tips on writing a philosophy paper

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TIPSONWRITINGAPHILOSOPHYPAPER

DouglasW.Portmore

Copyright2001(Revised2006)byDouglasW.Portmore.SomeRightsReserved.ThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsLicense.Seefulllicensingdetailshere.

1.ConstructingaThesisStatementAthesisstatementisthatsentenceortwothatassertsyourpositiononagivenissue,

specifically,thepositionthatyouwillbearguingforinyourpaper. Thisthesis

statementshouldappearsomewhereintheintroductiontoyourpaper. Itcanbethe

firstsentence,althoughthatsoftenarathersimplisticandunexcitingwaytobeginyour

paper.Moreoften,then,athesisstatementshouldappearatorneartheendofthefirst

paragraphortwo.

Thefirststepindevelopingathesis(onceyouhavedecidedonatopic)isto

determinewhatyourpositionis. Todothis,youwillneedtothoroughlyreviewallthe

relevantcoursematerials. Inmostcases,youwillhavebeenpresentedwithanumberof

argumentsonbothsidesoftheissue. Carefullyanalyzeandevaluateallthose

arguments,takingnotesasyoudo. Intheprocess,youshoulddevelopyourowntake

ontheissue.

Itisimperativethatyouclearlydefineyourthesisbeforeyoubeginwriting,foritis

yourthesisthatwillguideyouthroughouttheentirewritingprocesseverythingyou

writeshouldsomehowcontributetoitsdefense. Thisdoesntmeanthatyourthesis

cantberevised,narrowed,orrefinedduringthewritingprocess;itslikelythatitwillneedtobe. Thepointisthatyouwontevenknowwheretostartunlessyouhaveat

leastaworkingthesistoguideyou.

Yourthesisshouldnarrowthefocusofyourpaper. Supposeyouareaskedtowrite

onthemindbodyproblem. Itsimportanttorealizethatitwontbepossibletoaddress

everyimportantphilosophicalissueconcerningsuchabroadtopicinjustonepaper.

Youllneedtochooseathesisthatnarrowsthefocustosomethingmoremanageable.

Dontbetooambitioushere.Yourenotgoingtosolvesomethinglikethemindbody

probleminfive,oreventwenty,pages. Ofcourse,itsalsoimportantnottogotoofarin

theoppositedirection. Yourthesismustntbetrivial. Instead,yourthesisshouldmake

aninteresting

assertion,

one

over

which

reasonable

people

might

disagree.

Yourthesisshouldbequitespecific,therebydefiningasharpfocusforyourpaper.

DontmakeaclaimsuchasPeopleshoulddonatemoneytohungerrelief

organizations. Thisisvague. Areyousayingthatdonatingmoneytohungerrelief

organizationsismoralobligatory,orareyoumerelyclaimingthatdoingsowouldbe

supererogatory? Ineithercase,youshouldstateyourreasonsformakingtheclaimthat

youdo,foryourthesisshouldprovidesomehintastowhatthemainargumentwillbe.

Tosumup,athesisstatementshould:

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Bespecific. Benarrowenoughastobepracticablydefendedwithinthelengthparametersoftheassignment.

Makeaninterestingclaim,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree. Providesomehintastowhatthemainlineofargumentwillbe.

Thefollowingaresomedosanddonts.

NO:

Iwillarguethatactutilitarianismisthemostplausiblemoraltheoryaround.NOTE: Thisistooambitious. Thereisnochanceofadequatelydefendingsucha

claiminanythingshorterthanabooklengthproject. Todefendsuchaclaim,

youwouldhavetocompareactutilitarianismwithKantianism,rule

utilitarianism,virtue

ethics,

moral

relativism,

moral

subjectivism,

divine

commandtheory,etc.andarguethatactutilitarianismdoesbetterthanallthe

othersintermsofourstandardsforevaluatingmoraltheories(i.e.,consistency,

determinacy,intuitiveappeal,internalsupport,etc.). Amoresensiblethesis

wouldfocusondefendingactutilitarianismagainstcertainspecificobjectionsor

wouldarguethatactutilitarianismismoreplausiblethan,say,Kantianism.

Deathandsufferingfromalackfood,potablewater,andbasichealthcareisbad.NOTE: Thisistrivial;noreasonablepersonwoulddisagree.

Iwilldiscussobjectionstomoralrelativism.NOTE: Itsnotenoughtosaythatyouwilldiscussacertainissue;youmuststate

yourpositionontheissue.

Ibelievethatthedivinecommandtheoryisanimplausiblemoraltheory.NOTE: Thisstatementmerelyreportswhatonebelieves;itdoesntassert

anythingabouttheplausibilityofthedivinecommandtheory. Athesis

statementmustmakeanassertionabouttheissueathand,notaboutonesbeliefs

concerningthatissue.

Iwillarguethatabortioniswrong.NOTE: Thisstatementisntspecificenough. Yourthesisshouldexplainwhy,on

yourview,abortioniswrong.

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Iwillarguethatdonatingmoneytohungerrelieforganizationsiscounterproductive.

NOTE: Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingmoneytohungerrelief

organizationsiscounterproductiveisanempiricalissue,notaphilosophical

issue. Youmusttakeastandonsomephilosophicalissue.

Iwillarguethatdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelieforganizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresuffering.

NOTE: Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelief

organizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresufferingisanempirical

issue,notaphilosophicalissue.Youmustaddresssomephilosophicalissue.

Thusamoreinterestingthesiswouldaddressthefollowingissue:Ifdonatingour

surplusincomewouldalleviatesignificantsufferingandsavelives,wouldwe

thenbe

morally

obligated

to

do

so?

YES:

Iwillarguethatevenifthefetusisapersonwitharighttolife,abortionis,nevertheless,morallypermissibleinthecaseofrape,forthefetushasnorightto

usethewomansbodywithout,atleast,hertacitconsent,andthisisclearly

absentwherethewomanispregnantasaresultofbeingraped.

NOTE: Thepositionyoutakedoesnthavetoexhaustthetopic. Forinstance,

theres

nothing

wrong

with

taking

a

stand

on

the

morality

of

abortion

in

the

case

ofrapewhileremainingneutralaboutothercases.

IwillarguethatThomsonsargumentisntcogent. Iwilldemonstratethatthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenkillingtheviolinist(inherFamousViolinist

Example)andkillingafetusthathasbeenconceivedasresultofrape.These

differencesundermineherargumentbyanalogyforthepermissibilityof

abortioninthecaseofrape.

