This arrangement, however, is due to expire in 2015, requiring Lesotho to diversify its economic activities. At present, the government is achieving this through the development of service industries and the sale of water. As the economy of Lesotho is inextricably linked with that of South Africa, national income growth will be dependent on regional economic performance. The IMF expects moderate and sustained growth for the next five years. Beyond this, Lesotho’s prospects will depend on its ability to diversify its economy and create employment opportunities.

Food Security

Lesotho is traditionally a net food-importing country. Factors such as soil erosion, declining productivity and erratic weather prevent the production of adequate levels of food, with domestic agriculture covering only 30 per cent of its food requirement. Lesotho’s food security status is to some degree shaped by its location, surrounded by South Africa. As an enclave, it is dependent on South Africa for the unhindered passage of its food imports and exports. The economic integration between the two countries further influences Lesotho’s security in food; growth and contraction in South Africa’s economy – the largest in Africa – invariably has a significant bearing on the health of Lesotho’s economy and its ability to pay for imported food. Other factors also affect its food security, including severe droughts, a lack of investment in agriculture, extreme poverty and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The poor conditions in much of the country prevent thousands of individuals from achieving the required daily energy requirement of 2,100 calories.


Approximately 199,974 hectares of land is planted with cereals in Lesotho. The country’s primary agricultural products are maize, sorghum and wheat, as well as substantial livestock production. Of the cereals produced, maize is Lesotho’s national food staple and by far its most important crop. The price of maize is an important determinant of household food security. Due to low production, maize prices in 2011 increased by 10 per cent and will climb higher in 2012. In fact, prices for nearly all food crops produced in Lesotho are increasing; the most recent measurements indicate that the average annual food inflation rate is 4.8 per cent. Maize and livestock constitute a large part of this inflationary figure. In 1997, Lesotho’s government liberalised the country’s food market, which greatly assisted in lowering prices at the time. It also resulted in higher food imports and greater food availability; though poverty-stricken citizens have remained vulnerable due to an inability to purchase food. Notwithstanding the benefits gained through liberalisation, there is a disparity in food prices between urban and rural areas, with certain rural food items being double the cost of those in cities.

The combination of the above-mentioned factors has rendered many people in Lesotho food insecure. Studies undertaken by the government’s Disaster Management Authority indicate that, at present, 514,000 Basotho require varying levels of humanitarian assistance as a result of food and income insecurity; more than one quarter of its population. Geographical location and wealth status are key determinants of food security. Rural unemployment is pervasive, while 60 per cent of the population subsists in poverty. The wealth status of a household defines its options for food and income accessibility. This is particularly important in Lesotho, where agriculture is the main source of income for more than half the country’s population. Significantly, many poor households receive up to 30 per cent of their annual food intake in exchange for labour, predominately carried out in agricultural fields, through work such as weeding. Dependence on this activity has the potential to enhance vulnerability to food insecurity, due to the uneven nature of crop production, which is inconsistent and often impacted by poor weather conditions. There is no consistent trend in humanitarian assistance in Lesotho. Food security is subject to large swings based on the country’s prevailing conditions. The following graph indicates the variable levels of aid required in recent years.

Water Security

Water is Lesotho’s most valuable natural resource. The country is located entirely within the Orange River basin, which consists of three major sub-basin river systems. The annual supply of natural renewable water is estimated to be 5.23 km3/year, which is far in excess of domestic demand. Over 80 per cent of the population has access to safe drinking water. The rural population accesses water through thousands of manually operated wells, while the country’s urban centre enjoys extensive water infrastructure, supplemented by groundwater deposits. Despite its firm status as a water secure country, poor water management and greater usage enabled by improvements in access and infrastructure have depleted the country’s national resource. The destruction of wetlands, agricultural overgrazing and industrial pollution combine to reduce efficiency and the supply of natural water. Further, the activities of mining operations in Lesotho have led to significant environmental problems.


Lesotho is facing a current crisis in food accessibility for much of its population. Its declining agricultural capacity is at the heart of this crisis. The outlook for Lesotho’s food security situation is not promising; the country’s existing dependence on food imports generates a strong vulnerability to adverse changes in future global markets and food prices. The government does possess considerable foreign currency reserves, though whether these can be maintained, or sufficiently deployed, during a future crisis is uncertain. Import markets are well developed, however, meaning secure access to food should continue. Its mountainous topography and lack of arable land make any extensive increase in domestic production impossible. Therefore, economic strength will be the primary tool for averting a potential food catastrophe. In this regard, much will depend on the ability of the government to diversify its economy, following the expiration of the African Growth and Opportunity Act in 2015.


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Lesotho’s remarkably high unemployment rate will remain the primary barrier to achieving universal food security at the household level. South African gold mines, a traditional employer of Basotho labour, will continue to wind down over the coming decade, decreasing the ongoing demand for workers. A lack of jobs in Lesotho is likely to become an ingrained and persistent problem, hampering efforts to raise living standards and improve food access, particularly among the country’s majority rural population. The spread of AIDS infection and childhood malnutrition, further impact the country’s poor situation, although increased healthcare and school programs should reduce instances of wasting and stunting among children. The AIDS infection rate, on the other hand, is likely to remain at its current level and will continue to have a damaging effect on the country’s food security.

Recent weather conditions exposed the country’s lack of resilience in the face of lower than expected crop production, combined with higher than usual prices. Lesotho is particularly vulnerable to climate change and the increased severity of adverse weather events that it entails. Future food security planning must take this into account, though the Government’s minimal political power restricts the available options for alleviating the threat of the changing climate. The severe ‘brain drain’ being experienced in Lesotho will also continue to pose challenges to the country’s food security efforts, although low population growth will minimise future increases in food demand. The interaction of Lesotho’s unfortunate circumstances, namely poverty, unemployment, illness and declining agriculture, places the country at a high risk of developing a future crisis in food security. Therefore, Lesotho should be a focal point of food security efforts in the Southern African region.

Lesotho currently has a substantial water surplus. Its location within the Orange River basin will ensure that access to natural renewable water resources continues. The Government of Lesotho is constructing large dams, as part of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP). This is a bilateral agreement between the governments of Lesotho and South Africa that aims to benefit both countries. The arrangement is designed to capture, store and transfer a significant proportion of water to South Africa, which faces a future water deficit due to continued industrialisation. It also guarantees Lesotho an important source of revenue, which will be employed in the fight against food insecurity. The project is worth US$16 billion and is due for completion by 2020. Projections indicate that, following diversion, Lesotho’s supply of water will decrease to 3.03km3/year, sufficient to maintain a water surplus. Although this program is not without its controversies, such as the displacement of farmers to make way for dam projects and inadequate compensation, it has the potential to solve multiple regional food and water problems. In addition, the Government has also instituted the US$284 million Metolong Dam and Water Supply Program (MDWSP), Lesotho’s strategic effort to achieve urban water security over the coming decades. Lesotho faces rising industrial demand, moderate urbanisation and periodic droughts, as well as increased demand through improved sanitation. This requires sustainable management of the country’s vital water resources.

