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Correspondence
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Ethnobotany Research & Applications 6:063-085 (2008)
My Lien Thi Nguyen, Environmental Studies Program, Biology Department, Box 731, Vassar College, 124 Raymond Avenue, Poughkeepsie, NY 12604. U.S.A.mylien.t.nguyen@gmail.com
Katherine T. Doherty, Department of Botany, University of Hawai`i, Honolulu, Hawai`i 96822. U.S.A. Julia Wieting, Department of Anthropology, University of Hawai`i, Honolulu, Hawai`i, 96822. U.S.A.
est number of foreign-born residents in eight decades (Camarota 2005). This culturally rich population will un-doubtedly have a big impact on food choices in the U.S. due to the strong link between food and ethnicity (Kalcik 1984). Food markets are an important venue to study the dynamic use of plants by ethnic and immigrant commu-nities (Nguyen 2005b, Pemberton & Lee 1996, Porter-field Jr. 1951, Wang & Lo 2007, Whitaker & Cutler 1966). The market acts to bring people of similar culinary tradi-tions together as they provide the ingredients necessary for cuisine, which contributes to one’s sense of ethnicity (Cunningham 2001, You-Kai et al. 2004). They are also an area where people of similar cultural backgrounds can meet, exchange information and reinforce community ties (Carter 1988). Because the growing immigrant popula-tion will continue to have an effect on food plant diver-sity in the U.S., ethnobotanical studies for empirical data and analysis of ethnic markets and on food plant use are important to understand and address the needs of an in-creasingly diverse U.S. population.
At 17.2%, Hawai`i ranks fifth for states with the highest percentage of immigrants in the total population (Cama-
Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
My Lien Thi Nguyen, Julia Wieting and Katherine T. DohertyResearch
Abstract
The growing cultural diversity in the United States calls attention to ethnobotanical studies of urban ethnic food markets. These venues illustrate dynamic interactions between people and plants. A market survey of the Chi-natown markets in Honolulu, Hawai`i was conducted to collect empirical data on this culturally rich urban area. The objectives included: (1) To analyze the food plant richness of selected Chinatown markets in comparison to local mainstream supermarkets; and (2) To test the use of vegetation analysis to describe the structure of these markets (e.g., “ethnic markets”). Surveys and mapping of food plants at three market areas in Chinatown and three mainstream supermarkets were conducted between Feb-ruary and March 2006. Microsoft Excel and the Communi-ty Analysis Package programs were used to analyze and compare plant richness and the structure of vendors and markets. In all of the markets combined, 291 “fresh” food plant varieties were recorded, representing 42 plant fami-lies and a group of fungi. The mainstream supermarkets were more rich in varieties of food plants than the China-town market area (mean ± s, 144 ± 21 vs. 95 ± 23, p=0.05, Mann-Whitney U test). Allium cepa L. and Allium sativum L. were ubiquitous. The Mainstream market group con-tained significantly more sweet-fruits than the Chinatown market areas. Agglomerate cluster analyses revealed groupings of mainstream supermarkets, Chinatown mar-ket areas; further analysis of the Chinatown areas defined culturally identified “Filipino,” “Vietnamese,” and specialty fruits vendors. Mainstream supermarkets may be viewed as “generalists” while the Chinatown market areas and vendors may be viewed as “specialists” for an ethnic or cultural group or food plant commodity.
Introduction
In 2005, 35 million immigrants lived in the United States. That equates to 12% of U.S. population, and the high-
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rota 2005). Although Hawai`i is an area of high cultural and ethnic diversity, ethnobotanical information regarding its food markets is antiquated (Chung & Ripperton 1929); limited in breadth by focusing on a particular ethnic group (Nguyen 2006, Wester & Chuensanguansat 1994), plant form or taxa (Nguyen 2005a, Staples & Kristiansen 1999); or otherwise written for popular audiences (Bonk 1993, Kendrick 1999).
The Chinatown market and its surrounding historic dis-trict, in downtown Honolulu, has long been a gateway to Hawai`i for many immigrants from Asia. The first arrival of Chinese to Hawai`i was in 1789, but it was the arrival in 1852 of contract laborers needed for the growing sugar industry that led to the development of Chinatown. These early Chinese immigrants built stores to support the social and consumer needs of their Chinese community. Today Chinatown is known for its colorful and eclectic blend of many cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, Hawaiian, Jap-anese, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese (Carter 1988). Cul-tural groups have described it as an important place for fa-miliar traditional foods and contributing to their happiness with living in Honolulu (Nguyen 2003, Wester & Chuen-sanguansat 1994).
Yet, in an urban environment, people may have the op-tion of going to a mainstream supermarket to buy their foods. We pose the question: To what extent do these mainstream supermarkets provide the same food plants available in the ethnic markets? Few market surveys have considered this non-ethnic counterpart to the ethnic mar-kets (Pemberton & Lee 1996). To begin to understand the function of ethnic markets in relation to the mainstream supermarkets within an ethnically diverse community, we carried out a market survey and comparison of the food plant richness found in the Chinatown markets and main-stream supermarkets in Honolulu, Hawai`i.
Market studies typically include descriptive statistics to describe the richness and diversity of plant resources available (earlier cited market studies). Vegetation analy-sis applied in ecological studies is used to describe, map and analyze communities of plants to determine the fac-tors that control their presence and distribution (Causton 1988). Williams et al. (2000) used an ecological approach to analyze species richness and diversity of a medicinal market in Africa and conclude that the regional ethnic di-versity probably contributes to the diversity of medicinal plants available at the market. Salick et al. (2006) also employed a presence/absence analysis of plants in their study of Tibetan medicine plurality. While these studies focused on medicinal plants, we have found no market studies using an ecological approach to describe the simi-larities or associations of food markets with regard to their plant taxa and ethnic or cultural identity of the market or individual market stall (or vendor).
Our objective in this study is to apply vegetation analy-sis to a food market survey. Often people describe indi-vidual vendors by an ethnic identifier, such as the “Chi-nese-,” “Filipino-,” or “Vietnamese-shop” (Yim 1998). We are interested in using a vegetation analysis to search for evidence that individual vendors in Chinatown represent ethnic or cultural shops that are identifiable by: (1) cultural indicator species (Garibaldi & Turner 2004), food plants present in culturally specific cuisines (Nguyen 2007, Tan 2003); or (2) cultural plant assemblages, which are as-semblages of food plants characteristic or culturally rec-ognized for certain cuisines or food (Nguyen 2006, Rozin 1973). An example of a cultural plant assemblage would be a Vietnamese vendor typically sells a specific assem-blage of aromatic herbs used for a Vietnamese noodle soup.
Methods
Our methods included a triangulation of market surveys and collections, descriptive statistics, and vegetation analysis:ungi(1) Between February and March 2006, the presence of fresh food plants at three market areas in Chinatown and three mainstream supermarkets were surveyed. An in-formed consent statement was prepared and given to the manager or representative seller of the market of the in-dividual vendors. Markets are reported anonymously. In addition to presence, we designated and recorded gen-eral food plant forms. These are artificial plant form des-ignations and do not necessarily equate to the botanical definition of the plant part utilized. These designations al-lowed us to compare markets according to their type of food plant offering and helped to facilitate the recording of plants in the markets. Plant forms included:
fruit-sweet, for botanical fruits that are eaten for their • sugar-sweetness; fruit-veg, for botanical fruits that are not sugar-sweet, • and often designated as “vegetable;” leafy-veg, leaves or different sections of plant sec-• tions that are generally eaten as a “vegetable;” root, any food plant part that grows beneath the soil • surface (e.g., true roots, corm, bulb, rhizome, tuber); aromatic (leafy or herbaceous plant with volatile oils • and generally used as an herb), flower, flower buds and blossoms sold as food, and • fungi. While fungi are not classified as plants, we in-• cluded them in our survey because they were present in the markets with the fresh food plants.