NOTE: Youdonthavetomakeanypositiveassertion. Athesisthatassertsthat

somephilosophicalpositionisfalseorthatsomephilosophersargumentis

unsoundisaninterestingandimportantthesis.

IwillarguethatArthurscriticismsfailtoundermineSingerscentralthesis:thatwearemorallyobligatedtodonateoursurplusincometohungerrelief

organizations. IwillshowthatSingercanrebutArthursobjectionsby.

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NOTE: Evenifyouagreeentirelywithoneofthephilosophersthatyouveread,

youcanstillhavesomethingoriginalandimportanttosay. Forinstance,you

couldshowhowthatphilosophermightrebutcriticismsfromanother.

IwillarguethatSingersthesisneedstoberevisedinlightofArthurscriticisms,butonlyslightly. IwillproposethefollowingrevisedversionofSingersthesis. AndIwillarguethatthisrevisedversionofSingersthesisavoids

Arthursobjections. Lastly,Iwilldefendthisrevisedthesisagainstother

potentialobjections.

NOTE: Ifyoucantseeanywaytodefendathesisinitscurrentform,youmight

suggesthowthatthesiscouldberevisedsoastoavoidtheobjectionsleveledby

another.

Iwillarguethatmanyoftheobjectionsthathavebeenleveledagainstactutilitarianism

can

be

met

and

that,

on

the

whole,

act

utilitarianism

is

a

rather

plausibletheory.Nevertheless,Iwilladmitthatoneseriousobjectionremains,

forwhichIcanseenoadequateresponsenamely,.However,thisdoesnot

meanweshouldrejectthetheory,for,asIwillshow,nonutilitariantheoriesface

thefollowingmoreseriousobjection...

NOTE: Oftentimes,youllfindthatallthealternativepositionsfacesome

problemoranother. Inthiscase,youcanstilldefendonepositionoveritsrivals

byarguingthatitfacesfewerorlessseriousproblemsthantheothersdo. Of

course,youstillneedbeupfrontabouttheproblemsthatyourownfavored

position

faces,

and,

in

light

of

those

potential

problems,

you

may

want

to

make

yourthesissomewhattentative:utilitarianismseemstobethemostpromising

positionratherthanutilitarianismiscorrect.

2.TheIntroductionGetrightdowntobusiness!Avoidinflated,rhetoricalintroductoryremarks(commonly

knownas fluff).If,forinstance,yourpaperisonabortion,youshouldntwastelimited

spacewithsomeirrelevantandlongwindedspielaboutwhatanimportantand

controversialissueabortionis.Norshouldyoustartyourpaperoffwithasentencelike,

Downthroughtheages,mankindhasponderedtheproblemof.... Nevertheless,you

shouldmotivate

your

paper,

explaining

what

issue

or

problem

that

you

will

be

addressingandwhyitsimportantjustkeepitbrief.

Anintroductionisbestthoughtofasareadersguidetoyourpaper.Itshouldhelp

makeiteasierforthereadertofollowandunderstandyourpaper.Itshouldincludean

explicitstatementofwhatitisthatyouwillbearguingfor(thatis,yourthesis),and

defineforthereaderanyterminologythatsneededtounderstandyourthesis.The

introductionshouldalsomapoutthestructureofyourpaper,explainingtheorderin

whichyouwillargueforvariouspointsandexplaininghowallthosepointscome

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togetherinsupportofyourthesis.Tosumup,agoodintroductionshould:(1)be

concise,(2)containaclearstatementofyourthesis,(3)introduce,verysuccinctly,your

topicandexplainwhyitisimportant,(4)indicate,verybriefly,whatthemainlineof

argumentwillbe,and(5)mapouttheoverallstructureofyourpaper.

Illustrations:

ThefollowingaretwoexamplesofthetypeofintroductionthatIamlookingfor.The

firstisMaryAnneWarrensintroductiontoherpaper OntheMoralandLegalStatusof

Abortion, TheMonist57(January1973)reprintedinTomL.BeauchampandLeRoy

Walters,eds.,ContemporaryIssuesinBioethics,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1989),

p.211:

Wewillbeconcernedwithboththemoralstatusofabortion,whichforourpurposeswemay

defineastheactwhichawomanperformsinvoluntarilyterminating,orallowinganotherperson

toterminate,herpregnancy,andthelegalstatuswhichisappropriateforthisact.Iwillargue

that,whileitisnotpossibletoproduceasatisfactorydefenseofawomansrighttoobtainan

abortionwithoutshowingthatafetusisnotahumanbeing,inthemorallyrelevantsenseofthat

term,weoughtnottoconcludethatthedifficultiesinvolvedindeterminingwhetherornota

fetusishumanmakeitimpossibletoproduceanysatisfactorysolutiontotheproblemofthe

moralstatusofabortion.Foritispossibletoshowthat,onthebasisofintuitionswhichwemay

expecteventheopponentsofabortiontoshare,afetusisnotaperson,andhencenotthesortof

entitytowhichitispropertoascribefullmoralrights.

ThesecondexampleistheintroductiontomypaperWelfare,Achievement,andSelf

Sacrifice:

RECENTLY,

SOME

PHILOSOPHERS

haveargued

that

by

holding

that

it

is

the

achievement

of

our

goals

asopposedtothefulfillmentofourdesiresthatcontributestoourwelfare,wecanaccommodate

whatsattractiveaboutthedesiretheoryofwelfarewhileavoidingitsimplausibleimplications.

Theviewthattheachievementofonesgoals in itselfcontributestooneswelfare iswhatIcall

theAchievementView.Adifferentviewholdsthatthemeaningfulnessofonesselfsacrifices

initselfcontributestooneswelfare,whereonesselfsacrificescountasmeaningfulifandonlyif

theywerenot fornaught. I call thisview theNotforNaughtView,or theNFNView for

short.Inthispaper,IarguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthattheAchievementView

hasplussomeothers,thatithasnoneofthedisadvantagesthattheAchievementViewhas,and

that,therefore,thosesympathetictotheAchievementViewshouldaccepttheNFNViewinstead.