HIV/AIDS

Lesotho has the third highest AIDS infection rate in the world, with just under one quarter of the population – or 23.6 per cent – living with the virus. This rate equates to around 260,000 infected adults, with women accounting for more than half this figure. Almost 12,000 children are thought to have contracted the virus. The impact of AIDS on Lesotho’s food security situation is severe. In fact, the problems caused by the AIDS epidemic go far beyond food, affecting every dimension of people’s livelihoods. It has prompted Lesotho’s monarch to declare a state of emergency due to the threat posed by the infection, which is so severe as to be an existential threat to the country. The declining productivity among the adult population poses distinct challenges to the viability of the state over the next two decades.

Lesotho’s National AIDS Policy and Strategic Plan is the framework by which the government hopes to avert the potentially catastrophic consequences of the country’s high infection rate. It promotes awareness and preventive measures, as well as the empowerment of women. This is designed to enhance individual rights


for females, amid a traditional, customary law that subordinates women in social status. While women are particularly vulnerable to acquiring the virus due to a lack of social rights, AIDS is known to affect men and women of all education and income levels. Despite numerous programmes and initiatives, however, AIDS infection rates have not decreased since 2005, hampering the attainment of food security.

Malnutrition

Lesotho is affected by high rates of stunting in children under the age of five. Surveys show that 41.7 per cent of children are stunted, as a direct result of food insecurity. Further, 3.8 per cent of children are wasted (i.e. acutely malnourished), which is more prevalent in Lesotho’s poorer districts such as Thaba-Tseka. Nationally, 13.2 per cent of children are underweight, greater than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) acceptable level of 10 per cent. These figures are of great concern, but there are also common childhood illnesses that are widespread in Lesotho, such as acute respiratory infections (ARI), diarrhoea and fever; the latter two being the lead causes of death among children. These illnesses, together with malnutrition, are both worsened by the lack of food security and contribute to it.


A number of government and non-government organisations are working in Lesotho to improve the country’s food security situation In addition they are supporting a number of programs that have been implemented, with a strong focus on improving agricultural productivity to make the best use of the limited arable land.

• The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the centre of diplomatic relations and is responsible for soliciting both financial and commodity assistance from donor agencies and countries. This is an important function in Lesotho as the flooding in early 2011 and the subsequent destruction of crops and livestock dramatically increased the country’s reliance on humanitarian aid. In 2011, one-quarter of the country’s two million people were in need of humanitarian assistance, twice as many as the previous year.

• The Faculty of Agriculture at the National University of Lesotho (NUL) conducts research in food production and agricultural development. It runs breeding programs for both crops and livestock with the aim of increasing productivity. The government and several NGOs have identified high-profit crops, such as potatoes, mushrooms and garlic. NUL has work on these crops in an attempt to improve yields. The university also holds information workshops and seminars, where farmers are able to learn about improved farming techniques, increasing productivity and how to generally progress towards greater food security.

• The National Early Warning Unit (NEWU) is an important part of the country’s food security system. It was established on the recommendation of the 1974 World Food Conference, with its main purpose being to give advance warning of impending food crises. This function gives Lesotho’s government and the NGOs a greater opportunity to implement effective protective measures against emerging food shortages.

• GROW is an NGO operating in the Mokhotlong district of Lesotho. Its function is to conduct research into various field crops to determine how they can be adapted to Lesotho’s mountainous conditions. The research is important, as a maize farmer in Lesotho produces 14 times less per acre than those in other regions. This has been caused by decades of poor farming practices, which have stripped the land of trees and exposed the soil to wind and rain. The goal of this research is to empower Lesotho’s poor, by modifying current farming techniques to better suit the geography and environment of the country.


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• the Disaster Management Authority (DMA) is a statutory government institution that is in charge of coordinating the disaster management roles of the Food Management Unit (FMU) and the Food and Nutrition Coordinating Office (FNCO). The main objective of the DMA is to limit the adverse effects of food shortages by creating and implementing effective plans during crises. The DMA has an agricultural arm, which is responsible for the identification of crops that are most suitable for growing in a particular season. The DMA also promotes greater crop diversification and the production of high value cash crops.

• With a growing recognition of mushrooms as not only nutritional but a highly profitable crop, both Lesotho’s government and NGOs such as Lesotho-Durham Link are running programs to train farmers to grow the vegetables commercially. One project involves mushrooms, which are cheaper to grow and require less labour than farming poultry or other traditional crops. Mushrooms only take 1-2 weeks to harvest and, in most cases, the money made from the first harvest is sufficient to cover the initial outlays. This means that farmers can quickly recover their initial investment and that all the money gained from subsequent harvests can be counted as profits. There is high demand in other African regions for the type of mushrooms produced in Lesotho; therefore, greater cultivation of them could lead to greater export opportunities in the future. In addition to their commercial benefits, the nutritional value of mushrooms may also play an important role in alleviating the threat of food insecurity.

• In 2008, the NGO Ntsie tlali from Care began assisting the Basotho in creating keyhole gardens. Since then, other NGOs such as the Red Cross have been contributing to the cause. Keyhole gardening is a simple horticultural technique that allows people to easily produce vegetables year-round in their own backyards. These gardens are waist-high and around two metres in diameter, making it easy for the elderly and the immobile to produce food. These innovative gardens allow those who cannot afford the expensive start-up costs of traditional farming, to grow their own food.

• On 5 March 2012, the African Development Bank approved a grant of US$63.24 million for a five-year research-for-development initiative, named ‘Support to Agricultural Research for Development of Strategic Crops in Africa’. The overall goal is to improve food security in the Bank’s low-income Regional Member Countries, including Lesotho. It is a technology-driven initiative that aims to enhance food security in Southern Africa by increasing agricultural productivity. New technologies could greatly benefit Lesotho, as higher productivity would benefit farmers who currently deal with limited arable land.


In 2012, Australia’s assistance to Lesotho is primarily through the provision of scholarships in agriculture, mining, health, education and governance.

Australia contributes to the African Development Bank-led African Water Facility (AWF) and UNICEF’s Global WASH Program, in which Lesotho is a participant, to improve water access and sanitation.

Six volunteers representing the Australian government work on social inclusion, education and sustainable livelihoods.

Officials from Lesotho’s government have received training in livestock management in Australia.



Swaziland

4CHAPTER


KEy POINtS

• Swaziland is a food deficit country with low agricultural productivity. Anywhere between one-quarter and three-quarters of its population require food assistance, depending on prevailing circumstances.

• Water insecurity is worsened by the country’s erratic weather. Up to 40 per cent of Swazis have faced acute water shortages in periods of prolonged drought. A lack of water infrastructure remains a problem in Swaziland’s rural areas.

• Swaziland has the world’s highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS. More than half of its children suffer from under-nutrition. Waterborne diseases are endemic in some communities, where sanitation and water supply are of poor standard.

• Strategies are targeted towards Swaziland’s poor, rural population in the areas of food assistance, water treatment, HIV prevention and improvements in agriculture.

• Australia works in association with the World Food Programme, contributing to efforts to restore food security to Swaziland’s people.


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Political and Agricultural Overview

Swaziland is a constitutional monarchy, with political power shared between the king and parliament. This system has consequences for the kingdom’s food and water security. While administrative duties lie with parliamentary ministers, the monarch holds supreme executive, legislative and judicial powers. The concentration of authority in a single monarch has not been beneficial for the country’s economic and social progress, particularly in the areas of health and food security. It effectively operates as an absolute monarchy and has been subject to allegations of human rights violations under the king’s rule. Governance in Swaziland is characterised by a lack of democratic processes and institutions. Its notable achievements in raising living standards post-independence have rapidly been reversed since 2004, with the kingdom now ranked 140th out of 187 countries based on the Human Development Indicators.