These designations of food plant forms may not satisfy all reviewers, but these divisions are a starting point for the analysis we make here. In addition to the objectives described above, this study was partly conducted as re-search experience for students in an undergraduate eth-nobotany course. This necessitated that the surveys be
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completed in one school semester. Thus, this survey is a snapshot of fresh food plant availability of the markets.
The three mainstream supermarkets were chosen due to their proximity to Chinatown. These markets included two national chains and one Hawai`i state-wide chain. The three market chains are the largest suppliers of food to Honolulu. These mainstream markets provide meats, fish, dried goods, and other household items, in addition to fresh food plants. To have comparable surveys, the three Chinatown market areas included individual ven-dors that serve as the meat, fish, dried goods, and fresh food plant suppliers within delimited areas of Chinatown. These Chinatown market areas included 2 to 5 fresh food plant vendors each, for a total of 12 individual fresh food plant vendors. The market areas were selected by their location in three separate areas of the Chinatown district. Plants specimens were collected in the Chinatown market areas to supplement previous research in the area (Nguy-en 2006) and to contribute to the voucher specimen col-lection of food plants in Chinatown, Honolulu at the Her-barium of the University of Hawai`i at Manoa (HAW). The mainstream markets are coded as M1, M2, and M3. The Chinatown market areas are coded C1, C2, and C3. In-dividual vendors within the Chinatown market areas are coded with the Chinatown market area designation, fol-lowed by the first letter of the vendor name (i.e., C1-P, C1-Y, C1-5, C1-M, C1-H, C2-L, C2-G, C3-C, C3-I, C3-S, C3-R, and C3-7).
(2) Microsoft Excel and SPSS 12.0 (Apache Software Foundation 1989-2003) were used to organize raw data and calculate descriptive statistics of the food plant rich-ness between the mainstream supermarkets and the Chi-natown market areas, among the mainstream and indi-vidual vendors within Chinatown market areas, and to compare the different food plant forms found in the mar-kets. The mainstream and Chinatown market areas rep-resented to two independent samples, and the parametric assumptions were not met due to the small sample size, therefore the Mann-Whitney test was used to compare the means of food plant and form richness in the samples. (3) Agglomerate cluster analysis in the Community Anal-ysis Package (CAP) (Seaby et al. 2004) program was used to conduct the vegetation analyses of the markets and market areas. The basic process is that all the sam-ples (columns) start as separate groups that are joined together one at a time until a single group is formed using Ward’s, or minimum variance or error sums of squares clustering method for determining groups to be joined. At each iteration, all possible pairs of groups are compared and the two groups chosen for fusion are those which will produce a group with the lowest variance. The correlation coefficient calculated to measure the association between the groups was Jaccard’s Coefficient for dissimilarity (DJ), where DJ=0 indicates identical groups and the maximum positive value equals complete dissimilarity. Jaccard’s Co-
efficient, which is based on species presence only, was chosen to discount a similarity based on the species pres-ent and species that are not present which two groups would have in common (Causton 1988:87).
Results
Two-hundred ninety-three (293) fresh food plants were recorded (Appendix 1) in the mainstream supermarkets and Chinatown markets combined. The mainstream su-permarkets were more rich in varieties of food plants than the Chinatown market area (mean ± s, 144 ± 21 vs. 95 ± 23, p=0.05, Mann-Whitney U test). These market areas have in common 7% (21/293) of the entire plant list. Sep-arately, the mainstream supermarkets have 35% (78/224 mainstream total) of food plants in common, compared to Chinatown market areas of 24% (36/151 Chinatown to-tal). However, when the individual vendors that make up the Chinatown market areas are compared to each other, there is only a 1% (2/151 Chinatown total) similarity. The two food plants that are available from every mainstream market and individual Chinatown vendor surveyed are on-ions (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L). Their use by a wide rage of cultures and ethnic cuisines, as well as their ease of storage, could account for their com-mon presence. . . Vendors have told us that “everyone uses [these],” and customers buy them when shopping for other food items. This convenient shopping is appar-ent in that onions and garlic were often placed near the cash register of Chinatown vendors. Ginger (Zingiber of-ficionale Roscoe) was found in every mainstream market and all but one Chinatown vendor stand. The near ubiqui-tous presence of ginger can also be accounted for by its ease of long-term storage and its use in many different ethnic cuisines (Simoons 1991, Solomon 1996, Staples & Kristiansen 1999).
Food Plant Taxa
There are 42 plant families, as well as fungi, represent-ed in the entire survey. Fungi are found in all three Main-stream and Chinatown market areas. Eleven (26%) of the plant families were found at all of the markets sur-veyed. These families are Alliaceae, Apiaceae, Araceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Curcurbitaceae, Fabaceae, Musaceae, Rutaceae, Solanaceae, and Zingiberaceae. The mainstream markets have 21 families in common (50% of the total number of plant families). Three of which are not present in the Chinatown markets: Asparagaceae, (i.e., asparagus [Asparagus officinalis L.]), Ericaceae (i.e., blueberries [Vaccinium sp. L.]), and Vitaceae (i.e., grapes [Vitis vinifera L.]). Although they are absent, grapes and asparagus have spread into Asian cuisines, while blue-berries are less popular (Simoons 1991, Solomon 1996).
The Chinatown market areas have 17 plant families in common (39% of the total number of plant families). Three
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families common to the Chinatown market areas are not present in any of the mainstream markets: Arecaceae (i.e., coconut [Cocos nucifera L.]), Malvaceae (i.e., okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] and Jew’s mallow [Corchorus olitorius L.]), and Sapotaceae (i.e., star-apple [Chrysophyllum cainito L.]). These species represent food plants that are characteristic to local ethnic cuisines (e.g., okra and Jew’s mallow sold by Filipino vendors) and that are locally grown and harvested (Staples & Herbst 2005).
The Chinatown market areas each have at least one unique family that is not present at any other market; none of the mainstream markets have any unique families. C1 has 6 unique families (14% of the total number of fami-lies): Scrophulariaceae (i.e., rice-paddy herb [Limnophila chinensis (Lam.) Yamazaki]), Sapindaceae (i.e., longan [Dimocarpus longan Lour.] and rambutan [Nephelium lap-paceum L.]), Polygonaceae (i.e., Vietnamese mint [Persi-caria odorata (Lour.) Soják]), Moraceae (i.e., kamansi, a seeded breadfruit [Artocarpus camansi Blanco] and jack-fruit [Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.]), Iridaceae (i.e., “red garlic,” [Eleutherine subaphylla Herbert]), and Clusiaceae (i.e., mangosteen [Garcinia mangostana L.]). Euphorbi-aceae (i.e., cassava [Manihot esculenta Crantz]) is found only in C2. C3 has one unique family: Moringaceae (i.e., the leaves and fruit of the drumstick tree [Moringa oleif-era Lam.]). All of these food plants are known to be used in Asian ethnic cuisines found in Hawai‘i or are fruits of warm climates that are locally grown and harvested. For example, M. oleifera trees are naturalized in Hawai‘i and the leaves and fruit, known as “drumstick pods,” are used especially in Filipino cooking (Corum 2000). Analysis by Food Plant Form
The majority of food plants in both the Mainstream (M) and Chinatown (C) market areas are fruits, both sweet (fruit-sweet) and those used as “vegetables” (fruit-veg), and other vegetative parts used as vegetables (leafy-veg) (Table 1). The Mann-Whitney test analysis of the different
Table 1. Average number of food plants present in different forms in Main-stream and Chinatown market areas. Significance levels obtained using the Mann-Whitney test. NA: Indicates that the presence of these categories was too low for testing. * Significance at the p=0.05 level.
