an existential guide to travel

An Existential Guide to Travel

Introduction

I will be arguing for a mutually complementary relationship between the philosophies

of Existentialism and Phenomenology, and travel, through a study of Western authors

and their attempts to represent themselves and their experiences in Japan. This is

neither unprecedented nor a stretch of the imagination — Jean-Paul Sartre holds that a

relationship between individuals and the world is possible1; William Spanos uses the

analogy of travel to describe the Existential ‘journey’2; and the writer Islam

recognises the immense value of Heidegger in exploring notions of travel and the

experience of inhabiting spaces and time.

In order to illustrate the relevance of Existentialism to the travel experience, I will

develop a mosaic of features of a hypothetical ‘Existential traveller-hero’. Popular

references to the Existential hero are already rife — they include Martin Luther King3,

Arnold Schwarzenegger4, Ernest Hemingway, Clint Eastwood’s line of characters5,

Jack Donaghue of Under the Net, John Grady Cole from All the Pretty Horses6. Some

more well known figures include Jack/Tyler from Fight Club7, Mal from

Serenity/‘Firefly’8, Colombo from ‘Colombo’, Arthur Dent of The Hitchhiker’s Guide

to the Galaxy9, Cross Damon from The Outsider10, William Stoner in Stoner11, Micky

and Mallory Nox from Natural Born Killers12, and ‘the ultimate Existential hero’ —

Wile E. Coyote13. An Existential hero is ‘someone who recognizes the futility of

human existence, but continues on even in the face of its fundamental absurdity’14;

‘one who exemplified the ideals of Existentialism’15; or is ‘the manifestation of

existentialist ideals’16, and/or one who ‘is dispossessed from reality and bereft of

values’17. To be an Existential hero requires valuing an authentic state of being — for

instance, how well we resist allowing our society to subsume us18, and how well our

private selves survive under the scrutiny of the public19. We can attain authenticity

through the experience of anguish, and the assumption of our freedom20. Maintaining

both continuity and integrity of our identity is a challenge though, as we must remain

Ash Hibbert http://acoldandlonelystreet.blogspot.com.au/

http://acoldandlonelystreet.blogspot.com.au/

true to ourselves while at the same time allowing ourselves to change – and what

better way to manage this then to travel?21



Structural and Comparative Anthropologies

Jean-Paul Sartre saw in each of us a tendency to develop a sense of their identity by

comparing ourselves to others. For Sartre, the social collective mediates reality22.

Reflecting our self-depreciative narcissism, we humans are animals that desire a

mirror23. We yearn for ‘shame’ resulting from defining ourselves in terms of how we

are seen by others24 — social objects in opposition to other social objects. Yet by

thinking of ourselves in responsive, oppositional terms, we risk trapping ourselves in

a social bind of self-objectification25. Sartre may have been thinking in terms of a

geographically specific community, yet what he says is as applicable to our tendency

to understand other cultures in terms of how they compare to our own.

Take for example Confucius Lives Next Door: What Living in the East Teaches Us

about Living in the West, by T.R. Reid — a journalist, fluent in Japanese, who worked

and lives in Tokyo for five years as the Washington Post’s Bureau chief. Reid heads

to Japan to find the reason for the country’s miraculous economic successes and

returns, Prometheus-like, to the United States with his answer — Confucism: a

patriarchal philosophy, present in Japan (albeit more closely connected to China) that

emphasises appearance over reality. Confucius is the East’s ‘Plato’ – and like Plato,

his impact is covert rather than overt (for example, the only well-known Confucian

temple in Tokyo is Yushima Seido, and it is only the older generation in Japan that

knows any of Confucius’ ideas). Reid positively compares Confucism to ‘traditional’

North American values.

Reid is an economic rationalist, however. He limits his study to the economic

successes of Japan, failing to factor in the social, personal and environmental costs.

His approach is also arguably ethnocentricity in disguise and compounds the faults of

both historical Anthropology and the tendency to view countries on a predestined

path. Reid relies on what is arguably a mythical view of Japan’s history, one

internally perpetuated because of the modernisation of Japan.



Historical and Functionalist Anthropologies

Existentialism and Phenomenology is in favour of a present-oriented, Functionalist

Anthropology and antithetical to the belief that if only we were to read a sufficient

quantity of material on a particular subject, we would come to know it completely.

Instead, Existentialism emphasises subjectivity and emotions as essential in an

understanding of the self26. The proto-Existentialist Kierkegaard suggests, for

example, that if we are to get to know a place or thing we must do so practically,

rather than intellectually and theoretically, and that in order to fully experience and

come to know a place, thing, or person, a firm awareness of both ourselves and our

location must already exist27. Existentialism holds that because knowledge, to any

degree of confidence, is short lived, and applies only to a very narrow scope, one must

exercise a high degree of scepticism28. Attempting to understand a culture through its

history is therefore a waste of time since ideology is a constructed set of myths for

political ends, consistently hijacked and appropriated by economic, bureaucratic,

military, or religious power elites.

Continuous reference to the religious, political, and historical origins of Japanese

traditions, etiquette, values, and language in Boye Lafayette De Mente’s The

Japanese Have a Word for It: the Complete Guide to Japanese Thought and Culture,

for instance, has the effect of legitimising and naturalising these cultural elements.

Take, for example, his explanation of the Japanese emphasis on wa as being tied to

the early practice of rice cultivation. Wa — or group harmony — emphasises

conformity, correctly fulfilling one’s role in a social hierarchy, and obedience over

individual preferences – it is arguably the most important principle in Japan,

underpinning much of its value system, emphasised throughout children’s education.

‘Wa’ is also the oldest recorded name of Japan. De Mente’s argument is that if,

during rice harvesting, not all members of a township were able to put their

differences aside and allow the group to subsume them that starvation would likely

follow. In arguing that wa originated out of a historical socioeconomic imperative, De

Mente imbues this central tenet of Japanese culture with a sense of purity and

infallibility.



Sugimoto Yoshio’s concept of ‘Friendly Authoritarianism’ interprets wa instead as

‘engineered consent’. Writers such as Dale, Naff and Donald Richie share

Sugimoto’s scepticism. While acknowledging the Japanese cultural origins of the

emphasis on harmony, Richie argues that Japanese institutions consciously and

systematically maintain such traditions — that culture is active not passive.