The landlocked kingdom has four distinct climatic regions: the Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld and the Lubombo Plateau. Agriculture is practised throughout each region, though focussed in the Lowveld where the country’s main rivers flow through to Mozambique and the Indian Ocean, providing water for irrigation. Production of maize is ubiquitous, providing the main food source for Swazis. Goats and Sheep are also important in many farming systems, as sources of both food and income. Agriculture in Swaziland is characterised by low productivity, with poor, smallholder farmers throughout the country engaged in subsistence farming. Smallholders, however, face many barriers in escaping poverty, such as inferior soil quality, a lack of access to markets and limited water supplies. Unsustainable agricultural techniques have resulted in the loss of biodiversity in much of the small country, specifically through overgrazing and overstocking.

Population

The population of Swaziland is around 1.2 million people. 21.3 per cent of Swazis are urban dwellers. The majority of the population inhabit rural farming areas on Swazi National Land (SNL). This land is owned by the monarch and administered by local chiefs for the purpose of supporting rural livelihoods and development. SNL comprises 75 per cent of the country’s total land area. An estimated 63 per cent of Swazis live below the poverty line, surviving on less than US$1.25 per day. Swaziland has a high infant mortality rate of 73 per 1,000 live births, while average life expectancy is 47.9 years. Swaziland has the world’s highest infection rate of HIV/AIDS, at close to 26 per cent. The country’s birth rate was last recorded at 29.6 births per 1,000 people. Population growth is around 1.5 per cent, with the population expected to number 1.4 million people in 2025.

Income

Despite Swaziland’s excessive poverty rate, GDP per capita is relatively high for an African country. Current estimates list the figure at US$3,220, with a total GDP of US$3.7 billion. The contrast of high GDP and poverty can be explained by substantial income disparities between Swaziland’s urban and rural inhabitants; the per capita income of people in rural areas, where 84 per cent of the county’s poor reside, is four times lower than in urban areas. Consumption of food among rural Swazis is half the quantity consumed in urban areas. Aside from the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, poor economic growth and uneven distribution of resources are the primary contributing factors to persistent poverty in rural Swaziland. High levels of unemployment perpetuate the poor situation faced by much of the population. Currently, 40 per cent of Swazis are unemployed. The sugar industry is the country’s chief revenue earner, generating substantial foreign reserves. Together with pine and eucalyptus plantations, the sugar industry serves as a major employer of Swazis.

In recent years, the economy of Swaziland has experienced accelerating inflation and economic stagnation. GDP growth in 2011 was just 0.3 per cent, while the inflation rate was 7.8 per cent, mainly due to rising


food and fuel prices. The government maintains a fiscal deficit equivalent to more than 10 per cent of GDP. These consistent deficits have led to the accumulation of high levels of debt. Swaziland’s fiscal imbalance is not expected to be reversed in the near future. Low levels of foreign direct investment, as well as falling revenue from the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), constrain the government’s ability to initiate and sustain strong economic growth. To deal with Swaziland’s economic challenges, the government has prepared a Fiscal Adjustment Roadmap (FAR) that runs from 2010/11 to 2014/15. Future sustainable economic growth in Swaziland will depend on the ability of the government to rebalance its budget, with the support of the IMF.

Food Security

Since gaining independence in 1968, Swaziland has consistently been a food deficit country. It relies on imports and international assistance to satisfy the food requirements of its population. While a large proportion of Swazis engage in subsistence agriculture, more than 60 per cent of food consumed in the country is imported, primarily from South Africa. The national staple, maize, is the major crop in both local production and imports, acting as an approximate indicator of the availability of a sufficient amount of food. Production of maize has declined over the last decade, leading to persistent food shortages and signalling food insecurity. In any given year, around one-quarter of Swaziland’s population requires food assistance. International aid is predominantly directed toward Swaziland’s poor rural inhabitants.

The country’s food insecurity is, in part, due to a poor crop marketing system, which is controlled by the state. Inadequate storage facilities, which destroy up to 40 per cent of a crop after harvest, also limit the supply and distribution of sufficient quantities of food. A lack of food purchasing power, stemming from decades of entrenched poverty, however, is the lead cause of food insecurity in Swaziland. Furthermore, poverty restricts the ability of farmers to purchase productive inputs, such as seeds and fertiliser, limiting the overall level of food production in Swaziland. Over generations, there has been a decline in the use of improved agricultural practices. With the focus on small-scale subsistence farming, promoted by government policies, yield-maximising techniques have become secondary to satisfying household demand. Continuous farming and over-grazing by an increasing cattle population have severely degraded the land. Estimates indicate that 75 per cent of SNL suffers from degradation, restricting the regeneration of the soil structure and replacement of nutrients.

Erratic weather, too, negatively impacts the livelihoods of Swazis. Frequently occurring droughts, particularly in communal SNL areas, interrupt the domestic supply of food and cause losses among the livestock. The country’s low rainfall is barely sufficient to sustain dry-land farming. Across the population there tends to be an over-reliance on maize, which is a water-intensive grain, and a general failure to cultivate drought-resistant crops. These factors hinder efforts to work towards achieving food security. Intermittent flooding in some areas further erodes the country’s food security, by destroying harvests. Swaziland’s unpredictable weather significantly reduces food output, which has led to increased prices. With high unemployment and Swaziland’s continuing economic downturn, rising food prices are pushing more Swazis into food insecurity. The spread of HIV-AIDS exacerbates the problems mentioned above, notably through reduced incomes and availability of labour

Water Security

Swaziland‘s irregular climate causes the country’s water security status to fluctuate between insecure and tentative. The presence of water varies according to region; the southern and eastern areas are generally much drier than the north. The frequent droughts, experienced over a long period of time, have left many areas without ready access to water. Other regions that are generally wetter, also suffer occasional rain shortages, leaving them with a critically low supply of water. Localised rationing of water is common in Swaziland’s vulnerable regions. In the past, acute water shortages due to prolonged drought have affected


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up to 40 per cent of Swazis. During the driest episodes, the government has had to transport potable water to affected communities, as their water pipes occasionally run dry.

Beyond the availability of water, there is a disparity in urban and rural access to safe drinking water. While much progress has been made in the area of water access across the country since independence, a lack of water infrastructure continues to limit rural access to improved water services. In some towns and villages, Swazis have no alternative water source other than small rivers and streams, which are often unclean. This situation has consequences r not only for the health of Swaziland’s population, but also its agriculture. Limited water resources make adequate irrigation systems difficult to maintain, restricting the productivity of the sector as a whole, as well as that of smallholders. Recent legislation has attempted to allocate water rights to various user groups for irrigation purposes. Smallholders in the Usutu River Basin, for example, may extract a specified quantity to irrigate their crops during certain seasons. The problem with this initiative, however, is that demand far outweighs supply, with the water rights already reaching full allocation.