Ofcourse, itispossibletoacceptbothviewssincetheyarenotcontraries,but iftheNFNView

hasalltheadvantagesandnoneofthedisadvantagesoftheAchievementView,thentheformer

shouldsupplantthe latter. IwontbearguingthattheNFNViewissuperiortoallotherviews

aboutwelfare,onlythatitissuperiortotheAchievementView.Nevertheless,thepaperwillbeofinterest even to thosewho oppose theAchievement View,because, as Iwill show, amuch

strongercasecanbemadeinfavoroftheNFNView,andsotheopponentsoftheAchievement

ViewshouldfindtheNFNViewtobeamoreworthycontender.

Thepaperhasthefollowingstructure.Insection1,Iexplicatethetwoviews.Insection2,I

arguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthatphilosopherssuchasThomasScanlonand

SimonKellerhaveclaimedfortheAchievementView.Insection3,Iarguethat,unliketheNFN

View,theAchievementViewhasanumberofcounterintuitiveimplications,includingthatwe

should,otherthingsbeingequal,adoptgoalsthatwillplayamorecomprehensiveroleinour

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livesand/orthatwillrequiremoreproductiveefforttoachieve.Insection4,IarguethattheNFN

Viewhasgreaterexplanatorypower,accountingforabroaderandmorediverserangeof

intuitionsaboutwelfare.Lastly,insection5,Iarguethat,unliketheAchievementView,theNFN

Viewiscompatiblebothwiththeideathatwecanprovideaunifiedtheoryofwelfareandwith

theideathatonlybeingswithsomesortofaffectcanhaveawelfare.

3.TheBodyThebodyofyourpapershouldinclude:(1)anexpositionoftheviews,concepts,and

argumentstobediscussed,(2)yourownargumentsinsupportofyourthesisand

claims,and(3)aconsiderationofobjectionsandcounterargumentsalongwithyour

responsestothem.

Eachbodyparagraphshouldpresentonlyasingleideaorsetofrelatedideas,and

eachshouldbringyourreaderonestepclosertoacceptingyourthesisandthecogency

ofyourarguments.Becauseeachbodyparagraphshouldbeastepinyourargument,

youshouldbemindfuloftheoverallorganizationofyourbodyparagraphs.Agood

waytotestthestrengthofbothyourtopicsentencesandyourargumentasawholeisto

constructanoutlineofyourpaperusingonlyyourpapersthesisstatementandthetopic

sentencescontainedinthebodyofyouressay.Thisoutlineshouldcontainthelogical

coreofyourpapersargument,anditshouldfollowaclearlogicalpattern.

Thefirststepinwritinganeffectivebodyparagraphistheconstructionofitstopic

sentence.Justasyourthesisstatementactsasthecontrollingideabehindyourentire

paper,atopicsentenceactsasthecontrollingideathatbindstogetherthesentences

withinaparagraph.Thesentenceswithinaparagraphshouldexplain,develop,or

supporttheidea/claimthatwasintroducedinthetopicsentence.(Althoughmost

paragraphsshouldhaveatopicsentence,noteveryparagraphneedsone.Forinstance,a

topicsentencewontbeneededinaparagraphthatcontinuestodevelopanideathat

wasintroducedbythetopicsentenceofthepreviousparagraph.Andalthoughatopicsentenceneedntalwaysappearasthefirstsentenceinaparagraph,itisoftenmost

effectivewhenitdoes.)

4.TheConclusionThebasicpurposeofyourconclusionistorestateyourthesisandsummarizeyour

argument,butitshouldnotjustbeacopyofyourintroduction.Inyourconclusion,you

shouldmakeafinalefforttoconvincethereaderthatyouhavebothestablishedyour

thesisandofferedacogentargumentinitsdefense.Theconclusionisalsotheplaceto

discusstheimplicationsand/orlimitationsofyourargument.Forinstance,youmight

explainwhatthepracticaland/ortheoreticalimplicationsofyourargumentare.You

mightalsopointtosomequestionsthatyourargumentraisesortosomeoftheissues

thatyourpaperleavesunresolved.

5.MakingtheStructureofYourPaperPerspicuous5.1Thestructureoftheparagraphswithinyourpaper:Agoodpaperwillhavealogicaland

perspicuousstructure.Youneedtoorganizeyourpointsandargumentsinalogical

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fashionandatthesametimemakethatorganizationapparenttoyourreader.Each

paragraphshouldhaveaclearplaceintheoverallargument.Forinstance,heresone

commonstructure:introduction,explicationofsomephilosophicalpositionorproblem

(i.e.,explicationofthepositionthatyoullbecriticizingorexplicationthephilosophical

problemthatyouhopetosolve),themainargument(youllprobablyneedmorethan

oneparagraph),clarificationofandsupportforthecontroversialpremisesinyourmainargument(oneparagraphpercontroversialpremise),considerationofpotential

objectionsandyourresponsestothem(again,oneparagraphperobjection),conclusion.

Thekeytohavingyouressayfollowalogicalstructureistomakeanoutlinebefore

sittingdowntowrite.Itsdifficulttogiveanymorespecificadvicesincethebestlogical

structureforyouressaywilldependontheparticularitiesofyourargument.Butthere

aretwoobviouspointsthatyoushouldbeawareof:(1)makesureyouexplicateaview

orargument,clearlyandcharitably,beforecriticizingitand(2)explainkeyterms,

concepts,andexamplesbeforeemployingthem.

Icannotoveremphasizehowimportantitistomakethestructureofyouressay

perspicuousto

your

reader;

your

reader

shouldn

t

have

to

work

to

figure

it

out.

So

start

withagoodintroduction,onethatmapsoutthegeneralstructureoftheessay,andthen,

inthebodyofyourpaper,employtransitionalwordsandsentencestokeepyourreader

ontrack.

Usetransitionalphrases,suchas:

Iwillbeginby...

BeforeIsaywhatiswrongwithXsargument,Iwillfirst...

Atthispoint,weneedtoconsiderthefollowingobjection...

In

this

section,

I

will...

Inthenextsection,Iwill...

Havingarguedfortheviewthat...,Inowwishtoconsiderrivalviews.

AlthoughIhaveshown...,Istillneedtoprove...

Next,Iwilloffersupportforwhatisperhapsmymostcontroversialassumption,that...

Ihavearguedthat...,butsomeonemightobject...

Furthersupportforthisclaimcomesfrom...