Peter Dale29, Carol Gluck30 and Koichi Iwabuchi31 go on to argue that the entire

ideological apparatus of Japan exists to give legitimacy to those in corporate and

bureaucratic power. While Iwabuchi does not believe that Japan sees its potential

contribution to the world exclusively on economic and military terms, he does argue

that economic imperialism remains the primary driving force behind Japan’s foreign

policies32. Alex Kerr suggests that the adverse consequences of Japan’s

modernisation are not signs of the erosion of traditional values but of their mutation 33.

In addition, in About Face, Clayton Naff has shown that values such as wa are not

consistent throughout Japanese history34. Japanese cultural forces are not social

products, but bureaucratic.

We might be tempted to try to understand a different culture through its history. For a

while, such a tactic might even be fruitful. Yet knowing an ideology’s genealogy

does not necessarily illuminate its present application, and such historical

Anthropology can lead to a view of society as directed and shaped by indefinable,

predestined, totalitarising social forces. Instead, according to Existentialism, we can

only comprehend a culture by trying to understand the present-day forces that

maintain it.



Personal Connections

Dieter Lohmar — influenced by Husserl’s model of ‘oriented constitution’35 —

describes the individual’s knowledge growth as an outward movement from one’s

intellectual comfort zones, where the individual engages functionally with the world,

and with physicality as the central point of epistemological reference36. That is to say,

learning and experience emanates away from the body; our familiarity with the world

starts with our physical selves, moves to the space immediately around us, and only

then extends to the greater world. Engagement with the environment is

fundamentally physical and emotional. One’s own culturally formed perspectives are

arbitrary37 as our sense of place is entrenched not in the world but our self; identity

meaning is rooted in our physical beings, while culture is a secondary resource of our

development.

As well as arguing for a model of epistemology that is primarily physical and

emotional, Lohmar also holds that it is a fundamental tendency in any society to self-

organise towards a more orderly system. This involves placing great importance on

unambiguous communication on the part of the individual members of a society.

Regardless of the society we are exploring, we can take for granted that an aspiration

for harmony is universal. When we see, for instance, individuals successfully

managing, negotiating, and prospering within their shared space — keeping to a

minimum what Lohmar refers to as ‘disappointment’38 — we can safely presume that

a self-sufficient, functional culture exists. When we observe harmony in another

culture, where people interact in their own ‘home-world’ knowing ‘beforehand which

motives could lead persons to actions’, even without understanding the details of such

social interactions we can still safely presume that there is an internal logic at work 39.

Knowing a culture has a distinct, yet legitimate, method of maintaining harmony and

reducing ‘disappointments’ can serve as a useful ‘core of familiarity’40.

Following from these two presuppositions — that epistemology is physical, and that

societies are self-organising — Lohmar catalogues activities that are in alliance to



these ‘first principles’. These activities lend themselves to a traveller’s approach to

developing a personal connection with members from different cultures: bodily

performances such as food, drink, and sex, act — potentially even before a shared

spoken language — as a shared reference point and a useful anchor for empathy41.

Furthermore, letting experiences alter us, and adopting other people’s behaviours as

our own, is essential to cultural appreciation and is the catalyst for personal

transformation42. More important than to actually understand the function of cultural

nuances is to appreciate that such cultural nuances exist for a logical reason. While

adopting the form and not the function of a culture might lead to misunderstanding

and even exploitation, remember that even within a culture, origins of social customs

are not always common knowledge (who of us knows for instance why a giant

mythological rabbit distributes eggs and candy to children every year?). The result of

such cultural assimilation is that the barriers between individuals of different

backgrounds become translucent, and what was once alien becomes familiar43.

Physical defamiliarisation, followed by an acknowledgement of the internal logic of

the outside world, can lead to greater empathy. Foundations for a tacit language

include shared bodily performances, understanding how tools are utilised within that

culture to glean their cultural significance, and the adoption of behavioural nuances

specific to the host culture. It is in travel that, untrained in all the nuances of social

interaction of the host culture, we perceive the nuances of our own social conventions.



Temporal Connections

Within travel writing, there is a constant risk of slippage from the brazen investigation

of the individual, to excessive self-affirmation44, and ultimately to hedonism and

shameless racism. To safeguard against this descent into self-congratulation of the

static individual, as Existential (auto) biographers we should celebrate ourselves as

individuals in flux.

Autobiography — journalism of the self — can help us track our personal revolutions

and re-evaluations45, to perform an intellectual and psychological stocktaking, where

we list our prior illusions and what has filled their vacuum. It is a chance for us to

look back at our bad faith with open eyes. Existential autobiography involves self-

erasure46 — a ‘battle ground’ of the Existential crises, a native land where we affirm

the Existential experience and depict our personality. Amongst self-critical

introspection47, the Existential travel narrative and autobiography stand alone as

worthwhile literary events. Finally, as Existential travel writers, we must write — at

the cost of all else, including ourselves — for art.

To ensure a fidelity to the solipsistic cause, as Existential autobiography writers we

may48 use ‘anti-devices’ such as spontaneity, lack of formal structure, lack of closure,

lack of clear moral message and catharsis, and a ‘grammar of disorder’49. We might

approach literature like a guerrilla fighter, destabilising and bringing into question the

very act of portrayal by making the text self-critical and by revealing its inherent

paradoxes. We might use ‘anti-devices’ that frustrate conventional reading of

autobiographical texts and help propagate a model of authenticity as being one where

we are neither static nor self-assured.

Paul Nizan suggests that we should not directly attempt to capture authenticity on

paper and distil our individuality into a narrative — that is impossible. Instead, we

should try writing in multiple third-person voices50 and use intentionally trite

expressions that distance the reader from the individual51. Nizan rejects the bourgeois

habits of introspection and the preoccupation with personal history, preferring instead



a future-oriented approach52, and privileges planning action and thinking of ourselves

in a social context instead of individualistic contemplation53.

Both Nizan and Sartre believe that the content of narration should be extremely close

to the content of the writer: in order to highlight the protagonist’s habitation of a

location in time, for instance, Nizan focuses on the present moment. To emphasise

the protagonist inhabiting a location in a community, he uses multiple perspectives,

characters, and voices. Both Sartre and Nizan are concerned with society or the

individual as gaining meaning through development, with identity as verb rather than

noun. Both are conscious of being in time54. Finally, while at odds with his policy of

demystifying literature, Sartre similarly frustrates our identification with a single

narrator55.