Further impacting water security is the risk of water contamination by commercial activity. With economic growth a necessity following Swaziland’s downturn, the government is eager to attract foreign investment. One activity that shows real investment potential is iron-ore mining. Activity in the north of the country, where an Indian-owned iron-ore reprocessing plant began operations in January 2012, is threatening the water security of local residents, as well as the people of Swaziland’s capital, Mbabane. Situated next to the Ngwenya Mine, claimed to be the world’s oldest, the plant’s waste outflows are suspected of reducing the water quality of a nearby dam. This particular area has no water infrastructure due to its harsh terrain. Residents rely on the water collected from the dam and nearby streams. The concern over water safety has prompted local residents to petition the company to provide fresh water for the area’s affected communities.


While there is potential to improve conditions in Swaziland over the next decade, the plethora of factors causing problems will make achieving food and water security difficult. The most pressing concern in Swaziland is the pervasiveness of poverty throughout the country, though particularly among those in rural areas. The persistent imbalance in rural and urban income levels and standards of living will ensure food insecurity remains embedded within rural communities. Government programmes aimed at lowering unemployment and, more critically, regulating food prices, would greatly assist in easing household food insecurity. Expenditure initiatives aimed at increasing the capacity of all citizens to purchase food, however, will be a challenge, given the government’s accumulated foreign debt. The success of government intervention, therefore, depends to some extent on competent fiscal management.

The country’s heavy reliance on rain-fed crops, particularly maize, will continue to limit the food options of its citizens. To ensure alternative and lasting sources of nutrition are available, Swaziland must diversify its agricultural production and shift towards more drought-resistant crops. Improving agricultural techniques is imperative for the improvement of the food security situation. The continuation of practices that deteriorate Swaziland’s limited arable land will prevent future increases in productivity, which are necessary to allow the country’s food situation to improve. Implementing sustainable development strategies in agriculture will raise the level of food available nationally and contribute to vital economic growth. Despite efforts to reduce the prevalence of HIV-AIDS, there is minimal prospect of the virus declining over the next decade. This situation bodes ill for the country’s food security. Swaziland’s status as a food deficit country will persist into the future; for its food security to improve, the issues discussed above must be effectively addressed in the coming years.

The expansion of water infrastructure in Swaziland’s rural communities is necessary to improve national access to clean water. So too is industrial regulation, with a focus on preventing pollution and environmental degradation. Universal water security in Swaziland is unlikely to be achieved prior to 2025. The harsh nature


of the country’s rural landscapes will remain a hindrance to developing adequate water infrastructure. Swaziland’s low projected rate of population growth means that future government and NGO programmes should be effective, given the manageable population size. The expected increase in severity of catastrophic weather events associated with a changing climate, however, will ensure that Swaziland will remain at risk of weather-induced food and water insecurity over the coming decade and beyond.

Health

HIV-AIDS is the primary health-related issue affecting Swaziland’s food security. Since the first reported case in 1986, the disease has spread rapidly throughout the country, having a devastating effect on its socioeconomic development. Swaziland has the world’s highest infection rate at 26 per cent. Worryingly, over 50 per cent of Swazi adults in their 20s currently live with the virus. Women have been particularly affected by the HIV epidemic, with a female infection rate 50 per cent higher than that of males. It is largely responsible for reducing the life expectancy of all Swazis to its present low level of less than 48 years. Through loss of income, productivity and stable livelihoods, the food security of Swazis either impacted by, or infected with, HIV is highly compromised. The epidemic is a significant barrier to achieving food security in Swaziland. The extent to which HIV-AIDS is endangering not only food security but the society as a whole, has prompted the United Nations Development Program to warn that the long term existence of Swaziland as a country will be threatened if the epidemic continues unabated.

Persistent shortages of food in Swaziland have caused a significant proportion of the population to suffer from under-nutrition; the greatest impact being on children below five years. The condition impedes childhood development and can permanently reduce a child’s capacity to learn. Under-nourished children are more likely to experience difficulties securing work and maintaining a steady income in adulthood. According to estimates, in Swaziland around 40 per cent of children are stunted, 2 per cent are wasted and a further 11 per cent are undernourished, due to a lack of nutrition. The prevalence of under-nutrition in Swaziland is leading to a high death toll and morbidity rate. The causes of the condition are, in part, related to the loss of indigenous foods and the local knowledge of food preparation.

Water-related diseases, such as cholera, typhoid fever, bacterial diarrhoea and hepatitis A, are common in Swaziland’s rural areas; mainly as a result of insufficient water supplies for adequate hygiene, as well as poor sanitation. The contamination of rivers with faecal matter impairs the health of the surrounding communities, who rely on natural waterways as a main source of drinking water. Water insecurity is contributing to the poor health of Swazis; the lack of an alternative water supply increases the risk of waterborne diseases spreading beyond their present levels. Poor sanitation further erodes the health of Swazis; schistosomiasis, resulting from contact with infected water, is common in many areas of the country where sanitation is below standard or non-existent. This disease, which leads to nutritional deficiency, has been endemic in Swaziland for several decades, particularly in the country’s east, where the infection rate is 6 per cent.


The government authority responsible for responding to food crises is the National Disaster task Force (NDtF). The organisation plays a key role in mobilising resources and implementing a coordinated response to the emergency, by engaging in a dialogue with donors and other senior members of the government. With the assistance of the FAO, the government of Swaziland is engaged in a number of programmes designed to improve the situation of those currently facing food insecurity. Multiple NGOs operate within Swaziland’s borders, targeting the country’s most vulnerable, namely, the rural poor. Swaziland’s faltering water security attracts concerted government efforts to ensure efficient distribution of its valuable water resources. A snapshot of government and non-government strategies is outlined below.


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• The National Agricultural Marketing Board is a public enterprise established through an Act of Parliament and charged with the development of marketing of agricultural products in Swaziland. The statutory functions of the entity encompass the National Maize Corporation (NMC) and the Swaziland Dairy Board (SDB).

• The NMC was established in 1985 with the objectives of guaranteeing a market to local maize farmers at competitive prices and of providing good quality maize meal at reasonable prices to the Swazi people. The Corporation’s focus includes the purchase, storage and marketing of maize.

• The SDB is a public enterprise wholly owned by the Swaziland Government. The Board’s primary function is to develop and regulate the dairy industry. The SDB complements the Government’s efforts through the provision of a supportive socio-economic environment for the development of the dairy industry, aimed at achieving food security, poverty reduction, investment promotion, job creation and export promotion.

• The National Programme for Food Security is an integral part of Swaziland’s National Development Strategy. The Programme is a comprehensive food security strategy and action plan that elaborates the key strategies set out by the National Food Security Policy to address food insecurity and poverty. It follows the Policy in its framework arrangement around the four key pillars for food security: Food Availability, Food Access, Food Utilisation and Nutritional Requirements, and Stability in Equitable Food Provision. The programme’s specific purpose is to provide clear guidance regarding the strategies and measures adopted to improve food security for all people in Swaziland.

• FAO’s Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) aims to reduce hunger rapidly and sustainably by increasing production and availability of food where it is most needed. It specifically aims to significantly increase crop yields. Initially, the SPFS’s pilot activities took place in 15 sites covering the agro-ecological zones of Swaziland, such as Siphofaneni, Maphobeni and St. Phillips in the Lowveld area, Mancibane in the dry Middleveld area, as well as the area along the Mbabane-Manzini corridor. An interdisciplinary management team implemented the activities, which has benefited 180 households.