Thesetransitionalphrasesgoalongwaytowardsmakingthestructureofyourpaper

perspicuous.Toillustrate,considerthefollowingtwopaperfragments:1

...WevejustseenhowXsaysthatP. Iwillnowpresenttwoarguments

thatnotP.

Myfirstargumentis...

Mysecondargumentis...

Xmightrespondtomyargumentsinseveralways. Forinstance,he

1IborrowthisfromJamesPryors GuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.

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mightsaythat...

However,thisresponsefails,because...

AnotherwaythatXmightrespondtomyargumentsistoclaimthat...

Thisresponsealsofails,because...

SowehaveseenthatnoneoftheresponsesopentoXsucceedin

rebuttingmyargument. Hence,weshouldrejectXsclaimthatP.

IwillarguefortheviewthatQ.

TherearethreereasonstoacceptQ.

First...

Second...

Third...

ThestrongestobjectiontoQis...

However,thisobjectiondoesnotsucceed,forthefollowingreasons...

Noticehoweasyitistoidentifyandfollowthestructureofeachpaper.Youwantyour

papertobejustaseasytofollow.

Youmightalsoconsiderdividingyourpaperintosections(andpossiblyeven

subsections),usinginformativeheadingstohelpguideyourreader.Thistoocanhelp

makethestructureofyouressayperspicuous.

Illustration:

I.Introduction

II.SingersArgumentforanObligationtoAssist

III.

Why

We

Should

Reject

His

Initial

Assumption

IV. HowSingerMightRespond

V.Conclusion

5.2Thestructureofthesentenceswithinyourparagraphs:Notonlyshouldtheparagraphs

withinanessaycohere,butsoshouldthesentenceswithineachparagraph.Theyshould

flowsmoothlyfromonetothenext.Thereareanumberofwaystoachievethis:(1)

Repeatkeywordsandphrases.Itisimportanttobeconsistentwhenreferringtokey

conceptsandtheories.Thisconsistencyandrepetitionwillhelpbindtheparagraph

together.(2)Usepronounstorefertowhatwasmentionedearlierintheparagraph.If

yousay

This

is

true

because...,

the

reader

is

forced

to

recall

what

this

refers

to.

The

pronoun,thus,causesthereadertosumup,quicklyandsubconsciously,whatwassaid

previously(whatthisis)beforegoingontothebecauseclause.Ofcourse,itismust

alwaysbeperfectlyclearwhatthepronounrefersto.Ifthe this isambiguoussuchthat

itcouldrefertoeitheroneofthetwothingsthatyoumentionedintheprevious

sentence,thenthereaderwillhavetopausetofigureoutwhichitis,andthatsbad.(3)

Createparallelstructures.Parallelstructuresarecreatedbyconstructingtwoormore

phrasesorsentencesthathavethesamegrammaticalstructureorusethesamepartsof

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speech.Parallelstructureshelpthereaderseethattheparagraphisgivinganumberof

illustrationsofthesamegeneralidea.(4)Usetransitionalorbridgingwordstohelpthe

readerfollowthelogicalstructureoftheparagraph.

Herearesomeexamplesofsuchtransitionalwords:

Toshowaddition:and,also,besides,forone,inthefirstcase,first,second,third,finally

Tooffersupport:because,since,for,given Toconclude:so,thus,therefore,hence,consequently,accordingly,itfollowsthat,forthisreason,fromthis,asaresult,itwouldseemthen

Toillustrate:e.g.,forexample,forinstance,toillustrate,acaseinpoint Tospecify:i.e.,thatis,viz.,namely,specifically Tointensify:moreover,furthermore,mainly,principally,aboveall,afterall,whatsmore,moreimportantly

Toemphasize:certainly,indeed,infact,ofcourse Tocompare:likewise,similarly,bythesamereasoning Tocontrast:yet,but,rather,still,although,while,nevertheless,regardless,despite,evenso,inspiteof,however,whereas,eventhough,bycontrast,ontheone

hand...ontheotherhand...

Torefocus:inanycase,atanyrate,inaword,inshort,tosumup,toreturn Toindicatesupposition:assume,suppose,letsassume,letssuppose Toconcedeapoint:ofcourse,doubtless,itcannotbedenied,whilerecognizing,thefactremains

Illustration:Lookatthefollowingparagraph:2

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby

makingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeen

discoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacial

featuresofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasethey

sufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.The

processwasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictions

ofthedeadpeople:amiddleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpolio

killedachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,

applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyin

layersofbandages.

Thoughweak,thisparagraphisnotatotalwashout.Itstartswithatopicsentence,and

thesentencesthatfollowareclearlyrelatedtothetopicsentence.Inthelanguageof

writing,theparagraphisunified(i.e.,itcontainsnoirrelevantdetails).However,the

paragraphisnotcoherent.Thesentencesaredisconnectedfromeachother,makingit

difficultforthereadertofollowthewriterstrainofthought.

2FromCharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.

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Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.(Italicsindicatespronounsand

repeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionalwords,andunderliningindicatesparallel

structures.)

TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby

makingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingthe

internalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Andtheprocesswasremarkably

effective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscovered

nearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeatures

arestillevident.Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritional

deficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Eventheirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:a

middleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.

Theparagraphisnowmuchmorecoherent.Theorganizationoftheinformationandthe

linksbetweensentenceshelpreadersmoveeasilyfromonesentencetothenext.Notice

howthiswriterusesavarietyofcoherencedevices,sometimesincombination,to

achieveoverall

paragraph

coherence.

6.DemonstratingMasteryofthePertinentPhilosophicalMaterialAgoodphilosophypaperwilldemonstratemasteryofthepertinentphilosophical

views,concepts,andarguments.Todemonstratemastery,youmustdomorethanjust

regurgitatewhatyouhavememorizedfromthelecturesandreadings.Regurgitation

doesntevendemonstrateunderstandingletalonemastery.(ThisiswhyIsuggestthat

youusequotesonlysparingly,andthatwhenyoudousethemyoualwaysexplainwhat

thequotedpassagesaysinyourownwordsseethesectionentitled Quotingbelow.)