Nizan uniquely brings to the Existential autobiographical project the device of a

continuous frustration of narrative form he refers to as ‘Rupture’56 — a means of

remaining true to the contingency of social and personal reality and avoiding

becoming a perfectionist. Like Sartre, Paul Nizan — whose revolution-oriented

temporality influences the ‘tense’ of his writings, which focus on the present — is

concerned for multiple voices to reflect the writer’s location in a social context, and

uses rupturing devices to frustrate reader-identification with a single, static narrator.

Richie likewise presents his journals in a manner that emphasises the discontinuity of

memory and thought.



Cultural, Personal and Temporal Disconnections

In Heidegger and the Issue of Space, Alejandro Vallega compares exile to a living

death. This comparison is useful in light of the Existentialist ‘ethic’ encouraging

confrontation with mortality. Similarly, according to mystic philosopher-monk from

Saxony, Hugh of St. Victor, the experience of exile is potentially a preparation for

death. In Reflections on Exile, Edward Said quotes Hugh of St Victor, whose model

of the ‘perfect soul’ is also that of an individual in a state of eternal exile:

“It is therefore, a source of great virtue for the practiced mind to learn,

bit by bit, first to change about invisible and transitory things, so that

afterwards it may be able to leave them behind altogether. The man

who finds his homeland sweet is still a tender beginner; he to whom

every soil is as his native one is already strong; but he is perfect to

whom the entire world is a foreign land. The tender soul has fixed his

love on one spot of the world; the strong man has extended his love to

all places; the perfect man has extinguished his.”57

Heidegger’s seems to suggest that mortality and exile will only threaten us if we are

fixated on society and rely on socially constructed meaning. Travel, then, helps us

detach ourselves from the material and social realms58. If we are to survive this

violent process of exile, though, we must do so through a kind of self-engineered

rebirth59. As long as we are in possession of ‘points of reference’ independent from

our community, exile is potentially a positive and life enriching experience.

Writers who have travelled to Japan and made clear their preference for their country

of origin often display a strong, almost debilitating awareness of being a participant in

a tradition of Westerners travelling abroad. This often comes across in their writings

as if the writer is travelling as a scout, an explorer, a pioneer, or adventurer on behalf

of us, the reader. This contrasts the Existential-romantic approach, which is more

concerned with the ongoing, inner, personal-adventure, and which criticises the

external, public adventure enacted on behalf of one’s peers.



Travellers who are tender beginners at heart are overtly conscious of their status as

travellers from a place. At this level of travel writing, there is an obvious

preoccupation with the organisation and delivery of knowledge60, possibly because of

the expectation of the traveller to attain ‘proof’ of their escape to an exotic land61.

One such device is linguistic souvenirs — rhetorical devices such as italicising

foreign words that act to highlight the strangeness of the place the author has visited

and demonstrate his apparent agility in grasping and handling the foreign62. Thus,

tender beginners demonstrate a preoccupation with the mechanisms of writing, with

the ordering of information, and with the rhetoric of travel writing.

Hodson, who continuously anticipates and pre-empts racist views against him, and

Gester, who is hypersensitive to his place in a tradition of travelling to and writing

about Japan, both practice a self-protective irony in order to buffer possible criticism.

In order to excuse any politically incorrect faux pas that they may or may not make,

they litter their work with tongue-in-cheek humour, deliberate clichés, self-effacing

satire, and irony.

Many writers on Japan endeavour to understand their own travel as part of a tradition,

often to the detriment of their experience and their narrative, or become the victims of

their own rhetoric by internalising the negative or neutral Japanese perceptions of

foreigners. Peregrine Hodson — an English investment banker, fluent in Japanese,

who lives briefly in Tokyo — keeps part of his journal on a micro-cassette recorder.

This proves however to be a constant distraction in his interactions with those around

him however — yet instead of concealing the mechanics of his journal keeping, he

makes the very medium a part of the narrative’s rhetoric.

Hodson’s text provides an instance of the traveller’s preoccupation with being

accepted by his host culture. He constantly internalizes the perceived racism and

sense of superiority of those around him and comes across as feeling ‘unworthy’

because of being judged and constantly tested by the Japanese63. Speculations are

scattered throughout his narrative — concerning people’s motives, feelings, body

language, and thoughts64. He struggles to empathise with the Japanese, while also

maintaining an emotionally detached objectivity65. The consequence of this reliance



of belonging means that he is guilty of at least hypocrisy, bad faith, or a conflict of

loyalties66. While he idealises and romanticises the Japanese propensity towards order

and form he continues to create conflict by questioning authority. He likes to see

Japanese people and be Western, to speak English and listen to the Japanese language.

The net result is paranoia67, and a dislocation leading to a fragmentation of identity68.

In The Blue-Eyed Tarokaja, Donald Keene — a noted Japanologist, scholar, teacher,

writer, translator and interpreter of Japanese literature and culture, and who alternates

between the U.S. and Japan — portrays himself as a foreigner that has managed to

feel as if Japan is either his secondary or primary home69. He treats Japan’s attraction

and his decision to dedicate his life to its study lightly70. As a result, perhaps, of a

lack of tension regarding his location and belonging71, his relationship with Japan is in

fact rather bland. After immersing himself in Japanese culture and making it his

professional, academic, and social obsession, Keene could be read as comparing duel

patriotism to polygamy — where his ‘marriage’ to Japan is more rewarding than his

marriage to the United States72. Keene’s status as a specialist of ancient Japanese

literature, possessing esoteric knowledge not available to the majority of the Japanese,

and his subsequent belonging to an international Academic community, could be the

reason behind his sense of belonging.

Keene explores and interrogates the belief that one must have a single home that is

located in one’s country of birth, and criticises the popular beliefs that one cannot

‘adopt’ another country or ‘fit into’ Japan. Keene is blasé about Japanese

xenophobia. In addition, when he speaks of Westerners in Japan, his descriptions are

concerned with the driving force behind such Japanophiles within an historical

context73.