• FAO’s Emergency and Rehabilitation Programme in Swaziland (ECRU) aims to enhance sustainable livelihoods for the most vulnerable households and to ensure timely planting to enhance their chances of high food production. FAO aims to reduce negative coping strategies, such as the sale of farm implements to buy inputs and food. The ECRU has worked in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, to restore smallholder crop production through Agricultural Input Trade Fairs (ITFs) for the regions of Swaziland affected by severe drought.

• The Lower Usuthu Smallholder Irrigation Project is designed to assist Swaziland’s impoverished smallholder farmers. The project area is one of the poorest in the country. Its objective is to increase household incomes, enhance food security and improve access to social and health infrastructure for the rural population. It does this by creating the conditions for the transformation of subsistence level smallholder farmers into small-scale commercial farmers. The project will support the development of the water resources of the Lower Usuthu and the provision of irrigation infrastructure and credit funds. These provisions enable smallholder farmers to intensify and diversify their agricultural production, building on existing market linkages with the private sector. The main crop will be sugarcane. The project will comprise four main components: Upstream Works (including 3 dams) and Distribution System, Downstream Development, Environmental Mitigation, and Project Co-ordination and Management.


• The Swaziland Farmer Development Foundation (SFDF) provides community services to address the country’s food insecurity. Through community development and education programmes, it promotes sustainable agriculture in remote and rural communities. Ensuring clean and sufficient water supply, together with environmental protection, are secondary objectives of the SFDF. It also attempts to facilitate agricultural market linkages.

• Swaziland for Positive Living (SWAPOL) is an NGO which aims to create a positive environment for children living with HIV/AIDS. The group provides funds for their medical treatment. It also assists food security at the household level, by supplying food packages to children and establishing productive backyard gardens for families.

• Combatting the threat of waterborne diseases, Population Services International in Swaziland (PSI/Swaziland) manages a clean water and deworming program in the country’s water-insecure areas. PSI/Swaziland provides tablets that, when dissolved, rapidly purify drinking water. During the June 2009 cholera outbreak, PSI/Swaziland helped ensure immediate access to clean water for communities in the affected and surrounding areas.


In 2012, Australia has offered 17 scholarships to Swaziland in agriculture, health, education and governance.

Australia contributes to both The African Development Bank-led African Water Facility (AWF) and the German-led Transboundary Water Management Program, which promote investment in infrastructure and sustainable management of water resources.

One Australian and one local NGO have been granted funding to deliver community programs focused on youth development and gender equality in water management and commercial agriculture.



Mozambique

5CHAPTER


KEy POINtS

• Agriculture in Mozambique is an important sector for both local food supply and household income, though is characterised by low productivity.

• More than one-third of Mozambicans are considered to be chronically food insecure. The country is dependent on food imports to satisfy demand. Mozambique faces mounting challenges to its future food security.

• Only 47 per cent of Mozambique’s population has adequate access to safe drinking water. It is not on target to reach the Millennium Development Goal for access to safe water. Mismanagement and poor infrastructure place Mozambique at risk of future water shortages.

• Food poverty in Mozambique has caused widespread malnutrition among its population. A high HIV contraction rate is also eroding the country’s food security and hampering economic progress.

• Government organisations and NGOs work to alleviate poverty and provide assistance in health and agricultural productivity.


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Agriculture Overview

Mozambique includes several agro-climatic zones, ranging from arid and semi-arid in the south and south–west, to sub-humid in the centre and north, and humid in the central highlands. The fertile conditions in the north of the country generally allow a surplus in local food production, partially supplementing the food deficit in the poorer south. Agriculture in Mozambique is largely dependent on rainfall and so is acutely vulnerable to changing weather patterns. Drought and flood periodically interrupt the supply of food, compromising the country’s overall food security. The civil wars the country has experienced have left a devastating legacy for agriculture and food security in general. Following more than a decade of conflict, the capacity to produce food has been severely weakened; food markets were inefficient and prices were distorted, leaving millions of displaced people susceptible to food poverty. Progress has been made during the last two decades, due to positive agricultural and economic reform by Mozambique’s government. Despite this, it remains at risk of suffering future food crises.

Agricultural activity is an important component of Mozambican livelihoods. It constitutes more than 20 per cent of Mozambique’s GDP, though it is characterised by a lack of technological progress, with modern inputs such as tractors, fertilisers and pesticides rarely used. Generally, all members of a family contribute towards farming and household food production. Food crop production accounts for around 80 per cent of total cultivated land area. Certain crops are particularly suited to Mozambique’s soil and climate. These include the country’s staples of maize and cassava, as well as a limited range of other vegetables and cash crops. The fisheries sector is also an important contributor to the country’s food security. Approximately 400 species in Mozambican waters are considered commercially important, providing both a source of nutrition and income.

Population

The population of Mozambique is 23.4 million people, around 38 per cent of whom live in urban areas. This urbanisation was, in part, driven by internal migration during the country’s protracted civil war; the annual rate is predicted to be 4 per cent for the next five years. Estimates put life expectancy at birth at 52.1 years, with the mortality rate of children under five being 135 per 1,000. Mozambique is ranked 184th out of 187 countries in the United Nations’ Human Development Index. Its current birth rate is 39.6 births per 1,000 people, with a population growth rate of 2.44 per cent and a projected population of 32,439 in 2025.

Income

Mozambique emerged from its civil war as one of the most impoverished countries in the world. Since the conflict ended in 1992, it has experienced consistent economic growth. Poverty rates have declined significantly over the last decade, but despite this progress, poverty still affects more than 50 per cent of the population. More poignantly, poverty based on consumption has stagnated at 54 per cent for almost ten years. Mozambique’s rural inhabitants, particularly women, suffer the most from widespread poverty, accounting for 80 per cent of the total. In rural areas, small-scale agriculture is an important source of income, though income levels are low. In Mozambique’s urban areas, informal economic activity dominates the income sources of the poor. Access to formal employment is restricted, especially for women. In both rural and urban localities, the predominance of micro-commerce prevents the accumulation of capital for saving and investment, restricting the opportunities for adoption of alternative strategies for escaping poverty.

At the national level, Mozambique is still dependant on foreign aid to meet its budgetary requirements. The economy also features a substantial trade imbalance, made worse by rising international food and fuel prices. It has a reasonable level of sovereign debt, but has been a major beneficiary of debt relief from its multilateral and bilateral donors. The country’s public debt, as a percentage of GDP, is expected to increase


steadily until 2016, and decline beyond that point. Mozambique’s government expects its economy to grow at more than 7 per cent per year for the next five years, though this is dependent on continued economic reform and future foreign investment projects. Mozambique must take advantage of its forecast growth by addressing poverty-related food insecurity.

Food Security

The food security status of Mozambique varies depending on the year and season, though on average, 35 per cent of households are considered chronically food insecure. The provinces most affected are Zambezia, Tete, Maputo and Inhambane, all with food insecurity rates of 30 per cent or higher. Much of the country’s rural population is impoverished and food-insecure. A prominent cause of this is inefficiency in crop production, which has a direct impact on the availability of food. It also reduces the incomes of Mozambique’s farmers and results in only modest food returns for rural households. The significance of the low productivity rate stems from the fact that production of basic food crops in Mozambique’s small-scale farms accounts for 90 per cent of total national production, meaning its impact is far-reaching. Poor soil management is another restrictive element in the nation’s food supply.