Furthermore,theresadifferencebetweenmerelyunderstandingatopicandmastering

it.Foryoucanunderstandsomematerialwithoutbeingabletoconveythatunderstandingtoothers.Tohavemasteryistohavetheabilitytoteachthatmaterialto

others,tobeabletoexplainthematerialarticulatelyusingyourownwords,

descriptions,andexamples,suchthatevensomeonewithnopriorknowledgeor

understandingofthematerialcouldunderstand.Onceyouvemasteredatopic,you

shouldunderstanditwellenoughtogobeyondwhatyouhavereadaboutit.You

shouldbeabletopresentanddefendyourownviewsonthetopic.Thekey,then,to

demonstratingmasteryistoshowthatyoucanexplainthingsinanilluminatingway,

usingyourownwordsandusingyourownoriginalexamplesanddescriptions.

7.ArguingforYourPositionWritingaphilosophypaperinvolvesmorethansimplystatingyouropinions.Youmust

supportyourviewsbypresentingargumentsinfavorofthem.Youshouldalsotryto

defendyourviewsagainstpotentialcriticisms.Thatis,trytoanticipatewhatobjections

mightberaisedagainstyourviewsanddemonstrateboththatyouareawareofthese

possibleobjectionsandthatyoucanrespondtothemmoreonthislater.

Aphilosophypapershouldberationallypersuasive.Forone,thismeansthatyou

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shouldappealtoyourreadersintellectasopposedtohis/heremotions.Thusyoushould

avoidtheuseofinflammatorylanguageandnamecalling.Forinstance,avoid

statementssuchas, AnydoctorwhowouldgiveapatientalethalinjectionisaNazi.

Second,ifyourargumentsaretobepersuasive,theymustnotrestuponunsupported,

contentiousclaims.Insteadtheyshouldultimatelyrestuponassumptionsthatevena

reasonablepersonoftheopposingviewwouldaccept.Soif,forinstance,youwanttoarguethatabortionismorallywrong,youshouldntbeginbyassumingthatthefetus

hasarighttolife.Realizethatsuchanargumentwouldunlikelypersuadeanyonewho

is prochoice. Afterall,theviewthatthefetushasarighttolifefromthemomentof

conceptionispreciselywhatmostprochoiceadvocateswouldcontest.Ofcourse,you

canarguethatthefetushasarighttolife;youjustshouldntassumeit.

Thepointistoavoidmakinganyassumptionswhichsomeoneoftheopposingview

issuretoreject.Youshouldthinkofyourpaperasanattempttopersuadesomeoneof

theopposingview,andifyouaretohaveanychanceofpersuadingsuchaperson,you

mustfirstfindsomecommongroundfromwhichtobuildyourarguments.Agood

exampleof

what

I

have

in

mind

here

is

Judith

Jarvis

Thomson

s

arguments

in A

DefenseofAbortion. Inthispaper,Thomsonarguesthatabortionismorally

permissiblewherethewomanispregnantastheresultofbeingraped.Nowwhatmakes

Thomsonsargumentssocompellingisthattheyarebasedonassumptionsthateventhe

mostextremeantiabortionist(i.e.,onewhoholdsthatabortionisalwayswrong)would

likelyaccept.

Thomsonasksyoutoimaginewakingupsomemorningtofindyourselfconnectedto

anunconsciousviolinistsufferingfromapotentiallyfatalkidneyailment.Supposethat

lastnighttheSocietyofMusicLoverskidnappedyouand,withoutyourconsent,

surgicallyconnectedtheviolinisttoyourcirculatorysysteminadesperateattemptto

save

his

life.

You

now

face

the

following

choice.

You

can

remain

connected

to

the

violinistforninemonthsbywhichtimetheviolinistwillbeabletosurviveonhisown,

oryoucanunplugyourselffromtheviolinistinwhichcasetheviolinistwill

immediatelydieasaresult.

Thomsonassumesthatinthissituationyouareundernoobligationtoremain

connectedtotheviolinistfortheninemonths.Youmayunplugyourselffromthe

violinistevenifthisentailskillinghim.Nowthisassumptionseemsrelatively

uncontroversial;itisonethatevenaproliferwouldlikelyaccept.Butfromthis

seeminglybenignassumption,Thomsonisabletoarguethatabortionissometimes

permissibleevenifthefetushasarighttolife,fortheviolinistsurelyhasarighttolife

andyetitispermissibleforyoutokillhim.Andabortingafetuswhoseexistenceisdue

torapeis,inallmorallyrelevantrespects,analogoustounpluggingyourselffromthe

violinist(orsoThomsonargues).ThusThomsonconcludesthatitispermissibletohave

anabortionincertaincircumstances(i.e.,thecaseofrape)evenifthefetushasarightto

lifefromthemomentofconception.

8.CriticizinganArgument

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Donttreatthephilosophersorviewsyourediscussingasiftheywerestupid.Ifthey

werestupid,wewouldntbediscussingtheminthefirstplace.Soevenifyouare

subsequentlygoingtocriticizeanargument,stateitfirstinafairandsympathetic

manner,makingclearwhyareasonablepersonmightbeledtothinkinsuchaway.In

somecases,itmayevenbenecessarytomakecharitablerevisionstoanargument.That

is,sometimesanargumentisflawedinawaythatcanbeeasilyfixed.Inthiscase,youshouldexplainhowtheargumentcanberevisedandthenfocusyourcriticismsonthis

stronger,revisedversionoftheargument.Forinstance,considerthefollowingobjection

againstThomsonsviolinistexample.SomepeoplearguethatThomsonsviolinist

exampleisntanalogoustopregnancybecausebeinghookeduptotheviolinistfornine

monthsisagreaterburdenforthepersonkidnappedthanpregnancyisforanexpectant

motheratleast,apregnantwomancanwalkaroundandgoplaces,whereastheperson

hookeduptotheviolinistisconfinedtoahospitalbed.ButitseemsthatThomsoncould

easilyreviseheranalogyandstilluseitforthesameeffect.Afterall,evenifwesuppose

thattheviolinistisamidgetwhocouldbecarriedononesbackfortheninemonths,it

stillseems

permissible

to

disconnect

yourself

from

him.

Thepointisyoudontwanttotaketheweakestargumentforanopposingviewan

attackthat.Ratheryouwanttothinkofthestrongestpossibleargumentforanopposing

viewandshowthateventhatargumentfails.Onlythenwillyouhaveconvincedothers

thattheopposingviewisindefensible.

Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatitisneverthecasethattheonlyproblemwithan

argumentisthatitsconclusionisfalse.Iftheconclusionisfalse,theneither(a)oneor

moreofitspremisesarefalseor(b)itsreasoningisfaultysuchthattheconclusion

doesntfollowfromthepremises.Thus,ifyoudisagreewiththeconclusionofan

argument,youmustfindfaultwitheitheritslogicorwithoneofitspremises,andyou

need

to

be

explicit

about

which

it

is

and

why.