McKenna is antagonistic towards ‘Perfect Souls’ and presumes that it is possible to

believe in separate and potentially contradictory ideologies, avoiding difference. He is

an example of Hugh of St. Victor’s ‘Strong Soul’, ‘to whom every soil is as his native

one [, and who] has extended his love to all places’74.



Donald Richie is an American-born author and keen observer of the Japanese, who

has lived in Japan for more than fifty years, and has written extensively on Japanese

cinema, his wanderings throughout Japan, and his encounters with people. Richie has

authored a massive variety of writing, including a huge body of work in cinema

studies.

Richie’s approach to cultural understanding clearly privileges engagement with the

locals over construction of theoretical models. His guides include a young girl who

tells him about a local Shinto Shrine, an angler’s son that takes him on a trip in his

boat to a small island, or the angler himself telling a story. His encounters with

people are spontaneous, spur of the moment, unplanned, and he always takes up

invitations. He is a patient Functional Anthropologist, attuned to both the nuances of

the language and of etiquette. There is also a degree of rupture — that is, the

frustration of narrative form75 — here: his encounters are random and his

conversations are broken up with brief history lessons.

Richie’s journey through the Inland Sea and its people76 is both a physical and

historical quest77. His descriptions of the inhabitants of the Inland Sea as possessing a

dying way of life recalls a tendency, popular amongst the West, to romanticise the

terminus of a species, ethnic group, or culture that the West has typically engineered.

Turning such living finales into an attraction inevitably encourages — and through

tourism hastens — their demise78. However, Richie also appears to appreciate the

inevitable movement of Japan as a nation, a sense of the history of the place, and of

the movement of time79. He understands the role of history80, comments on his place

in that history, and of his instinct to try to navigate it. Amidst his nostalgia and

sentimentality, Richie is intent on matching his own pace with that of the locals. In

The Inland Sea, Donald Richie, usually a resident of busy Tokyo, escapes from this

tendency, and through the inclusion of multiple voices, Richie journeys to the lightly

populated region of Seto Naikai and is consequently able to understand Japan as

simultaneously both urban and rural.



Richie’s critical comparisons between the Greek Isles and the Inland Sea81 assist in

establishing a familiar reference point from which he then diverges. He also provides

a plurality of Japanese views by considering the contrasting perspectives the Japanese

‘mainlanders’ and ‘islanders’ hold towards the Inland Sea82. Very quickly, Richie

establishes the very body of water as a contested site, and gives multiple readings of

the region and its meaning, allowing readers to establish their own connection and a

sense of shared ownership.

Richie’s use of Western icons like Jane Austin and Wordsworth to access the Inland

Sea suggests a conscious employment of specific worldviews to ‘read’ Japan.

Furthermore, by accessing Japan and conversely the West using Japanese and

Western iconic individuals, Richie shows numerous opportunities for healthy

intercultural compatibility and mutual enrichment. While Richie constantly compares

the United States with Japan, he demonstrates a willingness to assimilate much of

what he has learned of Japanese culture — and in the process learns and reveals much

about both Western morality and himself83.

Richie values being an outsider in Japan84 and believes that regardless of how long he

spends in Japan85, this is how things will always be. He is content with, and often

celebratory of, his subsequent independence86 and freedom. His lack of alignment

and his status as a freelancer only accentuates this87. Similar to Keene, Richie shares

— through his extensive knowledge of Japanese cinema — a privileged and respected

position as an expert in his field. Richie even makes mention of Hugh of St. Victor’s

famous paragraph88. He lives in Japan not in spite of being an outsider but because of

it89, and he knows this90.

While Richie is not strictly an Existentialist, but rather a humanist, his work is

comparable to that of the Existentialists. His mantra that the ‘ostensible is the real’

recalls Sartre’s statement that ‘the appearance does not hide the essence, it reveals it;

it is the essence’91. Yet Richie takes Sartre’s mantra further by suggesting that that

there is no essence92. Rather than suggesting the Japanese are superficial, Richie



speaks objectively of a social reality93. He holds essentialism in disdain and

endeavours to develop his further self-awareness through travel94. Richie is an

example of one who possesses the traits of an Existential traveller-hero.

Hugh wrote his as part of an anti-materialistic, transcendental manifesto that

encourages us to abandon our worldly objects in preparation for the immaterial

afterlife. By surrendering ownership of and association with a particular place,

specifically the homeland, we will be more adequately prepared, spiritually and

psychologically, to abandon the entire world. While this is in complete contrast to

secular and sensual Existentialism, it does provide a useful guide for us to position

ourselves, as travellers, in an Existential context, since a confrontation with morality

and a detachment from social morality and obligations, are both necessary steps

towards authenticity and are compatible with Hugh’s philosophy of worldly

abandonment. Existentialism is furthermore an anti-nationalistic philosophy that

encourages us to become, like Hugh’s ‘Perfect Soul’, ‘world citizens’.



Conclusion

The inner and outer journey — the struggle towards authenticity and the physical

travel — share many parallels, and Existentialism and Phenomenology are compatible

with, and supportive of, a model of travel. This mutual support is visible in a study of

Western narratives of a site contested both internally and externally — Japan. The

Existential travel model is a means to authenticity, and use of Existentialist precepts

results in a richer travel experience. Rather than homogenising various ontologies, we

can instead engage with, and empathise with, the ontologies of other cultures, using

the apparatus of Phenomenology.

Through a use of Structuralism in intercultural encounters, identity can be trapped,

personal development arrested, and experience of other people and places limited.

Attempting to access another culture through the origins of its common ideologies

does not help us understand the continuation of traditions and values, and can lead to

an ignorance of any existing challenges to, and tensions resulting from, the

maintenance of such cultural elements in the present.

Historical Anthropology ‘naturalises’ sometimes violent or contentious ideologies and

traditions. Functional Anthropology, however, highlights the artificiality of culture.

Existentialism maintains that, compared to a subjective exploration of culture, a

theoretical understanding of the foundations of a culture is inevitably inadequate, and

that we can only understand cultures satisfactorily through our self-conscious

physicality. Individuals and groups embrace or reject particular trends not for

nostalgia, according to Functional Anthropology, but for their practical value.

Situated Objectivity offers a further anthropological approach — that rather than

exchanging cultural partiality from our original culture to that of our hosts, we allow

the host’s and our own native cultural ‘truths’ to exist simultaneously.