Mozambique is dependent on food imports to make up the shortfall in domestic produce and so is vulnerable to changes in international food prices. In the past, rising food prices have led to deadly riots. In 2010, for instance, the rising cost of staples, such as bread, was a major factor in significant social unrest in Mozambique. Most Mozambicans spend a high proportion of their incomes on food, meaning even slight changes in price can be problematic for the country’s food security. Another factor that challenges Mozambique’s food security is the plethora of landmines that still exist in much of the country. These occupy land that would otherwise be available for economic and social activities. The controlled removal of the mines would greatly assist in improving the economic prospects of local communities where they are located.

Recurrent natural disasters are devastating for the country’s food security. Severe flooding in 2007 and 2008 destroyed the livelihoods of many subsistence farmers, with many households still recovering from the damaging effects. Rain shortages in other parts of the country exacerbated the situation, with the result being losses in income and food reserves, as well as most, or all, of that particular season’s harvest. Estimates indicate that, during these natural disasters, 31 per cent of affected households experienced inadequate access to food for a prolonged period. During the disasters of 2008, food and humanitarian aid were widely deployed until the following year, highlighting the heavy impact of erratic weather patterns on food security.

Water Security

Mozambique is not considered water secure. More than half of its water resources originate in surrounding countries and its dependence on shared water imparts a degree of vulnerability to intermittent water insecurity. Significant water extraction by countries upstream of Mozambique’s major rivers reduces available water, particularly in the South. Although an invaluable water source, river flows in Mozambique are generally unpredictable, with some even running dry in certain seasons. The average annual rainfall ranges from more than 1,000mm in the North to around 500mm in the South. The country’s highly variable climate causes uneven and sporadic precipitation, which is often insufficient to satisfy water demand. Tropical cyclones and the El Nino/La Nina phenomenon also intensify cyclical floods and droughts. Contributing to Mozambique’s water insecurity are its underdeveloped flood control infrastructure and limited water storage facilities.

Mozambique is not on track to achieve the target for access to safe drinking water set out in the Millennium Development Goals. Only 47 per cent of the population can access adequate supplies of safe drinking water; Mozambique’s rural inhabitants are most affected by inadequate access to safe water. Water resources are


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important for the country’s economic development and are inextricably linked with food security. Insecurity in both water and food interact to pose a significant threat to the livelihoods of Mozambique’s Central and Southern regions. Although 21 per cent of Mozambicans have gained access since 1995, the country suffers from capacity constraints that prevent a higher rate of progress. These include limited financial resources, and poor planning and reporting systems. A lack of skilled officials to deal with the scope of the problem also hinders progress towards universal water security.


Mozambique faces significant challenges in avoiding future crises in both food and water. At the core of its difficulties is its lack of productivity and diversity in food crop production. Average yields across most of the country are low. The output of small-scale farming in rural areas is especially below capacity. To avert a future food crisis, productivity in agriculture must be improved, by acquiring advanced technology and implementing modern farming techniques. Better soil management and crop diversity will also benefit the country’s food security prospects. Coupled with food insecurity is the distinct possibility of future water shortages. Mozambique’s nine major rivers serve the country well in most years, though mismanagement and poor infrastructure prevent clean water from reaching many rural communities. Sound water planning, from adequately skilled managers, and investment in infrastructure will help offset possible water shortages in the future. The demanding challenges to water security, however, indicate that future crises are still likely to occur in the future.

Mozambique’s dependence on food imports is likely to persist until such time as agricultural productivity is enhanced. Therefore, attention should be given to continued economic reforms to stimulate further development and increase incomes. This will provide Mozambicans with the opportunity to escape food and money poverty. Mozambique’s economic growth will be based largely on its natural resources. Free and fair export markets, combined with sustained foreign investment in resource extraction, have the potential to impart economic gains to the population. An important factor to consider is the future size of Mozambique’s population; a relatively high growth rate will result in a substantially larger population over the next decade, placing additional strain on food and water resources. Moreover, the combination of high population growth with likely food insecurity, rising food prices and water shortages, may generate social unrest similar to that seen in 2010.

Health

Widespread poverty is having devastating effects on the country’s health. Due to an inability to purchase adequate levels of nutritious food, approximately 52 per cent of Mozambicans are under-nourished. This is caused by poor diet diversity and minimal meal sizes. Children are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition; 46.4 per cent of children under five suffer from moderate stunting, 18.7 per cent are underweight and 6.6 per cent experience wasting. Further, vitamin A and iron deficiencies in children in the same age group are high, at 69 and 74 per cent respectively. These national median figures for child malnutrition are more highly concentrated in rural areas. The high prevalence of human micro-nutrient deficiencies among the population has prompted the government to launch a national food fortification programme, aimed at improving the overall health of Mozambicans. The programme enriches food with certain vital nutrients.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Mozambique is estimated to be around 11.5 per cent and is a major factor in lowering the average life expectancy. HIV accounts for almost 25 per cent of all recorded deaths. While this is generally lower than other countries in Southern Africa, it has a significant bearing on Mozambique’s food security status because of interrupting agricultural activity and harming social cohesion. Females are disproportionately impacted by the virus through higher contraction rates. HIV greatly impacts the country’s labour productivity and levels of income and is a major contributor to food poverty. It is also a large factor contributing to Mozambique’s high number of orphans and is an impediment to education levels among children belonging to affected families.



In cooperation with NGOs, the Mozambican government works to improve overall food security, by sourcing alternative supplies of food, improving sanitation, providing access to clean drinking water and alternative sources of food. They seek to decrease the number of diseases caused by unclean drinking water and inadequate nutrition. Set out below is an outline of current projects undertaken in Mozambique.

• In 2011, Mozambique’s Cabinet approved an Action Plan for Reducing Poverty (PARP) for the period 2011-2014, which aims to reduce food poverty from the current level to 42 per cent by 2014. The objectives of PARP are supported by two pillars: a stable and competitive macroeconomic environment, linked to the efficient and effective management of public finances; and governance that is transparent, fair and just. The Council of Ministers also approved the Strategic Plan for Agricultural Development (PEDSA) covering the same period, which has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, food security and the incomes of agricultural producers in a competitive and sustainable manner, while promoting social and gender equality.

• Since 1977, the African Development Bank has invested in all of the areas of the Mozambican economy. Recently, the bank financed six projects and one study in the water and sanitation area alone, with a total value of US$88 million. The Bank’s work complements Mozambique’s Action Plan for Reducing Poverty.

• The Food and Agriculture Organization invests in research to provide Mozambique with alternative food and plant sources that are not as easily damaged by flooding. This will greatly assist the future ability of Mozambique’s agricultural sector to withstand natural disasters.

• The Japanese Government has been very involved in assisting the economic recovery of Mozambique. In early 2012, Japan provided the state with 17,000 tonnes of rice, which will help stabilise the price of rice in Mozambique. The product is to be sold through normal commercial channels and the revenue raised will be dedicated to aid programmes.

• The International Development Association has provided 70% of Mozambicans with a more reliable supply of water. This is achieved through training Mozambique’s National Directorate of Water to manage the resource in a more effective manner.