Food PlantForm
Mainstream markets Chinatown marketsP valueNumber Mean (Std) Number Mean (Std)
1 Aromatic 3 8.3 (0.6) 3 7.3 (5.5) NA2 Flower 3 0.7(0.6) 3 2.3 (2.1) 0.373 Fruit-Sweet 3 44.0 (3.6) 3 20.0 (7.8) 0.05* 4 Fruit-Veg 3 33.0 (8. 9) 3 28.3 (6.5) 0.515 Fungi 3 4.7(0.6) 3 1.3 (0.6) NA6 Leafy-Veg 3 30.0 (8.7) 3 19. 7(3.2) <0.05*7 Root 3 23.0 (5.0) 3 15. 7(5.1) 0.13
forms of food plants indicates the Mainstream markets offers significantly more sweet fruits and leafy vegeta-bles than the Chinatown markets. For the fungi category, this difference is probably an artifact caused by the small sample size.
Vegetation Analysis
A vegetation analysis of the presence of food plants in the 6 main markets (M1, M2, M3, C1, C2, C3) using Ag-glomerate Cluster Analysis (Ward’s, Jaccard’s +/-) shows that there is an association (i.e., less dissimilarity) among the three Mainstream (M1, M2, M3) and three Chinatown (C1, C2, C3) markets areas (Figure 1). In the case of the Chinatown markets, C3, the Jaccard’s coefficient for dis-similarity (DJ) is higher than DJ for C1 and C2. This re-flects the cultural specificity of the food plants in the C3 area. We discuss C3 in greater detail in the next analysis of the Chinatown market analyzed as separate vendors. The agglomerate cluster analysis was re-run compar-ing all of the markets individually (i.e., three Mainstream market areas and the 12 individual vendors that make up the three larger Chinatown market areas). This analysis (Figure 2) also grouped the three Mainstream market ar-eas; in addition, the Chinatown vendors C1-Y, C1-M and C2-G. These are among the larger vendors in the Chi-natown market areas (sum food plants, Σf= 44, 41, 75, respectively) and would be closest in comparison to the generalist Mainstream markets. While C2-G is the largest of all the individual vendors in the Chinatown survey, ven-dors C1-P and C3-7 are richer in food plants (Σf=63, 48, respectively) than C1-Y and C1-M. We believe that the grouping of C1-Y, C1-M and C2-G, is a combination of their richness and an association of food plants common to the three vendors exclusively for the Chinatown areas. These include mung bean sprouts (Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), and other examples that include two of the three vendors, includ-ing celery (Apium graveolens L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa
L.), and taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott).
The same analysis also clustered the vendors that identified as Fili-pino, and those that were Vietnam-ese, based on particular associations of food plants. These are identified as the cultural plant assemblages that are characteristic for that ethnic or cultural vendor. In our survey, all of the Filipino vendors (C1-P, C3-C, C3-R, C3-I, and C3-7) have in com-mon the yard-long beans (Vigna un-guiculata subsp. sequipedalis (L.) Verdc.), okra (Abelmoschus esculen-tus (L.) Moench), small bitter melon
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(Momordica charantia L.), and a long, thin purple eggplant variety (Solanum melongena L.). These food plants, along with tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) that are very common in the markets, are used to make the traditional Filipino vegetable stew, pinacbet (Corum 2000). The im-portance of this cultural plant assemblage is evident in it being supplied in different forms (i.e., (1) whole and found in adjacent bins, (2) portioned and grouped together near the cash register, and (3) chopped into ready to cook pieces in one package). Other plants that grouped in the analysis and that some of these Filipino vendors sold are specifically associated with Filipino foods. These Filipino cultural indicator plants include, malunggay (Filipino-Ta-galog dialect) leaves and the drumstick pods of M. oleifera (previously described as a unique representative in the C3 area), the young leafy shoots of bitter melon, yard-long beans, chayote (Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz), and a variety of “Japanese” or “Kapocha/Kabocha” pumpkin called “Papaya Sweet” for its shape and flavor and specifi-cally identified by the vendors as “Filipino pumpkin” (Cu-curbita moschata Duch. Ex Poir.).
Vietnamese vendors were identified by the presence of ar-omatic leafy food plants characteristic to Vietnamese cui-sine. These Vietnamese cultural indicator plants include “Thai” basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), water mint (Mentha
aquatica L.), lizard’s tail herb (Houttuynia cordata Thunb.), rice-paddy herb (Limnophila chinensis subsp. aromatica (Lam.) Yamazaki), thorny coriander (Eryngium foetidum L.), Vietnamese mint (Persicaria odorata (Lour.) Soják), and though also found in other markets, cilantro (Corian-drum sativum L.). These Vietnamese vendors also had a slightly greater percentage of aromatics (9% and 11%) than the average found in both the mainstream (8%) and Chinatown markets areas (7%), but this sample size is too small to test for a difference from the market areas.
An additional group identified as “specialty fruit vendors” clustered in this analysis. The specialty vendor C3-S, iden-tified as a specific ethnic fruit stand and vendor C1-5 sup-plies mostly sweet fruits (16:20 total food plants in C1-5) in the C1 market area.
Discussion & Conclusions
This study provides updated and empirical data on the food plant richness of culturally diverse Honolulu, Hawai‘i (U.S.). Mainstream supermarkets have a slightly greater richness of food plants than Chinatown market areas. A vegetation analysis approach enabled us to delineate the large Mainstream and Chinatown market areas as two distinct areas based on the available food plant varieties;
C1
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1.14 0.67 0.53 00.47
Figure 1. Agglomerate Cluster Analysis shows the similarity shared between the Mainstream markets and Chinatown markets areas resulting in two distinct groupings. The number scale shows Jaccard’s Coefficient for dissimilarity (DJ), where DJ.=0 indicates identical groups and the maximum positive value equals complete dissimilarity.
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and when analyzing the individual vendors that make up the Chinatown market areas, confirmed cultural and spe-cialty markets based on the presence of cultural indica-tor food plants and their associated plant assemblages. Mainstream supermarkets can be viewed as “generalists,” supplying a wide range of food plants to fill the needs of a diverse community. The Chinatown market areas and vendors can be considered “specialists.”
We acknowledge the limitations of this study as a “snap-shot” survey of the markets during the spring season of Hawai‘i. A more comprehensive view of the markets in Ho-nolulu may be attained with continued surveys throughout the calendar year. Although analyses conducted in this study shows the presence of ethnic “specialists” vendors, these designations are not always so strict. We have ob-served ethnic specialty vendors selling food plants asso-ciated with other ethnic and cultural groups, and there are food plants that are used by more than one group of peo-ple in similar and different manners.