Phenomenology describes individual learning as occurring through physical

experience. We should thus explore foreign environments emotionally and tactilely.

Phenomenology also argues that time facilitates intercultural connection. It is the

ability to anticipate the future, for instance, that makes us human. Existentialists such

as Sartre privilege our constant act of future construction over the past. Existential

critics and writers concur that autobiographies must avoid focusing on the individual

of the present, and instead on the individual as constantly changing. Existential

autobiographies should thus plot the ever-changing individual, and by extension,

travel should be a tool for self-maturation where events constantly infringe on the

traveller’s identity, and where we are ‘colonised’ by the experience.

Frequent comparisons between exile and death suggest travel is a useful prototype for

dying and may help us confront our own mortality. Our preparedness for death, and

thus how well our travel experiences have helped us develop into a more authentic

individual, can be measured by studying our fixation on a sense of place or culture,

using Hugh of St. Victor’s model of three souls. The first ‘soul model’ — the Tender

Soul — belongs to us if we show a clear preference for our country of origin, are

usually preoccupied with the ordering and communication of our experiences and

might be subject to ‘exchanged partiality’. The second ‘soul model’ — the Strong

Soul — is a spiritual ‘dual citizen’ for whom both the traveller’s host and native

worlds are equivalent, and who has instead chosen a ‘situated objectivity’. The third

and Perfect Soul finds themselves spiritual residents of no land, whose loss of

‘naivety of the cultural natural attitude’ is absolute and universal.



References

Schoenberg, Thomas J. and Trudeau, Lawrence J. (eds.) ‘The Influence of Ernest Hemingway: Introduction’. 2006. Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Retrieved 18 Apr 2008, from http://www.enotes.com/twentieth-century-criticism/influence-ernest-hemingway .

‘Iris Murdoch (1919-1999) - in Full Dame Jean Iris Murdoch, Married Name Mrs. J.O. Bailey’. 2003. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/imurdoch.htm .

‘Powell’s Books - Stoner (New York Review Books Classics) by John Edward Williams’. Retrieved 20 April 2008 from http://www.powells.com/biblio/1-1590171993-0 .

‘A Structuralist Approach to the Outsider: Cross Damon as an Existential Hero.’ Nihon Joshi Daigaku Eibei Bungaku Kenkyu. 30 (1995): 107-21.

Abbeele, Georges Van Den. Travel as Metaphor: From Montaigne to Rousseau. Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press, c1992.

Abe, Kobo. The Woman in the Dunes. Trans. E. Edale Saunders. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1988.

Adams, Timothy Dow. Light Writing & Life Writing: Photography in Autobiography. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, c2000.

Allison, Anne. Nightwork: Sexuality, Pleasure, and Corporate Masculinity in a Tokyo Hostess Club. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Arnason, Johann and Sugimoto, Yoshio (ed.), Japanese Encounters with Postmodernity.

Azerrad, Michael. ‘Mudhoney’. Our Band Could Be Your Life. New York: Back Bay Books, 2001.

Backer, Sara American Fuji: A Novel. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, c2001.

Barnes, Hazel E. (Hazel Estella). The Story I Tell Myself: A Venture in Existentialist Autobiography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.

Barrett, William. Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958.

Barry, Dave. Dave Barry Does Japan. Ballantine Books, 1993.

Barthes, Roland. Empire of Signs. New York: Hill and Wang, 1982.

Bernasconi, Robert (ed.), Race and Racism in Continental Philosophy. Bloomington Indiana University Press, 2003.



http://www.powells.com/biblio/1-1590171993-0

http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/imurdoch.htm

http://www.enotes.com/twentieth-century-criticism/influence-ernest-hemingway

Besemeres, Mary. Translating One’s Self: Language and Selfhood in Cross-Cultural Autobiography. Oxford Peter Lang, c2002.

Billioux, Christopher. ‘Death of a Hero, Self-Creation of a Hero: An Exposition and Synthesis of Nietzschean and Sartrean Philosophy’. 1999. (7/15/05). Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.nsula.edu/scholars/Alumni/Thesis/Thesisabstracts/HSTtheses/CBillioux.html .

Bodley, Ronald Victor Courtenay. A Japanese Omelette: A British Writer’s Impressions on the Japanese Empire. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1933.

Boey, Kim Cheng. ‘Journey without End: The Existential Journey in Contemporary Travel Writing.’ NUS, 1994.

Booth, Alan. Looking for the Lost: Journeys through a Vanishing Japan. New York Kodansha International, 1995.

---. Roads to Sata: A 2000-Mile Walk through Japan. Harmondsworth, Middlesex Viking, 1986.

Bowman, James. ‘Absolute Power’. 1997. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.eppc.org/publications/pubID.453/pub_detail.asp .

---. ‘Movie Reviews: Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy’. 2005. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.jamesbowman.net/reviewDetail.asp?pubID=1613 .

Bradley, Adam Davenport. ‘Existential Hero’. 1994. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://cs-people.bu.edu/artdodge/pete/pete-eh.html .

Breton, André. Nadja. Paris: Librairie Gallimard, c1928.

Brownell, Clarence Ludlow. The Heart of Japan: Glimpses of Life and Nature Far from the Travellers’ Track in the Land of the Rising Sun. London: Methuen, 1903.

Buruma, Ian A Japanese Mirror : Heroes and Villains of Japanese Culture. London Cape, 1984.

Calichman, Richard F. (ed.), Contemporary Japanese Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, c2005.

Carey, Peter. Wrong About Japan: A Father’s Journey with His Son. London Faber & Faber 2005.

Carr, David and Chan-Fai, Cheung (ed.), Space, Time, and Culture. London: Kluwer Academic, 2004.

Castaneda, Carlos. The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Chard, Chloe. Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography, 1600-1830. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999.

Charmé, Stuart L. Vulgarity and Authenticity: Dimensions of Otherness in the World of Jean-Paul



http://cs-people.bu.edu/artdodge/pete/pete-eh.html

http://cs-people.bu.edu/artdodge/pete/pete-eh.html

http://www.jamesbowman.net/reviewDetail.asp?pubID=1613

http://www.eppc.org/publications/pubID.453/pub_detail.asp

http://www.nsula.edu/scholars/Alumni/Thesis/Thesisabstracts/HSTtheses/CBillioux.html

Sartre. University of Massachusetts Press, 1991.