Youshouldensurethatyourcriticismsfocusontherelevantphilosophicalissuesas

opposedtoanyrelatedempiricalissues.Inotherwords,Iamnotinterestedinpapers

thatcontesttheempiricalassertionsmadeinthelecturesandreadings.Thepointofthe

assignmentistodemonstrateyourphilosophicalabilities,notyourknowledgeofany

empiricalfacts.Soif,forinstance,yourpaperisaboutabortion,dontgettooinvolvedin

empiricalissuessuchaswhetherornotthefetusissentientorselfawareby,say,the

secondtrimester.Youshouldinsteadfocusontherelatedphilosophicalissuessuchas

howsentienceandselfawarenesscanaffectthemoralstatusofafetus.

9.ConsideringPotentialObjectionsAfterofferingreasonsforacceptingyourthesis,youneedtoconsiderpotential

objections. Theseobjectionscomeintwovarieties,andyoumustconsiderboth.First,

thereareobjectionstoyourargument,whichcanbedirectedagainsteitheryour

reasoningoryourassumptions.Secondthereareobjectionstoyourthesis.Thefirstsort

ofobjectionisdirectedagainstthereasonsyougiveforyourthesis,whilethesecond

sortisdirectedagainstthethesisitself.

Todealwiththefirstsortofobjection,youwillprobablyneedtooffersubarguments

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(i.e.,argumentsthatdefendcertainstepsorassumptionsmadeinyourmainargument).

Butfirstyoullneedtoaskyourself,towhichofmyassumptionsandtowhichofthe

stepsinmyargumentissomeoneoftheopposingviewlikelytoobject.Youllneedto

offercounterargumentsagainstsuchobjections.Ultimately,theargumentativesteps

andassumptionsyourelyonshouldbeacceptabletoyouropponent.Thispartofyour

essayisabsolutelyessential.Forifyoufailtoconsiderandrebutsuchobjections,thenyouwillhavefailedtomakeasatisfactorypositivecaseforyourthesis.

Theothertypeofobjectionisdirectedagainstyourthesis/conclusion.Youshouldask

yourselfthefollowingquestions:Doesmyconclusionhaveanycontroversial

implications?CanIthinkofanycounterexamplestomyconclusion?And,most

importantly,DONTIGNOREYOUROPPONENTSCOUNTERARGUMENTS.Ifyou

makeaclaimthatoneofthephilosopherswevediscussedhasarguedagainst,you

absolutelymustaddressthatargumentseethesectionentitled Criticizingan

Argument. Inotherwords,ifyourthesisisPandoneofthephilosophersweve

discussedhasarguednotP,thenyoumustshowwherethatphilosophersargumentfor

notP

goes

wrong.

If

you

don

t,

you

will

receive

a

poor

grade.

Of

course,

if

you

don

t

thinkthatyoucanadequatelyrebuttheargument,thenyouneedtochangeyourthesis

tosomethingyoucandefend.

10.YourAudienceInyourpaper,youmustdemonstratethatyouhavemasteryofthephilosophicalissues

andargumentsthatyouarediscussing. Thebestwaytogoaboutdoingthisisby

pretendingthatyouarewriting,notforyourinstructor,butforsomeonewhoknows

absolutelynothingaboutphilosophyorthecoursethatyouretaking. So,asJamesPryor

putsit,

Pretendthatyourreaderhasnotreadthematerialyourediscussing,andhasnotgiventhetopic

muchthoughtinadvance.Thiswillofcoursenotbetrue.Butifyouwriteasifitweretrue,itwill

forceyoutoexplainanytechnicalterms,toillustratestrangeorobscuredistinctions,andtobeas

explicitaspossiblewhenyousummarizewhatsomeotherphilosophersaid.

Infact,youcanprofitablytakethisonestepfurtherandpretendthatyourreaderislazy,

stupid,andmean.Heslazyinthathedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourconvolutedsentences

aresupposedtomean,andhedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourargumentis,ifitsnotalready

obvious.Hesstupid,soyouhavetoexplaineverythingyousaytohiminsimple,bitesizedpieces

[whilealsoillustratingyourpointswithhelpfulexamples].Andhesmean,sohesnotgoingto

readyourpapercharitably.(Forexample,ifsomethingyousayadmitsofmorethanone

interpretation,hesgoingtoassumeyoumeantthelessplausiblething.)3

11.WritingClearlyandPreciselyRefrainfromusingstuffywordsandlongwindedsentences.Avoidpretentiousprose

suchas,alas,deem,quest,ponder,propound,etc.Beingclearisfarmore

importantthanappearingtohaveasophisticatedwritingstyle.Avoidusingvocabulary

3SeehisGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.

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thatyouareunaccustomedtousinginordinaryconversation.Toomanystudentsthink

thatbeingphilosophicalinvolvesbeingcomplexandobscure.Quitetheopposite,

simplicityandclarityaretheidealsofphilosophy.

Youshouldchooseyourwordsverycarefully.Askyourself:DoeswhatIvewritten

preciselyexpressthethoughtsthatImeantoconvey?Donotleavesomethingunclear

andjustassumethatyourreaderwillbeabletofigureoutwhatyoumean.Forinstance,dontwritesomethinglike Abortionisthesamethingasmurder. Abortionandmurder

arenotthesamething.Ifabortionandmurderwerethesamething,thenonecouldsay

thatJacktheRipperabortedmanywomen.But,ofcourse,thisisabsurd.JacktheRipper

murderedmanywomenbutabortednone.Ofcourse,mostpeoplewouldunderstand

thatwhatyoumeantwasthatabortionisaformofmurder.Butwhetherornotyour

readerisabletofigureoutwhatyoumeantisirrelevant,becauseeitherwayitisbad

writing.

Youwillfindthatphilosopherswritewithadegreeofprecisionthatgoeswell

beyondthatwhichiscustomaryinordinaryconversation,andIwillexpectthesame

degreeof

precision

in

your

essay.