Our study serves to connect ethnobotanical research in a meaningful way to urban communities. Wang and Lo (2007) found that ethnic affinity affects immigrant choice of market venue more strongly than economic rationali-
ties. Culture and economy are deeply intertwined with each other in immigrant consumption behavior. Our study supports this by demonstrating that cultural assemblages of food plants available in the culturally affiliated China-town vendors are far more present and available than in the mainstream grocery stores in the same area of ac-cessibility. This study does not directly address issues of community and cultural vigor, but its results does show that ethnic communities influence food plant availability in an urban setting. This, in turn, is a reflection of ethnic com-munity cultural and nutritional health.
We posed the research question: To what extent do these mainstream supermarkets provide the same food plants available in the ethnic markets? Our results go beyond answering this question and the identification of generalist or specialty markets, and cultural assemblages, when in-terpreted with regard to ethnic and immigrant community vitality in a multicultural urban setting such as Honolulu.
Garibaldi and Turner (2004) found that identification and analysis of cultural indicator species such as cultural food assemblages can provide a starting point for further anal-ysis of cultural resistance in the face of change, and that loss of access to such species can symbolize a more dra-
Figure 2. Agglomerate Cluster Analysis of Mainstream (M) and individual Chinatown market area vendors (C), that in-clude Chinatown-generalists (C-G), Filipino (F), and Vietnamese (V) vendors. Specialty fruit vendors (S) are also clus-tered together. The number scale shows Jaccard’s Coefficient for dissimilarity (DJ), where DJ.=0 indicates identical groups and the maximum positive value equals complete dissimilarity. Individual vendors within the Chinatown market areas are coded with the Chinatown market area designation, followed by the first letter of the vendor name (i.e., C1-P, C1-Y, C1-5, C1-M, C1-H, C2-L, C2-G, C3-C, C3-I, C3-S, C3-R, and C3-7).
FMai
nstr
eam
Chin
atow
n
1.61
1.21
0.81
00.
40M
1M
3M
2C1
PC3
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7C1
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GC1
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S V
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1.61 1.21 0.81 00.40M1M3M2C1-PC3-CC3-IC3-RC3-7C1-YC2-GC1-MC1-5C3-SC1-HC2-L
C-G
S
V
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matic loss of language and culture (Garibaldi & Turner 2004).
Cristancho and Vining (2004) found that Cultural Keystone Species designates plant and animal species whose exis-tence and symbolic value are essential to the stability of a culture over time. This could be particularly relevant with-in multicultural, urban communities in order to retain and express culture. Further, cultures living in urban environ-ments do develop notions of Cultural Keystone Species (Cristancho & Vining 2004). We find that a comparable value of cultural food and plant assemblages reflect a cer-tain cultural keystone species aspect. Further, patronizing ethnic stores is a way of maintaining a sense of belonging to an ethnic community, and ethnic identity plays a critical role in the choice between ethnic and mainstream busi-nesses (Wang & Lo 2007). Our findings when combined with those of Wang & Lo (2007), Cristancho and Vining, 2004, and Garibaldi and Turner (2004) demonstrate the ethnic markets reflects ethnic communities in an urban setting through the assemblages of food plants that are culturally specific available in them.
As the cultural and ethnic diversity in the U.S. continues to grow, studies in urban ethnic market areas are impera-tive to gather empirical data to identify and study the bio-cultural diversity and implications of these sites. Based on this assumption and the analysis of our data it seems apparent that certain ethnic communities are thriving cul-turally in Honolulu. This information will be significant for understanding the dynamics of cultural food plant use that would be useful to local, non-governmental and govern-mental groups to access the needs and impact of the di-verse population in the U.S.
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71
App
endi
x 1.
Fres
h fo
od p
lant
s re
cord
ed in
mai
nstra
m s
uper
mar
kets
and
Chi
nato
wn
mar
kets
in H
onol
ulu,
Haw
ai`i.
Foo
d pl
ant f
orm
s: A
rom
atic
(A);
Flow
er (F
L);
Frui
t-Sw
eet (
FS);
Frui
t-Veg
(FV
); Fu
ngi (
FU);
Leaf
y-Ve
g (L
V);
Roo
t (R
). D
ata
spre
adsh
eet a
vaila
ble
at: w
ww
.eth
nobo
tany
jour
nal.o
rg/v
ol6/
i154
7-34
65-0
6-06
3.xl
s
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Act
inid
iace
aeA
ctin
idia
del
icio
sa (A
.Che
v.)
C.F
.Lia
ng &
A.R
.Fer
guso
n
kiw
iFS
10
11
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
Alli
acea
eA
llium
am
pelo
pras
um L
.P
orru
m G
roup
leek
LV1
11
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0A
llium
cep
a L.
Agg
rega
tum
G
roup
shal
lot
R1
11
11
10
00
10
11
00
00
1
Cep
a G
roup
‘M
aui’
onio
n (b
ulbs
) - M
aui
R1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Cep
a G
roup
‘Red
’on
ion
(bul
bs) -
Red
R1
11
11
00
10
00
01
00
00
0C
epa
Gro
up
‘Sw
eet’
onio
n (b
ulbs
) -
Sw
eet
R1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Cep
a G
roup
‘Y
ello
w’
onio
n (b
ulbs
) - Y
ello
wR
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
Cep
a G
roup
‘W
hite
’on
ion
(bul
bs) -
Whi
teR
10
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Alli
um c
hine
nse
G. D
on f.
onio
n (b
ulbs
) -
rakk
yo/c
u ki
euR
00
01
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
Alli
um fi
stul
osum
L.
onio
n (le
aves
) -
gree
n/sp
ring
A1
11
11
10
10
00
10
01
00
1
Alli
um s
ativ
um L
.ga
rlic
R1
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1A
llium
sch
oeno
pras
um L
.ch
ives
A1
00
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0A
llium
tube
rosu
m
Rot
tler e
x. S
pren
glch
ives
- C
hine
se
A0
10
10
00
10
10
00
00
00
0
Am
aran
thac
eae
Am
aran
thus
tric
olor
L.
amar
anth
LV0
00
10
00
10
00
00
00
00
0S
pina
cia
oler
acea
L.
spin
ach
LV1
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0A
naca
rdia
ceae
Man
gife
ra in
dica
L.
man
go
FS1
11
10
10
01
00
00
01
01
0
Ethnobotany Research & Applications72
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Man
gife
ra in
dica
L.
‘Cha
mpa
igne
’m
ango
- C
ham
paig
neFS
00
00
01
00
00
00
00
01
01
gree
nm
ango
- gr
een
FS0
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
10
0‘M
akua
gia
nt’
man
go -
Mak
ua g
iant
FS0
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
10
0A
nnon
acea
eA
nnon
a m
uric
ata
L.so
urso
p FS
00
01
01
10
00
00
00
01
00
Api
acea
eA
neth
um g
rave
olen
sdi
ll le
aves
/fenn
elA
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Api
um g
rave
olen
s va
r. du
lce
(Mill
er) D
Cce
lery
LV1
11
11
10
10
10
01
00
00
1ce
lery
org
anic
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0C
ente
lla a
siat
ica
(L.)