Clammer, John. Difference and Modernity: Social Theory and Contemporary Japanese Society. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.

Clammer, John (ed.), Figured Worlds: Ontological Obstacles in Intercultural Relations. Toronto University of Toronto Press, 2004.

Clark, Steven (ed.), Travel Writing and Empire: Postcolonial Theory in Transit. New York Zed Books 1999.

Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Coffin, Justin. ‘The End of the Story’. 1998. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.citypaper.net/articles/052198/rev.bks.shtml .

Cogswell, David. ‘Martin Luther King and Existential Politics’. 2003. (January 17, 2003). Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.davidcogswell.com/Essays/KingExistential.html .

Cohen, Anthony P. Self Consciousness: An Alternative Anthropology of Identity. New York: Routledge, 1994.

Cooke, Douglas. ‘Literary Criticism’. 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.richardandmimi.com/litcrit.html .

Craig, Timothy J. (ed.), Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, c2000.

Crichton, Michael. Rising Sun. New York: Knopf, 1992.

Cruz Smith, Martin. December 6. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002.

Dale, Peter N. The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness. London: Croom Helm, c1986.

Davis-Gardner, Angela. Plum Wine: A Novel. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, Terrace Books, c2006.

Dawson, Paul. Creative Writing and the New Humanities. London: Routledge, 2005.

DeMente, Boye Lafayette The Japanese Have a Word for It: The Complete Guide to Japanese Thought and Culture. Passport Books, 1997.

Duffy, Jennifer and Anson, Gary (ed.), Encounters with Japan: Twenty Extraordinary Stories. Pymble, N.S.W.: Angus & Robertson, 1994.

Duncan, James and Gregory, Derek. Writes of Passage: Reading Travel Writing. London: Routledge, 1999.



http://www.richardandmimi.com/litcrit.html

http://www.davidcogswell.com/Essays/KingExistential.html

http://www.citypaper.net/articles/052198/rev.bks.shtml

Duras, Marguerite. Hiroshima Mon Amour. Trans. Richard Seaver. New York: Grove Press, c1961.

Edelstein, David. ‘‘World Trade Center’ Is Atypical Stone’. 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2008, from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/08/12/sunday/main1890203.shtml .

Elmhirst, Richard Mounteney Jephson & Edward Pennell. Our Life in Japan

embers. ‘Mal the Existential Hero’. 2005. Retrieved 19 April 2008 from http://www.fireflyfans.net/sunroomitem.asp?i=4482 .

Enright, Dennis. World of Dew: Aspects of Living Japan. Charles E. Tuttle 1956.

Ferguson, Will Hitching Rides with Buddha: A Journey across Japan. Canada: Knopf 2005.

Ferguson, Will. Hokkaido Highway Blues: Hitchhiking Japan. New York, NY: Soho Press, c1998.

Field, Norma. In the Realm of a Dying Emperor. New York: Pantheon Books, c1991.

Fussel, Paul. Abroad: British Literary Travelling between the Wars. Oxford: OUP, 1980

Gerster, Robin. Legless in Ginza: Orientating Japan. Carlton, Vic: Melbourne University Press, 1999.

Gibson, William. Idoru. New York G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1996.

Gilbert Haring, Douglas Land of Gods and Earthquakes.

Glanville, Brian Kissing America : A Novel. London: Blond, 1985.

Gluck, Carol. Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1985.

Golomb, Jacob. In Search of Authenticity: From Kierkegaard to Camus. Routledge, 1995.

Golownin, Captain Narrative of My Captivity in Japan: During the Years 1811, 1812 &1813; with Observations on the Country and the People.

Gordon Smith, Richard. The Japan Diaries of Richard Gordon Smith. Kensington, London: Rainbird, 1986.

Greene, Norman N. (Norman Nathaniel). Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existentialist Ethic. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press [1960].

Greenfield, Karl Taro. Speed Tribes. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.

Grossmann, Reinhardt. Phenomenology and Existentialism: An Introduction. London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1984.



http://www.fireflyfans.net/sunroomitem.asp?i=4482

http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/08/12/sunday/main1890203.shtml

Gudmundsdóttir, Gunnthorunn. Borderlines: Autobiography and Fiction in Postmodern Life Writing. Amsterdam; New York: Rodopi, 2003.

Guignon, Charles and Pereboom, Derk (ed.), Existentialism: Basic Writings. Indianapolis: Hackett, c2001.

Hall, Ivan P. Cartels of the Mind: Japan’s Intellectual Closed Shop. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., c1998.

Haring, Douglas G. (Douglas Gilbert). The Land of Gods and Earthquakes. New York: Columbia University Press, 1929.

Hearn, Lafcadio. Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1894.

Hejmadi, Padma. Room to Fly: A Transcultural Memoir. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1999.

Hendry, Joy (ed.), Interpreting Japanese Society: Anthropological Approaches. New York Routledge, 1998.

Hillis, Ben. Japan - Behind the Lines. Sydney: Hodder Headline, 1996.

Hodson, Peregrine. A Circle Round the Sun: A Foreigner in Japan. London: William Heinemann, 1992.

Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, c1996.

Igarashi, Yoshikuni. Bodies of Memory: Narratives of War in Postwar Japanese Culture, 1945-1970. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Isida, Ryuziro. Geography of Japan. Tokyo: Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, 1961.

Islam, Syed Manzurul. The Ethics of Travel: From Marco Polo to Kafka. New York St. Martin’s Press, 1996.

Ivy, Marilyn. Discourses of the Vanishing: Modernity, Phantasm, Japan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Iwabuchi, Koichi. Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Durham Duke University Press, 2002.

Jephson, R. Mounteney (Richard Mounteney). Our Life in Japan. London: Ganesha Pub, 2002.

Judd, The Brothers. ‘Review of Albert Camus’s the Stranger’. 2000. Retrieved 19 April 2008 from http://www.brothersjudd.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/reviews.detail/book_id/1046/Stranger.htm .



http://www.brothersjudd.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/reviews.detail/book_id/1046/Stranger.htm

Keefe, Terry and Smyth, Edmund. Autobiography and the Existential Self: Studies in Modern French Writing. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1995.

Keene, Donald. The Blue-Eyed Tarokaja: A Donald Keene Anthology. Ed. J. Thomas Rimer. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.