The

best

way

to

ensure

that

you

write

clearly

is

to

keepyourprosesimpleanddirect.Donttrytomakeyourwriting colorful. For

instance,dontusemetaphors justplainlysaywhatitisyouhavetosay.Andavoid

overstatingwhatyouhavetosay.Overstatementiscommonineverydayconversation

butunacceptableinaphilosophypaper.Forinstance,inconversationsomeonemight

say, Everyoneinthetropicsissorelaxed. But,ofcourse,noteveryonelivinginthe

tropicsisrelaxed.Sobecarefulwhenusingwordslike every and all.

Andavoidthefollowingpitfalls:

BadDiction:Thisiswhereawordisusedinappropriately.Example:

Rachels

s

argument

is

false.

(Statements,

claims,

beliefs,

etc.

can

all

be

trueorfalse,butnotarguments.Argumentsarevalidorinvalid,soundor

unsound,cogentornotcogent.)

Example: Thestatement Allhumanlivesarevaluable infersthatthelivesofpermanentlyunconscioushumansarevaluable. (Toinferistodrawsome

conclusionfromasetofstatementsorfacts.Buttodrawaconclusionisamental

actthatonlyrationalbeingscanperform.Thestatement Allhumanlivesare

valuable hasnomindandsocannotperformanymentalact,letalonethatof

inferring.Inthisexample,properdictiondemandsthattheword infersbe

replacedwiththeword implies.)

Example: Utilitarianismbelievesthattherightactistheonethatproducesthegreatesthappinessforthegreatestnumber. (Utilitarianismisaview,nota

consciousentity.Thusutilitarianismisincapableofthementalactofbelieving.So

youmustrevisethissentence.Initsplace,youcouldsay, Utilitariansbelieve...

or Utilitarianismistheviewaccordingtowhich...)

Vagueness:Thisiswhereonefailstoexpresswhats/hemeansprecisely. Example: Abortionisnotthebestsolutiontoanunwantedpregnancy. (Doesthismeanthatalthoughyouthinkthatabortionismorallypermissible,you

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believethatitwouldbepreferableforwomenwithunwantedpregnanciesto

carrythemtotermandputtheirunwantedchildrenupforadoption?Or,does

thismeanthatyousimplythinkthatabortionismorallywrong?)

Ambiguity:Thisiswhereoneusesawordthatcanhavemorethanonemeaningbutfailstospecifywhichmeaningisintended.

Example: Afetusisaninnocenthumanbeing. (Byclaimingthatafetusishuman,areyoumerelyclaimingthatitisamemberofthespeciesHomosapiens?

Or,areyouclaimingthatitishumaninthemorallyrelevantsenseofthatterm,

thesenseinwhichwethinkyouandIarehumanbutsomeoneinapersistent

vegetativestateisnot?)

Example: Affirmativeactionisdiscrimination,plainandsimple. (Becarefulhere.Theword discrimination issometimesusedinanevaluativelyloaded

sensetorefertoprejudicedaction,butitisalsousedinanevaluativelyneutral

sensetorefertotheactofrespondingtodifferences.Andwhileitisclearthat

affirmativeactioninvolvestheactofrespondingtodifferencesinrace,itisnotat

allclear

that

it

involves

prejudice.

Consider

the

case

where

a

casting

director

refusestoauditionawhiteactorfortheroleofMalcolmX.Isthisdiscrimination?

Well,itisclearlydiscriminationintheevaluativelyneutralsenseoftheterm,but

itdoesntseemtobebasedonprejudice.Bottomline,theresnothingplainand

simpleaboutclaimingthataffirmativeactionisdiscrimination.)

12.ArguingAgainstaClaimThefollowingaretwoofthemostcommonstrategiesforarguingagainstaclaim(You

mayfinditusefultoemploythesestrategiesinyourownpaperortoconsiderwhether

youropponentmightbeabletousethemagainstyou.):

ReductioadAbsurdum:Thisstrategyinvolvesarguingagainstaclaimbyshowingthatitimpliessomeabsurdity.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeopleclaimthatthereason

humansufferingismoreimportant(morallyspeaking)thananimalsufferingisthat

humanshaveakindanddegreeofintelligencethatotheranimalslack.Here,onecould

arguethatweshouldrejectsuchaclaimgiventhatitimpliesthatthesufferingof

severelyretardedinfants(whoalsolackthekindanddegreeofintelligencethatnormal

adultshumanbeingspossess)islessimportantthanthesufferingofnormaladult

humanbeings,whichjustseemspatentlyabsurd.

PresentingaCounter

example:

This

strategy

involves

giving

an

example

that

proves

somegeneralpropositionfalse.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeoplemaintainthatwe

onlyhavedutiestohelpthosepeoplethatstandinsome specialrelationship to

ourselves.Forinstance,theysayIhaveadutytohelpmyfamilybecauseofthenatureof

familialrelationships.AndtheysaythatIhaveadutytohelpmyemployerbecauseof

thenatureoftheemployer/employeerelationship.However,theywoulddenythatI

haveadutytohelpmyfriendsemployersinceIdonotstandinanyspecialrelationship

tothatemployer;sheisnotmyemployer.

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Onewaytoargueagainstthisviewistopresentacounterexample.Onefamous

example,whichcomesfromthephilosophicalliterature,iscalled TheShallowPond.

Imaginethatwhilewalkingtoclassoneday,youseeasmallchilddrowningina

shallowpond.Inordertosavethechild,youneedonlywadeintotheshallowpondand

grabthechild.Nowmostofusareinclinedtojudgethatyouhaveadutytosavethe

child.Weareeveninclinedtothinkthatitwouldbeseriouslymorallywrongtojustwalkawayandletthechilddrown.Butnotethatyoudonotstandinanyspecial

relationshiptothechild,forwearetosupposethatthechildisacompletestrangerwho

belongstoadifferentcultureandsociety.TheShallowPond,then,constitutesacounter

exampletotheclaimthatweonlyhaveadutytoaidthosewithwhomwehavesome

specialrelationship.

13.DefiningYourTermsAvoiddictionarydefinitionsofphilosophicalterms.Dictionariesarenotauthoritative

whenitcomestophilosophicalmeanings.Dictionariesaregoodauthoritiesonthe

commonandordinaryusageofwords,buttheproblemisthatthephilosophicaluseofa

wordrarelycoincideswithordinaryusage.Philosophicaltermsoftenhavevery

specializedmeanings.Considerthewords valid and true. Inordinaryconversation,

thewordscanoftenbeusedinterchangeably,aswhensomeonemightsubstitute Thats

avalidclaim for Thatsatrueclaim. Butdontbemisledbythis.Youcannotusethe

word true todescribeanargument.Asphilosophersusetheseterms, valid isusedto

describethoseargumentswheretheconclusionnecessarilyfollowsfromthepremises,

and true isusedtodescribethosestatements(notarguments!)thataccurately

representthewaytheworldis.