Urb
anpe
nnyw
ort
LV0
00
01
00
00
00
11
00
00
0C
oria
ndru
m s
ativ
um L
.ci
lant
roA
11
11
10
00
00
11
10
00
00
Dau
cus
caro
ta L
.ca
rrot
R1
11
11
11
10
10
01
01
00
1or
gani
cca
rrot
- or
gani
cR
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Ery
ngiu
m fo
etid
um L
.th
orny
cor
iand
er
A0
00
11
00
00
01
10
00
00
0O
enan
the
java
nica
DC
chin
ese
cele
ry/
wat
er d
rop-
war
tLV
00
01
00
01
01
00
00
00
00
Osm
orhi
za lo
ngis
tylis
(Tor
r.) D
Csw
eet a
nise
A0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
astin
aca
sativ
a L.
pars
nip
R0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
etro
selin
um c
rispu
m L
.pa
rsle
yA
11
10
10
00
00
00
10
00
00
‘Ital
ian’
pars
ley
- Ita
lian
A0
11
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0A
race
aeC
oloc
asia
esc
ulen
ta (L
.) S
chot
tta
ro -
corm
R0
01
11
11
10
00
01
11
00
1ta
ro -
leav
esLV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Chi
nese
’ /
‘Bun
long
’ta
ro -
corm
, C
hine
se/B
unlo
ng
R0
00
11
00
00
10
01
00
00
0
‘Pur
ple’
taro
- pe
tiole
, pur
ple
LV0
00
10
01
00
00
00
00
00
0C
oloc
asia
gig
ante
a (B
lum
e) H
ook.
f.ta
ro -
petio
le,
gian
t, gr
een
LV0
00
11
00
00
01
10
00
00
0
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
73
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Are
cace
ae
Coc
os n
ucife
ra L
.co
conu
tFS
00
01
11
10
00
01
00
01
00
Asp
arag
acea
eA
spar
agus
offi
cina
lis L
.as
para
gas
LV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0or
gani
cas
para
gas
- org
anic
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘W
ailu
a’as
para
gas
- Wai
lua
LV0
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0A
ster
acea
eA
rctiu
m m
inus
(Hill
) Ber
nh.
burd
ock/
gobo
R1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0C
hrys
anth
emum
cor
onar
ium
L.
chry
sant
hem
um
gree
nsLV
00
01
10
01
00
01
00
00
00
Cic
horiu
m e
ndiv
ia L
.en
dive
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘B
elgi
an’ o
rgan
icen
dive
- B
elgi
an,
orga
nic
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
es
caro
leLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Cic
horiu
m in
tybu
s L.
orga
nic
radi
cchi
o - o
rgan
icLV
01
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Cic
horiu
m s
p.ch
icor
yLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Cyn
ara
scol
ymus
L.
artic
hoke
FL0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0La
ctuc
a sa
tiva
L.‘B
utte
r’le
ttuce
- B
utte
rLV
11
00
10
00
00
00
10
00
00
‘Gre
en le
af’
lettu
ce -
Gre
en le
afLV
11
10
10
00
00
00
10
00
00
‘Iceb
erg’
lettu
ce -
Iceb
erg
LV1
11
11
10
10
10
01
00
00
1‘M
anoa
’le
ttuce
- M
anoa
LV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘R
edle
af’
lettu
ce -
Red
leaf
LV1
11
01
10
00
00
01
00
00
1‘R
edle
af’ o
rgan
icle
ttuce
- R
edle
af,
orga
nic
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Rom
aine
’le
ttuce
- R
omai
neLV
11
10
11
00
00
00
10
00
01
‘Rom
aine
’ org
anic
lettu
ce -
Rom
aine
, or
gani
cLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Bra
ssic
acea
eB
rass
ica
junc
ea (L
.) C
zern
iak
mus
tard
cab
bage
LV
11
11
11
01
00
00
10
00
01
Ethnobotany Research & Applications74
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Bra
ssic
a ju
ncea
(L.)
Cze
rnia
kth
inle
afm
usta
rd c
abba
ge
- thi
nlea
fLV
00
00
10
00
00
01
00
00
00
Bra
ssic
a ol
erac
ea L
.A
ceph
ala
Gro
upco
llard
LV0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0ka
leLV
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Bot
rytis
Gro
upbr
occo
flow
erLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
broc
coli
LV1
11
11
10
10
00
01
00
00
1br
occo
li sp
rout
sLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
caul
iflow
erLV
11
11
10
01
00
00
10
00
00
Cap
itata
Gro
upca
bbag
e - g
reen
LV1
11
11
11
10
10
01
01
00
1ca
bbag
e - l
ocal
, w
hite
-ste
mLV
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
cabb
age
- red
/pur
ple
LV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0ca
bbag
e - s
avoy
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0G
emm
ifera
Gro
upbr
usse
ls s
prou
tLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Bra
ssic
a ra
pa L
.C
hine
nsis
Gro
upbo
k ch
oyLV
11
11
11
11
00
00
10
00
11
Chi
nens
is G
roup
cabb
age
- flow
erin
g/ch
oy-s
umLV
11
11
10
01
00
00
10
00
00
Pek
inen
sis
Gro
upca
bbag
e - C
hine
se
won
bak
LV1
11
11
10
00
10
01
00
00
1
Rap
ifera
Gro
uptu
rnip
R1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0B
rass
ica
rapa
L. v
ar.
nipp
osin
ica
(Bai
ley)
Kita
mur
am
izun
aLV
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Rap
hanu
s sa
tivus
L.
radi
shR
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
radi
sh -
with
leav
esR
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Long
ipin
natu
s G
roup
daik
onR
11
11
11
10
01
01
10
00
11
daik
on fl
ower
sFL
00
01
01
10
00
00
01
00
00
Ror
ippa
nas
turti
um-
aqua
ticum
(L.)
Hay
ekw
ater
cres
sLV
11
11
10
00
01
00
10
00
00
Bro
mel
iace
aeA
nana
s co
mos
us (L
.) M
err.
pi
napp
le
FS1
11
10
00
01
00
00
00
00
0
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
75
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Ana
nas
com
osus
(L.)
Mer
r.‘L
ow A
cid’
pina
pple
- Lo
w A
cid
FS1
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘R
oyal
Haw
aiia
n’pi
napp
le -
Roy
al
Haw
aiia
nFS
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Car
icac
eae
Car
ica
papa
ya L
.pa
paya
FS
11
01
11
00
10
00
11
00
00
papa
ya g
reen
FV0
00
11
11
00
00
11
01
01
1‘R
ainb
ow’
papa
ya -
rain
bow
FS1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0C
heno
podi
acea
eB
eta
vulg
aris
(L.)
Koc
hgr
een
swis
s ch
ard
- gre
enLV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
red
swis
s ch
ard
- red
LV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0B
eta
vulg
aris
sub
sp. v
ulga
ris L
.be
ets
R1
11
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0C
lusi
acea
eG
arci
nia
man
gost
ana
L.m
ango
stee
nFS
00
01
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
Con
volv
ulac
eae
Ip
omoe
a aq
uatic
a Fo
rrsk
.w
ater
spi
nach
/on
g ch
oyLV
00
01
11
11
00
01
10
10
11
Ipom
oea
bata
tas
(L.)
Lam
‘Cal
iforn
ia’
swee
t pot
ato
- Cal
iforn
iaR
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
loca
lsw
eet p
otat
o - l
ocal
R1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘O
kina
wan
’sw
eet p
otat
o -
Oki
naw
anR
11
01
10
11
01
00
10
00
00
oran
gesw
eet p
otat
o - o
rang
eR
01
01
11
01
00
00
10
00
01
red
swee
t pot
ato
- red
R0
00
11
01
10
10
01
00
00
0C
ucur
bita
ceae
Ben
inca
sa h
ispi
da
(Thu
nb.)