• WaterAid has ensured that more than 270,000 Mozambicans have access to water, by working with the country’s government departments. This has been done with methods such as the introduction of the rope pump in poor, rural communities that cannot afford more expensive substitutes for water supply. Moreover, WaterAid has taught the rural communities about the practice of composting latrines. This involves the mixing of human waste, soil and ash to be reused in agriculture and to promote better sanitation practices.

• Since 2000, the Canadian International Development Agency has been installing improved sanitation facilities and providing Mozambique with the necessary operational equipment for maintaining them. It has also installed multiple water supply points and provided education about safe hygiene practices.

• The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation has been providing Mozambique with economic, governmental and medical assistance since 1979. It assists the local population in constructing rural water infrastructure and providing the necessary training and support at both


44

provincial and central level. For the most part, the SADC water program is software oriented, with a focus at the central level. In tackling food security, the SDC provides the population with Swiss dairy products with the objective of reducing disease and malnutrition. These products are also indispensible for the health of HIV and tuberculosis patients. After every weekly medical consultation, the patient is provided with a ration of powdered milk, which is also very popular in school canteens and orphanages. For these reasons, the SDC regularly conducts training classes with medical staff in order to explain how these products are to be prepared for the utmost nutritional and medicinal value.

• The United States Government assists Mozambique through the Food For Peace Program. In 2012, the program supplied food aid to the value of US$17.8 million. This is a direct program that targets food insecure portions of the population.

• The World Bank works to ensure the transparency and policy-coordination in food-related problem areas. Improvements promote more efficient agricultural practices and allow the organisation to provide food aid immediately following emergencies. In September 2011, the World Bank Board of Directors approved credit of US$70 million for Mozambique’s National Water Resources Development Project for 2011-2017. This plan will ensure a better water storage capacity and an increased resilience in coping with floods and droughts.


Mozambique is one of five African countries benefiting from a research program managed by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) to improve productivity in staple crops.

Almost $28 million has been pledged to improve access to water and sanitation, mostly through the World Bank and UNICEF.

In 2012, Australia has offered 33 scholarships in the areas of education, agriculture, environment, mining, environment, health governance and water and sanitation.

Funding has been provided through the Africa Australia Community Engagement Scheme (AACES) to support sustainable agriculture, access to safe water and to improve women’s and children’s access to health services.



Madagascar

6CHAPTER

Patrick VuFDI Research Assistant

KEy POINtS

• Agriculture in Madagascar is continually threatened by natural disasters. Inefficient irrigation systems hamper efforts to improve the sector’s productivity.

• Madagascar suffers from seasonal food insecurity. During poor harvest years, food shortages affect more than 50 per cent of its population.

• Only 41 per cent of Madagascar’s population have access to safe drinking water. Limited funding and poor management negatively affect the state-run water corporation.

• 50 per cent of Madagascar’s children suffer stunting caused by malnutrition. Water-related diseases, too, are major causes of childhood illnesses and death.

• Numerous foreign NGOs collaborate with government agencies in improving the country’s food security. Response-planning to deal with natural disasters is an ongoing concern for the island nation.


46

Political and Agricultural Overview

Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, employs 80 per cent of the total population, accounting for 28.8 per cent of the nation’s GDP. Major food crops in Madagascar include rice, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes and ground nuts. These form the basis of Malagasy diets. Cash crops, important for rural incomes, include coffee, vanilla, cloves, sugarcane, cotton, cocoa and sisal. The country’s climate varies; it is tropical along the coastal regions, temperate inland and arid in the south. Its agricultural sector suffers from frequent natural disasters, in the form of flooding, droughts and cyclones. Natural disasters damage homes, crops, infrastructure and livestock, and present a constant challenge to food security. Other limiting factors in agriculture are its low productivity and poor rural infrastructure. Low agricultural productivity limits food availability for consumption and income generation, while poor infrastructure includes inefficient irrigation systems, poor road networks and limited storage facilities; all of these affect the food security of rural communities.

Madagascar’s current political situation is relatively unstable. In 2009, power was unconstitutionally transferred from the incumbent, President Ravalomanana, to the former mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina. This transfer was widely viewed by the international community as a coup d’etat and there is only limited international recognition of the transitional government. As a result, large shipments of foreign aid have been suspended. The political crisis has hindered the country’s economic development, thereby exacerbating existing food poverty.

Population

Madagascar has a total population of 22.6 million people. It is comprised predominantly of people of Austronesia and East African origin, although a number of other ethnic groups are also represented, such as Indian, French and Chinese. Urban areas hold only 30 per cent of Madagascar’s population, with the majority living in rural areas. The annual rate of urbanisation is 3.9 per cent; the infant mortality rate is 50.09 deaths per 1000 births; and the average life expectancy is 64 years. The country has a large youth population, with 43.1 per cent of the total population aged 14 years or below. The percentage of the population between 15 and 64 years is 53.8 per cent. Rapid population growth is a challenge, with the overall population growth rate quite high at 2.952 per cent. The estimated fertility rate in 2012 is 4.96 children per woman and the teenage pregnancy rate 14.8 per cent. Madagascar’s projected population in 2025 is 28.4 million. The country has a low AIDS infection rate compared to many of the countries in mainland Africa, with only 0.2 per cent of the adult population infected.

Income

Madagascar is the one of the world’s poorest countries, with around 80% of its population living on less than US$1.25 a day. In the United Nations 2011 Human Development Index, which measures a country’s general standard of living, Madagascar ranked 151st out of 187 countries. The nation’s GDP per capita was measured last year at US$459. Madagascar suffered a sharp contraction in 2009 due to the global financial crisis. Concurrently, international aid was significantly reduced following the country’s political crisis. In rural Madagascar, wealth is measured in livestock. The severity of Madagascar’s economic deterioration is reflected in the 50% decline in the value of zebu, rural families’ most important livestock. Aside from agriculture, the prominent sectors in Madagascar’s GDP are the industries sector (16.6 per cent) and the services sector (54.6%). Madagascar exports coffee, vanilla, seafood products, sugar, cotton, cloth and petroleum products. For political reasons, it has been disqualified by the United States from the African Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA), a preferential trade agreement designed to assist the economies of sub-Saharan Africa. Madagascar’s exclusion led to a 50% drop in the country’s exports.


Food security

Madagascar is listed as a Low-Income Food-Deficit Country by the United Nations. According to the UN, in December 2010 720,000 people were food insecure. The food security situation is particularly severe in the South, where crops have been affected by drought. The government’s policy on food security and agriculture is also hampered by current political tensions. The unstable food security situation is primarily the result of frequent natural disasters and the international community’s sanctions on foreign aid. Madagascar suffers from seasonal food insecurity, which affects over 50% of its population. Seasonal food insecurity is more prevalent during the cyclone season from November through March. The lean season limits the coping strategies of Madagascar’s poor.

Madagascar is prone to frequent floods, cyclones, tropical storms and droughts, which constantly threaten the nation’s food security. Madagascar experiences around 60 per cent of all storms that form in the Indian Ocean. In February 2012, it was hit by cyclone Giovanna, a category-four tropical storm. With winds up to 194 km per hour, the cyclone swept through the Brickaville and Vatomandry districts, killing 16 people and leaving 11,000 homeless. It also caused significant damage to infrastructure, destroying roads and government buildings. The country’s agricultural sector also suffered from this cyclone, with damaged cash-crops and decreased food production in affected villages. This led to food insecurity and an urgent need for food supplies. This devastating cyclone is representative of the natural disasters that frequently afflict Madagascar.