Althoughyoushouldnotuseadictionarytodoso,itisimportanttodefine

philosophicalterms,aswellasotherkeyterms.Awordmustbedefinedifanyoffollowingapply:(1)itisatechnicaltermthatalaypersonisnotlikelytoknowthe

meaningof,(2)itisanordinarywordwhosemeaningisnotsufficientlyclearorprecise,

or(3)itisanordinarywordthatisgoingtobeusedtomeansomethingotherthanwhat

itordinarilymeans.Sodefinetechnicaltermslike determinism, aprioriknowledge,

and primafaciewrong. Anddefinewordslike euthanasia and abortion. Although

thesearefairlyordinarywords,theirprecisedefinitionsareopenfordebate.For

instance,inregardstoabortion,itisnotclearwhetherabortionnecessarilyinvolves

killingthefetus.Cantherebe livebirth abortions?Ifafetusisforciblyextractedbya

physicianandlives,wasitanabortion?Ourordinarynotionofabortionisntprecise

enoughto

settle

the

issue.

Lastly,ifyouaregoingtouseanordinarywordtomeansomethingotherthanwhat

itordinarilymeans,youmustmakethatcleartoyourreader.Forinstance,PeterSinger

usestheword person torefertoanyrational,selfconsciousbeing.Thus,asSinger

defines person, nonhumanscanbepersons.Ofcourse,itmayseemoddtocall

anythingbutahumanbeingaperson,butthisisonlybecauseSingerdoesntuse

person tomeanwhatitordinarilymeans.Nevertheless,thereisnothingwrongwith

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usinganordinarywordinsuchanonordinarysensesolongasyoumakeitclearthat

youaredoingso andSingerdoes.

14.QuotingDo

not

rely

on

quotations

as

a

means

of

making

your

points.

You

should,

rather,

explain

thingsusingyourownwords.Theabilitytoexplainsomeoneelsespositionusingyour

ownwordsdemonstratestothereaderthatyouhaveaclearunderstandingofthat

personsviewpoint.Youshouldalsoavoidcloseparaphrasingforthesamereason.

Usequotationsonlyinordertosupportaparticularinterpretationofatext.Sodont

quoteunlessyouintendtodiscussthequotedpassageandhowitsupportsyour

interpretationofthetext.Perhapstheonlyotherexceptioniswhereyouwanttoquote

theprecisedefinitionofaword,asitisgivenbyoneofthephilosophersthatyoure

discussing.

15.PlagiarismPlagiarismistheactofusinganotherpersonsideasorexpressionsinyourwriting

withoutacknowledgingthesource...toplagiarizeistogivetheimpressionthatyouhave

writtenorthoughtsomethingthatyouhaveinfactborrowedfromsomeoneelse....

Otherformsofplagiarismincluderepeatingsomeoneelsesparticularlyaptphrase

withoutappropriateacknowledgment,paraphrasinganotherpersonsargumentasyour

own,andpresentinganotherslineofthinkingasthoughitwereyourown.4

Ifyouareatallunclearaboutwhatcountsasplagiarism,thenyoushouldseeyour

instructorbecauseplagiarismoftencarriesseverepenalties,rangingfromanFonthe

assignmenttoexpulsionfromtheuniversity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Icannotclaimcreditformanyoftheideascontainedwithinthisguide.Manyofthem

havecomefromtheotherguidesthatIvelookedatIvelistedthembelow.Ihavealso

borrowedfromhandoutsusedbycolleaguesatboththeUniversityofCalifornia,Santa

BarbaraandtheCollegeofCharleston.Ihavetriedtogivecreditwherecreditisdue,but

Imayhaveleftsomepeopleout.Mysincereapologiestothoseindividualsandmy

thankstotheauthorsofallthoseguides.

OTHERGUIDESTOWRITINGPHILOSOPHY

A.P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996). JoelFeinbergandRussShaferLandau,DoingPhilosophy(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,2001).

StephenM.Garrison,AnthonyJ.Graybosch,andGregoryM.Scott,ThePhilosophyStudentWritersManual(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1997).

P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996).4JosephGibaldiandWalterS.Achert,MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers,3rded.(NewYork,NY:

TheModernLanguageAssociation,1988),2125.

5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper

18/18

JayF.Rosenberg,ThePracticeofPhilosophy:AHandbookforBeginners,3rded.(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1995).

ZacherySeech,WritingPhilosophyPapers,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1997). ColinAllen, AGuidetoWritingPhilosophyEssays.http://snaefell.tamu.edu/~colin/Phil416/writing.html.

IstvanBerkeley, HowtoWriteaPhilosophyPaper.http://www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/php/phil/mclaughl/courses/howrit.htm.

BarryBrown, HowtoWriteanEssayinBioethics.http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/brown1.html.

RichCameron, TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper.http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html.

R.L.Franklin, OnWritingPhilosophyAssignments.http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/emd/staff/godlovs/tips/rlfessay.htm.

JamesHarold, OnWritingPhilosophyPapers.http://www.tc.umn.edu/~harol006/paper.html.

R.W.Hepburn, Goodandbadinphilosophyessays.http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vademecum/sections/section4/4

1.htm.

PeterLipton, WritingPhilosophy.http://www.pitt.edu/~rclifton/WritingPhilosophy.html.

GeoffreyPayzant, Whatdoeshewant?http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/payzant.html.

JamesPryor, GuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.http://www.princeton.edu/~jimpryor/general/writing.html.

EvanThompsonandDuffWaring, EssayWritingHandbookforPhilosophyStudents.

http://www.yorku.ca/hjackman/Teaching/handbook.pdf.

MichaelTooley, WritingaGoodEthicsEssay.http://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html.

EllenWatson, AGuideforWritingPapersinPhilosophy.http://www.uq.oz.au/~pdgdunn/watessay.htm.

MartinYoung, UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting.http://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/.

RichCameron, TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper, athttp://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html.

AdamPolak, EssentialsofEffectivePersuasiveEssays, athttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html.

CharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.

MartinYoung, UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting, athttp://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/.