Cog
n.go
urd
- win
ter
mel
on/T
onga
nFV
11
01
10
00
01
00
10
00
00
Citr
ullu
s la
natu
s (T
hunb
.) M
atsu
m &
Nak
aiw
ater
mel
onFS
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Cuc
umis
mel
o L.
mel
on -
hone
ydew
FS1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Ethnobotany Research & Applications76
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Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
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/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Cuc
umis
mel
o su
bsp.
mel
o L.
Ret
icul
atus
Gro
upm
elon
- ca
ntal
oupe
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0C
ucum
is s
ativ
us L
.cu
cum
ber
FV1
11
11
10
10
00
01
00
00
1‘E
nglis
h’cu
cum
ber -
Eng
lish
FV1
11
10
00
00
10
00
00
00
0‘J
apan
ese’
cucu
mbe
r - J
apan
ese
FV1
11
01
00
00
00
10
00
00
0C
ucur
bita
mos
chat
a D
uch.
Ex
Poi
r.B
utte
rnut
gour
d - B
utte
rnut
FV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘F
ilipi
no’ /
‘P
apay
a S
wee
t’go
urd
- Fili
pino
/P
apay
a S
wee
tFV
00
01
01
10
00
00
00
10
01
‘Kab
ocha
’go
urd
- Kab
ocha
FV1
11
11
10
00
10
11
00
01
1C
ucur
bita
pep
o L.
pum
pkin
blo
ssom
sFL
00
01
01
10
00
00
01
00
00
‘Aco
rn’
gour
d - A
corn
FV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Spa
ghet
ti’go
urd
- Spa
ghet
tiFV
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Yel
low
’go
urd
- yel
low
FV0
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘Y
ello
w’ o
rgan
icgo
urd
- yel
low
or
gani
cFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Cuc
urbi
ta p
epo
sbsp
. pep
o L.
‘Zuc
hini
’go
urd
- Zuc
hini
FV1
11
10
10
10
10
00
01
00
1La
gena
ria s
icer
aria
(M
ollin
a) s
tand
ley
go
urd
- bot
tle
gour
d/O
poFV
11
11
01
10
01
00
00
10
11
Luffa
acu
tang
ula
(L.)
Rox
b.
gour
d - r
idge
d FV
00
00
11
00
00
01
01
10
11
Luffa
aeg
yptia
ca M
iller
go
urd
- spo
nge
FV0
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
01
0M
omor
dica
cha
rant
ia L
.
bitte
r mel
on le
aves
LV1
00
10
11
00
00
00
00
01
1go
urd
- bitt
er m
elon
FV
01
01
11
00
01
00
11
10
11
smal
lgo
urd
- bitt
er
mel
on, s
mal
lFV
00
01
01
10
00
00
01
10
11
Sec
hium
edu
le (J
acq.
) sw
artz
ch
ayot
e - l
eave
sLV
00
01
01
10
00
00
00
10
00
gour
d - c
hayo
teFV
00
01
11
11
01
01
11
01
01
Dio
scor
eace
aeD
iosc
orea
sp.
R1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0ya
mR
11
10
10
00
00
00
10
00
00
‘Cho
p S
uey’
yam
- C
hop
Sue
yR
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
77
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Dio
scor
ea s
p.or
gani
cya
m -
orga
nic
R0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0ya
mai
mo/
yam
aya
m -
yam
aim
o/ya
ma
R1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Eric
acea
eVa
ccin
ium
sp.
L.
blue
berr
yFS
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Eup
horb
iace
aeM
anih
ot e
scul
enta
Cra
ntz
cass
ava
R0
00
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0Fa
bace
aeA
rach
is h
ypog
aea
L.pe
anut
sFV
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Med
icag
o sa
tiva
L.al
falfa
spr
outs
LV0
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
hase
olus
vul
garis
L.
strin
g be
anFV
11
11
11
01
00
00
10
10
01
orga
nic
strin
g be
an -
orga
nic
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
isum
sat
ivum
Ser
.‘S
now
’ pe
a - s
now
FV
00
11
10
11
01
00
10
00
00
‘Sno
w’ o
rgan
icpe
a - s
now
, org
anic
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
isum
sat
ivum
var
. m
acro
carp
on S
er.
‘Sug
ar s
nap’
pea
- pod
ded,
su
gar s
nap
FV0
01
11
00
10
00
01
00
00
0
‘Sug
ar s
nap’
or
gani
cpe
a - s
ugar
sn
ap, o
rgan
icFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Pith
ecel
lobi
um d
ulce
(R
oxb.
) Ben
thta
mar
ind
- Man
ila/
cam
achi
leFV
00
01
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
Pso
phoc
arpu
s te
trago
nolo
bus
(L.)
DC
.w
inge
d be
anFV
00
01
01
10
01
00
01
10
11
Pue
raria
mon
tana
var
. lob
ata
(Lou
r.) M
err.
var.
loba
ta (W
illd.
) M
aese
n &
S. A
lmei
da
kudz
uR
00
01
10
10
00
00
10
00
00
Ses
bani
a gr
andi
flora
(L.)
Per
s.
sesb
anFL
00
01
01
10
00
00
01
00
00
Tam
arin
dus
indi
ca L
.ta
mar
ind
FV0
00
10
01
01
00
00
00
00
0Tr
ifoliu
m s
p.cl
over
spr
outs
LV0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0Vi
cia
faba
L.
fava
bea
nFV
00
01
00
00
01
00
00
00
00
Vign
a ra
diat
a (L
.) R
. Wilc
zek
mun
g be
an s
prou
tsLV
01
11
10
01
01
00
10
00
00
Ethnobotany Research & Applications78
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Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Vign
a un
guic
ulat
a (L
.) W
alp.
cow
pea
FV0
00
00
10
00
00
00
10
00
0Vi
gna
ungu
icul
ata
subs
p.
sequ
iped
alis
(L.)
Wal
p.
subs
p. (L
.) Ve
rdc.
yard
long
bea
n - l
eave
sLV
00
01
01
10
00
00
00
10
10
yard
long
bea
nsFV
11
11
01
10
01
00
01
10
11
Fung
iA
garic
us b
ispo
rus
(J.E
. Lan
ge) P
ilát
m
ushr
oom
- bu
tton
FU1
11
11
00
10
00
01
00
00
0or
gani
cm
ushr
oom
- bu
tton
orga
nic
FU0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Por
tabe
lla’
orga
nic
mus
hroo
m -
porta
bella
org
anic
FU0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Lent
inus
edo
des
(Ber
k.) S
inge
r
mus
hroo
m -
shita
keFU
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
orga
nic
mus
hroo
m -
shita
ke o
rgan
icFU
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Ple
urot
us o
stre
atus
Frie
s
mus
hroo
m -
oyst
er
FU0
10
10
11
00
00
00
10
00
1‘H
amak
ua A
li`i’
mus
hroo
m -
oyst
er,
Ham
akua
Ali`
iFU
10
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Ham
akua
gre
y’m
ushr
oom
- oy
ster
, H
amak
ua g
rey
FU1
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Tric
holo
ma
sp.
m
ushr
oom
- sh
imej
iFU
10
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Irida
ceae
Ele
uthe
rine
suba
phyl
la G
agne
p.re
d ga
rlic
R0
00
10
01
00
00
00
00
00
0La
mia
ceae
Men
tha
aqua
tica
L.m
int -
wat
er
A1
00
11
00
00
01
10
00
00
0O
cim
um b
asili
cum
L.
basi
l - s
wee
tA
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Tha
i’ba
sil -
Thai
A1
10
11
00
10
01
10
00
00
0P
erill
a fru
ctes
cens
(L.)