Kemerling, Garth. (27 October 2001). Retrieved 20 April 2009, from http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/7b.htm .

Kenrick, Vivienne. Tokyo Days Tokyo: Kinokuniya Book-Store Co, 1956

Kerouac, Jack. The Dharma Bums. New York: Viking Press, 1958.

Kerr, Alex. Dogs and Demons: Tales from the Dark Side of Japan. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001.

Kosaku, Yoshino. Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan: A Sociological Enquiry. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Kotarba, Joseph A. and Fontana, Andrea (ed.), The Existential Self in Society. Chicago University of Chicago Press, c1984.

Lee, Don. Country of Origin: A Novel New York: W.W. Norton & Co., c2004.

Leed, Eric J. The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books, c1991.

Littlewood, Ian. The Idea of Japan: Western Images, Western Myths. London: Secker & Warburg, 1996.

Loftus, Ronald P. (ed.), Telling Lives: Women’s Self-Writing in Modern Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, c2004.

Macias, Patrick and Machiyana, Tomohiro (ed.), Cruising the Anime City: An Otaku Guide to Neo Tokyo. Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2004.

Marsella, Anthony J. and DeVos, George, and Hsu, Francis L.K. (ed.), Culture and Self: Asian and Western Perspectives. New York: Tavistock Publications, 1985.

McCauley, Edward Yorke. With Perry in Japan : The Diary of Edward Y. Mccauley. Ed. Allan B. Cole. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1942.

McCulloch, Gregory. Using Sartre - an Analytical Introduction to Early Sartrean Themes. New York: Routledge, 1994.

McGregor, Richard. Japan Swings: Politics, Culture and Sex in the New Japan. St Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 1996.



http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/7b.htm

Memmi, Albert. The Colonizer and the Colonized. Trans. Howard Greenfeld. London: Earthscan, 1990.

Menaker, Daniel. ‘Hollywood Tries to Get Real’. 1999. culturebox: Arts, entertainment, and more. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.slate.com/id/1003083/ .

Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. Trans. Colin Smith. London Routledge & Kegan Paul, 2002.

Milton, Giles. Samurai William: The Adventurer Who Unlocked Japan. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2002.

Milward, Peter. Oddities in Modern Japan: Observations of an Outsider. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, c1980.

Miyoshi, Masao, and Harootunian, H.D. (ed.), Japan in the World. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993.

Morikawa, Kathleen. Japan from North to South. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, 1982.

Morley, John David. Pictures from the Water Trade: An Englishman in Japan. London: A. Deutsch, 1985.

Morris, John. The Phoenix Cup: Some Notes on Japan in 1946. London: Cresset Press.

Naff, Clayton. About Face: How I Stumbled onto Japan’s Social Revolution. New York, N.Y.: Kodansha International, 1994.

Nakane, Chie. Japanese Society. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970.

Nathan, John. Japan Unbound: A Volatile Nation’s Quest for Pride and Purpose. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2004.

Notehelfer, F.G. American Samurai: Captain L.L. Janes and Japan. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1985.

Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. Kamikazes, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalism : The Militarization of Aesthetics in Japanese History.

Olson, Robert Goodwin. An Introduction to Existentialism. Courier Dove Publications, 1962.

Passin, Herbert. Encounter with Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd, 1982.

Pearce, Jean. Foot-Loose in Tokyo: The Curious Traveller’s Guide to the 29 Stages of the Yamonote Line. New York: Weatherhill, 1976.

Powers, Richard Gid and Kat?o, Hidetoshi (ed.), Handbook of Japanese Popular Culture. New York: Greenwood Press, c1989.



http://www.slate.com/id/1003083/

Reid, T.R. Confucius Lives Next Door: What Living in the East Teaches Us About Living in the West . New York: Random House, 1999.

Reingold, Edwin M. Chrysanthemums and Thorns: The Untold Story of Modern Japan. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.

Richie, Donald. The Honourable Visitors. Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 1994.

Richie, Donald and Silva, Arturo. Donald Richie Reader: 50 Years of Writing on Japan Stone Bridge Press, 2001.

Robertson, George (ed.), Travellers’ Tales: Narratives of Home and Displacement. London; New York: Routledge, 1994.

Ruotolo, Lucio P. Six Existential Heroes: The Politics of Faith. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.

Said, Edward W. Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000.

Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness : An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. Trans. Hazel E. Barnes. London: Methuen, 1969.

---. Colonialism and Neocolonialism. New York Routledge, 2001.

---. Essays in Existentialism. Ed. Wade Baskin. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel, 1965.

---. Literature & Existentialism. Trans. Bernard Frechtman. New York: Citadel Press, 1949.

Schilling, Mark. The Encyclopedia of Japanese Pop Culture. New York: Weatherhill, 1997.

Sexton, Timothy. ‘Fight Club and the Existential Hero’. 2006 Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/29417/fight_club_and_the_existential_hero.html .

Shapiro, Michael. Japan: In the Land of the Brokenhearted. New York H. Holt, c1989.

Sladen, Douglas. The Japs at Home. London: Hutchinson, 1893.

Solnit, Rebecca. A Field Guide to Getting Lost. New York: Viking, 2005.

Spanos, William V. ‘Wanna Go Home Baby?: Sweeneyy Agonistes as Drama of the Absurd.’ PMLA January 1970: 8-20

Spanos, William V. (ed.), Casebook on Existentialism 2. New York: T. Y. Crowell, c1976.

Sugimoto, Yoshio. Introduction to Japanese Society. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.



http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/29417/fight_club_and_the_existential_hero.html

Suzuki, David T. Japan We Never Knew: A Journey of Discovery. St Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 1996.

TheFallen. ‘The Ultimate Tragic Hero’. 2003. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/20/messages/769.html .

Treat, John Whittier (ed.), Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996.

Ueda, Atsushi (ed.), The Electric Geisha: Exploring Japan’s Popular Culture. Trans. Miriam Eguchi. New York: Kodansha America, 1994.

Ussher, Arland. Journey through Dread: A Study of Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Sartre. Biblo and Tannen, 1968.

Vallega, Alejandro A. Heidegger and the Issue of Space: Thinking on Exilic Grounds. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, c2003.

Venables, E. K. (Ernest Kendrick). Behind the Smile in Real Japan. London: G. G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1936.