Another important factor affecting the nation’s food security is its current political situation. The response of many foreign donors to 2009’s political transition was to suspend all but emergency aid to Madagascar. The European Union halted programmes and froze all aid channelled through the government. By March 2011, estimates indicated that Madagascar had lost US$400 million in aid as a result of the sanctions. Madagascar has relied heavily on foreign aid in the past to feed its population. Foreign investment is declining because of concerns over future political developments and this, together with sanctions on foreign aid, stands as both an impediment to economic development and a strain on agricultural production. Previously, 70 per cent of the national budget in Madagascar was funded by foreign aid. The aid sanctions have meant that work on infrastructure and environmental protection has ceased and the suspension of the AGOA has cut exports by half, reducing national revenue.

Water Security

Madagascar’s average annual precipitation is between 1,000 mm and 1,500 mm, although this varies significantly depending on the region. For instance, the East Coast is warm and humid with rainfall that can exceed 3,000 mm per year and with almost no dry season. Contrastingly, the West is hot, and in the dry season, which lasts up to nine months, rainfall can be less than 400mm per year. Irrigation potential has been estimated at 1.5 million hectares. Over 70 per cent of this area is currently under irrigation, although large areas require rehabilitation. The country’s renewable water resources are estimated at 337 km³ per year.

A lack of clean drinking water is a problem in both urban and rural areas. The government service provider, Jirama, is responsible for supplying water across the country, but is currently unable to service the entire population. Only 50 per cent of people in the areas served by Jirama have access to safe water. Nationwide, access to safe water is available to only 41 per cent of the Malagasy population, with households spending, on average, two to three hours per day collecting water. The inadequate access to water and sanitation services leads to water-borne and sanitation-related diseases. Jirama is a poorly-run state energy company, with limited funding and poor management of external donor contributions. Under President Ravalomanana, the state tried to privatise Jirama, with donor support; the attempt failed, however, due to difficulties in making the company profitable.


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Potential for crises to 2025?

The outlook for Madagascar in the next decade is unfavourable. The country’s political tensions create uncertainty and will continue to undermine the efforts of both the government and international organisations to restore the country’s food security. Climate change is expected to intensify the severity of droughts, cyclones and flooding. Changing temperatures will adversely affect water supply and soil moisture in Madagascar, leading to lower crop yields and a further threat to its food security. A recent study by the International Food Policy Research Institute, a US-based think-tank, projected that in another two decades the effect of climate change on food production could increase child malnutrition by 20 per cent in developing countries, including Madagascar. Another concern is Madagascar’s rapid population growth, which will put increasing pressure on the country’s already limited food resources.

Malnutrition

The nation faces acute malnutrition, particularly during the annual lean season when food supplies are limited, and 50 per cent of children under five suffer from stunting. According to UNICEF, the country ranks sixth globally among countries with the highest rates of malnutrition. Undernourished children are at high risk of impaired cognitive development, which adversely affects their ability to support themselves in the future. The incidence of undernourishment in Madagascar has shown little improvement over the past two decades and the country is not on track to meet the target for Millennium Development Goal 1c (to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger) by 2015.

Water-Related Diseases

Access to clean water is limited in both urban and rural areas. In Madagascar, around 75 per cent of people do not have access to potable water, putting them at significant risk of diarrhoeal diseases, such as cholera. According to recent statistics, over half of all children under five years die of diarrhoea. The risk of waterborne diseases this year has increased, following cyclone Giovanna in mid-February. The tropical storm destroyed many water sources and has been followed by hot and humid weather conditions. Diarrhoeal diseases can be prevented by improving access to clean water and sanitation.


The main actors implementing and adopting strategies to improve food and water security in Madagascar are international NGOs, foreign governments and international organisations, such as the United Nations. In the past, Madagascar’s government has pursued policies to improve food security and agricultural development, but its efforts have been undermined by the nation’s political tensions. With its vulnerability to natural disasters and its weak economy, assistance from intentional agencies and foreign governments is crucial in alleviating the threats of food and water security in Madagascar. Assistance ranges from natural disaster response planning and relief, increasing accessibility to clean water and efforts to improve agricultural productivity and infrastructure. The following programs are examples from some of the organisations working to promote improved food and water security in Madagascar.

• USAID is working in Madagascar’s most vulnerable areas to address food insecurity, through attempts to improve food availability and food access. The program aims to increase food availability by providing technical assistance and training to increase agricultural productivity, diversification and the adoption of sustainable farming practices. It promotes food access by supporting increased commercial revenue from agricultural production. It also contributes to infrastructure such as roads, footpaths and bridges, which help to stimulate economic development by connecting people to markets.


• WaterAid is an international NGO that aims to provide safe water, effective sanitation and hygiene education. It provides greater accessibility to water and attempts to reduce the significant health costs associated with unsafe drinking water. WaterAid has installed community wells, which have enabled rural villagers to cultivate their own kitchen gardens. These gardens give villagers an additional source of food and allow them to maintain a more balanced and healthy diet. It also gives villagers the opportunity to sell crops and increase their income.

• The Netherlands-based Inter-church Organization for Development (ICCO) is working to improve early warning systems and responses to cyclones. They work closely with local communities to implement effective evacuation procedures and ensure prompt cyclone warnings on the radio. They also store food reserves to combat food insecurity during the cyclone season.

• UNICEF is working in the country’s southern region to help treat malnourished children. UNICEF has screened hundreds of children as part of a ‘Plumy’doz’ distribution campaign that is targeting 20,000 of Madagascar’s most vulnerable children. Plumy’doz is a supplementary food rich in vitamins and minerals, designed to help prevent malnutrition in children. Plumy’doz completes a child’s nutritional intake and helps the child grow and develop immunity to disease.

• The United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) currently works with the Malagasy Government and aid agency partners to improve emergency management in the cyclone season. According to the National Office for Natural Disaster Preparedness (BNGRC) as many as 259,000 people were affected by this year’s tropical storm. The WFP positioned nearly 1,000 tons of emergency food rations in anticipation of the cyclone and put measures in place to ensure quick assistance to support the most vulnerable and worse affected households. In addition, WFP is implementing the Food for Work (FFW) program in Madagascar, which will assist households affected by the cyclone to recover their livelihoods. The idea behind this program is to provide food in exchange for work on vital new infrastructure, or for time spent learning new skills that will improve the conditions of households or communities. This program attends to immediate food needs, while at the same time teaching crucial skills and building important infrastructure to promote food security in the long term.


In 2012, Australia has offered 15 short course awards in mining governance that will assist with economic development.

Australia has provided funding to two local NGOs under the Australia-Africa Community Grants Scheme (AACGS), for programs focused on disability and governance.

Australia funds the Africa Biosciences Challenge Fund (ABCF) scholarships, to which Madagascar may apply. ABCF scholarships relate to food and nutritional security and animal health.

Australia has provided $3 million to UNICEF’s Global WASH Program for improved sanitation in schools in Africa, including Madagascar.

Australia supports the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) which aims to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries, including Madagascar.


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‘An Impending ChallengeFood and Water Security in Southern Africa

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INDEPENDENT STRATEGIC ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA’S GLOBAL INTERESTS

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