Brit
ton.
peril
la/c
hiso
A1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0R
osm
arin
us o
ffici
nalis
L.
rose
mar
yA
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Laur
acea
eP
erse
a am
eric
ana
Mill
.
avac
ado
FV1
10
10
11
00
00
00
00
10
0‘H
ass’
avac
ado
- Has
sFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
79
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Per
sea
amer
ican
a M
ill.
loca
lav
acad
o - l
ocal
FV1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0M
alva
ceae
Abe
lmos
chus
esc
ulen
tus
(L.)
Moe
nch
okra
FV0
00
11
11
00
00
01
11
01
1
Cor
chor
us o
litor
ius
L.Je
w’s
mal
low
/To
ssa
Jute
LV0
00
10
11
00
00
00
01
00
0
Mor
acea
eA
rtoca
rpus
cam
ansi
Bla
nco
brea
dfru
it - s
eede
d/ka
man
siFV
00
01
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
Arto
carp
us h
eter
ophy
llus
Lam
.ja
ck fr
uit
FS0
00
10
01
01
00
00
00
00
0M
orin
gace
aeM
orin
ga o
leife
ra L
am.
mor
inga
- le
aves
LV0
00
00
10
00
00
00
01
01
0m
orin
ga -
pods
FV0
00
00
10
00
00
00
10
01
0M
usac
eae
Mus
a x
para
disi
aca
L.ba
nana
blo
ssom
FL0
00
10
01
00
00
00
00
00
0an
gled
bana
na -
angl
edFS
00
01
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
‘App
le’
bana
na -
appl
eFS
11
00
11
00
00
00
10
01
00
larg
e ye
llow
bana
na -
larg
e ye
llow
FS1
11
11
01
01
00
01
00
00
0‘P
lant
ain’
bana
na -
plan
tain
FS0
01
01
00
00
00
01
00
00
0M
yrta
ceae
P
sidi
um g
uaja
va L
.gr
een
guav
a - g
reen
FS0
00
10
11
00
00
00
00
10
0N
elum
bona
ceae
Nel
umbo
nuc
ifera
Gae
rtner
lotu
s ro
otR
10
11
10
10
01
00
10
00
00
lotu
s sh
oots
LV0
00
10
01
00
00
00
00
00
0P
oace
aeC
ymbo
pogo
n ci
tratu
s (D
C.)
Sta
pfle
mon
gra
ssA
10
11
10
01
01
11
10
00
00
cf. D
endr
ocal
amus
asp
er (S
chul
t. &
Sch
ult.
f.) B
acke
r ex
K. H
eyne
bam
boo
shoo
tsLV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Zea
may
s L.
corn
FV1
10
10
00
00
10
00
00
00
0
Ethnobotany Research & Applications80
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Pol
ygon
acea
eP
ersi
caria
odo
rata
(Lou
r.) S
oják
fragr
ant k
notw
eed/
Viet
nam
ese
min
tA
00
01
00
00
00
10
00
00
00
Ros
acea
eFr
agar
ia s
p.st
raw
berr
y FS
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Cal
iforn
ia’
stra
wbe
rry
- C
alifo
rnia
FS1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Mal
us d
omes
tica
Bor
kh.
‘Aom
ori J
apan
’ / ‘
Fuji’
appl
e - A
omor
i Ja
pan/
Fuji
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Bra
ebur
n’ap
ple
- Bra
ebur
nFS
01
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Fuj
i’ap
ple
- Fuj
iFS
11
11
10
00
10
00
10
00
00
‘Fuj
i’ or
gani
cap
ple
- Fuj
i org
anic
FS0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘G
ala’
appl
e - G
ala
FS1
11
10
01
00
00
00
00
00
0‘G
olde
n D
elic
ious
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ple
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den
Del
icio
usFS
11
11
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
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den
Del
icio
us’
orga
nic
appl
e - G
olde
n D
elic
ious
org
anic
FS0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Gra
nny
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ith’
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e - G
rann
y S
mith
FS1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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reen
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lo’
appl
e - G
reen
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loFS
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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ific
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ple
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ific
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01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Red
Cel
lo’
appl
e - R
ed C
ello
FS1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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ed D
elic
ious
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ple
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icio
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01
11
10
10
10
00
10
00
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nus
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enia
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.
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01
00
00
00
00
00
00
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11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
red
plum
- re
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01
11
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
Pru
nus
pers
ica
(L.)
Bat
sch
yello
wpe
ach
- yel
low
FS1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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hite
/ ‘Y
a’pe
ach
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te/y
aFS
11
11
10
00
10
00
10
00
00
Pru
nus
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ica
(L.)
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sch
var
. nu
cipe
rsic
a C
. Sch
neid
erne
ctar
ines
FS1
01
10
00
01
00
00
00
00
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ctar
ines
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hite
FS0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0P
runu
s co
mm
unis
L.
pl
uot
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
81
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
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us c
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artle
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01
00
00
00
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00
00
00
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ar -
Bos
cFS
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
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njou
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ar -
D’A
njou
FS1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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omic
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ar -
Com
ice
FS1
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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orel
le’
pear
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relle
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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edFS
01
10
00
00
00
00
00
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00
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ecke
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00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Pyr
us p
yrifo
lia (B
urm
.) f.
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ai‘K
orea
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ar -
Kor
ean
FS1
00
11
01
01
00
01
00
00
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orea
n S
ingo
’pe
ar -
Kor
ean
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goFS
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Rub
us id
aeus
L.
rasp
berr
yFS
01
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Rub
us s
p.bl
ackb
erry
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0R
ubia
ceae
C
itrof
ortu
nella
mic
roca
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(Bun
ge) W
ijnan
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lam
ansi
FS0
00
11
01
00
00
10
00
00
0
Rut
acea
e
Citr
us h
ystri
x D
C.
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r lim
e le
afA
00
01
00
00
01
00
00
00
00
Citr
us m
axim
a (B
urm
.) M
err.
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elo
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01
10
11
00
00
00
00
10
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01
00
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00
00
00
00
00
00
orga
nic
grap
efru
it - o
rgan
icFS
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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‘Rub
y’gr
apef
ruit
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yFS
10
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
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‘Tex
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it - T
exas
FS1
00
00
00
00
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00
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10
00
00
00
00
00
00
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emen
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FS1
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
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loca
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ney/
loca
lFS
11
11
11
10
00
00
10
01
01
‘Tan
gelo
’/ ‘M
ineo
la’
tang
elo
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eola
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Ethnobotany Research & Applications82
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Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
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C3-S
C3-R
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M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Citr
us s
inen
sis
(L.)
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eck
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a C
ara’
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ge -
Car
a C
ara
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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ona’
oran
ge -
Kon
aFS
01
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
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l’or
ange
- lo
cal
FS1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘N
aval
’or
ange
- na
val
FS1
11
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘S
wee
t’or
ange
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eet
FS0
10
11
00
01
00
01
00
00
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wee
t’ or
gani
cor
ange
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eet-
orga
nic
FS0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Citr
us X
aur
antii
folia
(C
hris
tm.)