Whiting, Robert. Tokyo Underworld: The Fast Times and Hard Life of an American Gangster in Japan. New York: Pantheon Books, c1999.

Williams, Carol Traynor (ed.), Travel Culture: Essays on What Makes Us Go. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998.

Williams, Jean and Harold. West Meets East: The Foreign Experience of Japan. Rushcutters Bay, N.S.W.: Halstead Press, 1996.

Winslow, Donald J. Life-Writing: A Glossary of Terms in Biography, Autobiography, and Related Forms. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, c1980.

Wirth-Nesher, Hana (ed.), New Essays on Call It Sleep. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Wolferen, Karel Van. The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation. London: Macmillan London, 1989.

Woodend, Dorothy. ‘The Emptiness of Geek Chic’. 2005. Retrieved 19 April 2008, from http://thetyee.ca/Entertainment/2005/08/05/GeekChic/ .

Zahavi, Dan. (ed.), Self-Awareness, Temporality, and Alterity: Central Topics in Phenomenology. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, c1998.



http://thetyee.ca/Entertainment/2005/08/05/GeekChic/

http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/20/messages/769.html

Endnotes



1 Greene, Norman N. Jean-Paul Sartre: The Existentialist Ethic. p 21-2.2 Spanos, William ‘Wanna Go Home Baby?: Sweeneyy Agonistes as Drama of the Absurd.’ 3 Cogswell, David. ‘Martin Luther King and Existential Politics’. 4 Menaker, Daniel. ‘Hollywood Tries to Get Real’. 5 Bowman, James. ‘Absolute Power’. 6 Coffin, Justin. ‘The End of the Story’. 7 Sexton, Timothy. ‘Fight Club and the Existential Hero’. 8 embers. ‘Mal the Existential Hero’. 9 Bowman, James. ‘Movie Reviews: Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy’.10 ‘A Structuralist Approach to the Outsider: Cross Damon as an Existential Hero.’11 ‘Powell’s Books - Stoner (New York Review Books Classics) by John Edward Williams’.12 Edelstein, David. ‘‘World Trade Center’ Is Atypical Stone’.13 TheFallen. ‘The Ultimate Tragic Hero’.14 Judd, The Brothers. ‘Review of Albert Camus’s the Stranger’.15 Bradley, Adam Davenport. ‘Existential Hero’.16 Billioux, Christopher. ‘Death of a Hero, Self-Creation of a Hero: An Exposition and Synthesis of Nietzschean and Sartrean Philosophy’17 Cooke, Douglas. ‘Literary Criticism’.18 Charmé, Stuart L. Vulgarity and Authenticity: Dimensions of Otherness in the World of Jean-Paul Sartre. 19 Charmé op. cit. p 12.20 Olson, Robert Goodwin. An Introduction to Existentialism. p 139.21 Charmé op. cit. p 232.22 Greene op. cit. p 37.23 Ibid., p 17.24 Ibid., p 36.25 Ibid., p 37.26 Kotarba, Joseph A. and Fontana, Andrea [Eds.]. The Existential Self in Society. pp 4-5.27 Greene op. cit. pp 5-6.28 Ussher, Arland. Journey through Dread: A Study of Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Sartre. p 22.29 Dale, Peter N. The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness. p 19.30 Gluck, Carol. Japan’s Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period. p 8.31 Iwabuchi, Koichi. Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. p 3.32 Ibid., p 11.33 Kerr, Alex. Dogs and Demons: Tales from the Dark Side of Japan. p 37.34 Naff, Clayton. About Face: How I Stumbled onto Japan’s Social Revolution. p 12.35 Carr, David and Chan-Fai, Cheung [Eds.]. Space, Time, and Culture. p 2.36 Zahavi, Dan. [Ed.]. Self-Awareness, Temporality, and Alterity: Central Topics in Phenomenology. p 209.37 Ibid., p 209.38 Ibid., p 212.39 Ibid., p 214.40 Ibid., pp 214-216.41 Ibid., p 215.42 Ibid., pp 218-219.43 Ibid., p 18.44 Keefe, Terry and Smyth, Edmund. Autobiography and the Existential Self: Studies in Modern French Writing. p 15.45 Ibid., p 103.46 Ibid., p 19-21.47 Barrett, William. Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy p 267.48 Keefe and Smyth op. cit. p 32.49 Ibid., p 15.50 Ibid., pp 103-104.51 Ibid., p 108.

52 Ibid., p 152.53 Ibid., p 106-107.54 Kemerling, Garth.55 Keefe and Smyth op. cit. p 29.56 Ibid., p 104-105.57 Said, Edward W. Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. p 365.58 Clark, Steven [Ed.]. Travel Writing and Empire: Postcolonial Theory in Transit. p 13.59 Vallega, Alejandro A. Heidegger and the Issue of Space: Thinking on Exilic Grounds. pp xi, xii.60 Chard, Chloe. Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour: Travel Writing and Imaginative Geography, 1600-1830. pp 9-10.61 Ibid., p vii.62 Ibid., p 4.63 Hodson, Peregrine. A Circle Round the Sun: A Foreigner in Japan. pp 8-9.64 Ibid., p 178.65 Ibid., p 227.66 Ibid., pp 26-27.67 Ibid., p 56.68 Ibid., pp 67, 167-168.69 Keene, Donald. The Blue-Eyed Tarokaja: A Donald Keene Anthology. p 272.70 Ibid., p 6.71 Ibid., p 274.72 Ibid., p 280.73 Ibid., p 79-80.74 Said p 365.75 Keefe and Smyth op. cit. p 104-105.76 Richie Inland Sea op. cit. p 22.77 Ibid., p 22-23.78 Ibid., p 14-15.79 Ibid., p 16, 22.80 Ibid., p 76.81 Ibid., p 13.82 Ibid., p 14.83 Donald Richie Reader op. cit. p ix.84 Richie, Inland Sea op. cit. p 48.85 Ibid., p 83.86 Donald Richie Reader op. cit. p 5.87 Ibid., p xi.88 Ibid., p 5.89 Ibid., p x.90 Ibid., p 48.91 Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. p xxii.92 Donald Richie Reader op. cit. p xii.93 Ibid., p xxvi.94 Ibid., p ix.

an existential guide to travel

Documents