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ingl
elim
eFS
11
11
10
01
01
01
10
00
00
Citr
us X
lim
on (L
.) O
sb.
lem
onFS
11
11
11
01
11
01
11
00
01
Sap
inda
ceae
D
imoc
arpu
s lo
ngan
Lou
r.lo
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FS
00
01
00
10
10
00
00
00
00
Nep
heliu
m la
ppac
eum
L.
ra
mbu
tan
FS0
00
10
00
01
00
00
00
00
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apot
acea
e
Chr
ysop
hyllu
m c
aini
to L
.gr
een
star
app
le -
gree
nFS
00
00
01
00
00
00
00
01
00
purp
lest
ar a
pple
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rple
FS0
00
10
11
00
00
00
00
10
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anilk
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ta (L
.) P.
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en
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00
11
01
00
00
10
00
00
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oute
ria c
ampe
chia
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th) B
aehn
i
egg
fruit/
cani
stel
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00
00
10
00
00
00
00
10
0
Sau
rura
ceae
H
outtu
ynia
cor
data
Thu
nb.
lizar
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tail
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A0
00
11
00
00
01
10
00
00
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crop
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ila c
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ddy
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00
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00
00
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00
00
00
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Sol
anac
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m
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um L
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im’
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unge
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heim
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Fre
sno’
pepp
er (p
unge
nt)
- Fre
sno
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
83
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
C
apsi
cum
ann
uum
va
r. an
nuum
L.
gree
npe
pper
(pun
gent
) - g
reen
FV0
10
11
10
10
00
10
10
00
0
Gro
ssum
G
roup
gre
enpe
pper
(sw
eet)
- gre
enFV
11
11
11
01
01
00
10
00
01
Gro
ssum
Gro
up
gree
n, o
rgan
icpe
pper
(sw
eet)
- gr
een
orga
nic
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Gro
ssum
Gro
up
oran
gepe
pper
(sw
eet)
- ora
nge
FV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Gro
ssum
G
roup
red
pepp
er (s
wee
t) - r
edFV
11
11
11
01
01
00
10
00
01
Gro
ssum
G
roup
yel
low
pepp
er (s
wee
t) - y
ello
wFV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Hab
ener
o’pe
pper
(pun
gent
) - H
aben
ero
FV0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Haw
aiia
n’pe
pper
(pun
gent
) - H
awai
ian
FV1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Indi
an S
uvw
ala’
pepp
er (p
unge
nt)
- Ind
ian
Suvw
ala
FV0
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
1
‘Jal
apeñ
o’ g
reen
pe
pper
(pun
gent
) - g
reen
Jal
apeñ
oFV
00
01
10
01
00
00
10
00
00
‘Jal
apeñ
o’ re
dpe
pper
(pun
gent
) - r
ed J
alap
eño
FV0
00
11
00
10
00
01
00
00
0
‘Pas
silla
’pe
pper
(pun
gent
) - P
assi
llaFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
pung
ent c
var
grou
pspe
pper
(pun
gent
) - l
eave
sLV
00
00
01
00
00
00
00
00
01
‘Ser
rano
’pe
pper
(pun
gent
) - S
erra
noFV
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
smal
l red
pepp
er (p
unge
nt)
- sm
all r
edFV
00
01
11
11
01
11
11
00
00
yello
wpe
pper
(pun
gent
) - y
ello
wFV
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Ethnobotany Research & Applications84
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Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Lyco
pers
icon
esc
ulen
tum
Mill
er
tom
ato
- red
FV1
11
11
11
10
10
11
11
01
1‘C
herr
y’to
mat
o - c
herr
yFV
00
01
10
10
01
00
10
00
00
‘Clu
ster
’ / ‘V
ine’
tom
ato
- Clu
ster
/Vin
eFV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Gra
pe’
tom
ato
- Gra
peFV
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Ham
akua
’to
mat
o - H
amak
uaFV
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Hyd
ro’
tom
ato
- Hyd
roFV
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Kam
uela
’to
mat
o - K
amue
laFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
loca
lto
mat
o - l
ocal
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘R
oma’
tom
ato
- Rom
aFV
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Rom
anita
’to
mat
o - R
oman
itaFV
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Tom
atill
o’ o
rgan
icto
mat
illo
- org
anic
FV0
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘Y
ello
w C
herr
y’to
mat
o - Y
ello
w
Che
rry
FV1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Sol
anum
mel
onge
na L
.gr
een,
roun
d,
Filip
ino
eggp
lant
- gr
een,
ro
und,
Fili
pino
FV0
00
10
11
00
00
00
00
01
1
purp
le, b
ig, r
ound
eggp
lant
- pu
rple
, bi
g, ro
und
FV1
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
purp
le, l
ong
eggp
lant
- pu
rple
, lon
g FV
11
11
11
11
01
00
11
10
11
purp
le, l
ong,
thin
eggp
lant
- pu
rple
, lo
ng, t
hin
FV0
00
10
11
00
00
00
11
01
0
purp
le, r
ound
, or
gani
ceg
gpla
nt -
purp
le,
roun
d, o
rgan
icFV
01
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Sol
anum
torv
um S
war
tzw
hite
/gre
en, ‘
Thai
’eg
gpla
nt -
whi
te/
gree
n,Th
aiFV
01
01
11
10
00
01
00
10
01
Sol
anum
tube
rosu
m L
.po
tato
- w
hite
R
11
01
10
01
01
00
10
00
00
‘Aria
mo’
pota
to -
Aria
mo
R1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘G
old’
/ ‘Y
ello
w’
pota
to -
Gol
d/Ye
llow
R1
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0‘R
ed’
pota
to -
red
R1
10
01
10
00
00
01
00
00
1‘O
kina
wan
Whi
te’
pota
to -
Oki
naw
an
Whi
teR
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Nguyen et al. - Vegetation Analysis of Urban Ethnic Markets Shows Supermarket Generalists and Chinatown Ethnic-specialist Vendors
www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol6/i1547-3465-06-063.pdf
85
Fam
ily (G
roup
)M
ain
mar
ket a
reas
Sepa
rate
Chi
nato
wn
vend
ors
Spec
ies
Cul
tivar
/gro
up/
char
acte
rC
omm
on n
ame
Mai
nstre
amC
hina
tow
n
C1-P
C1-Y
C1-5
C1-M
C1-H
C2-L
C2-G
C3-C
C3-I
C3-S
C3-R
C3-7
M1
M2
M3
C1
C2
C3
Sol
anum
tube
rosu
m L
.‘R
usse
t’po
tato
- R
usse
tR
11
10
11
00
00
00
10
00
01
Vita
ceae
Vi
tis v
inife
ra L
.‘B
lack
See
dles
s’gr
apes
- B
lack
S
eedl
ess
FS0
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
‘Gre
en S
eedl
ess’
grap
es -
Gre
en
See
dles
sFS
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Red
Glo
be’
grap
es -
Red
Glo
beFS
10
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
‘Red
See
dles
s’gr
apes
- R
ed
See
dles
sFS
11
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Zing
iber
acea
eZi
ngib
er o
ffici
nale
Ros
coe
gi
nger
R1
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
01
1gi
nger
bud
FL1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Ethnobotany Research & Applications86
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