sedimentology application in petroleum industry

SEDIMENTOLOGYAPPLICATION IN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Sedimentologist (Geologist)

Practical Use and Reference

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION TO SEDIMENTOLOGY

2. HYDRODYNAMICS: SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

3. SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE

4. FLUVIAL DELTAIC SEDIMENTATION

1. INTRODUCTION TO SEDIMENTOLOGY

Sedimentology :

Sedimentary rocks :

Rocks that are resulted from weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and diagenesis/lithification processes

Weathering/erosion

Transportation

Deposition

Sedimentary Rocks

Lithification/diagenesis

one of the branches of geology that deals specifically withsedimentary rocks or studies sedimentary rocks / sedimentswith all its processes

Depositional environments on the earth surface control how sediment is transported and deposited.

Continental

Environment

Shoreline

Environment

Marine

Environment

SEDIMENTOLOGY APPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS EXPLORATIONDepositional Environment

Depositional environment sediment body geometry reservoir heterogeneity petrophysics exploration and production strategy

sand isopach map of different delta types (Coleman and Wright, 1975)

T I D E S

channels

MIXEDTIDE WAVE

FLUVIAL

W A V E

FLUVIAL

W A V E

W A V ET I D E S

Depositional environment tends to become a template, no respect on processes-response analyses mis-interpretation

failure in exploration and production strategy

Typical Log Characters of Major Depositional Environment

SEDIMENTOLOGY APPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS EXPLORATIONDepositional Environment

weathering and erosion processes provenance climate & tectonic setting basin history structural styles petroleum system analyses

exploration and production strategy

Provenance analyses from QFL triangular diagram (Dickinson, 1985)

SEDIMENTOLOGY APPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS EXPLORATIONWeathering and Erosion Processes

transportation processes hydrodynamics forward prediction of texture reservoir quality & distribution exploration and production strategy

IIIIII

Rel. ConcentrationVelocity in cm/sec

SUSPENDED L

NO TRANSPORTATION

BED LOAD TRANSPORTATION

TRANSPO

RTATIO

TRANSPO

RTATIO

Critical

erosio

n velocity

Cessatio

n of movem

0.4 0.6 1.0

0.0010.010.10.50.9

Rel. Concentration Grain diameter in mm (and )o

(8.0) (7.0) (6.0) (5.0) (4.0) (3.0) (2.0) (1.0) (0.0) (-1.0) (-2.0) (-3.0) (-4.0)

IIIIII

Rel. ConcentrationVelocity in cm/sec

SUSPENDED L

NO TRANSPORTATION

BED LOAD TRANSPORTATION

TRANSPO

RTATIO

TRANSPO

RTATIO

Critical

erosio

n velocity

Cessatio

n of movem

0.4 0.6 1.0

0.0010.010.10.50.9

Rel. Concentration Grain diameter in mm (and )o

(8.0) (7.0) (6.0) (5.0) (4.0) (3.0) (2.0) (1.0) (0.0) (-1.0) (-2.0) (-3.0) (-4.0)

The diagram is showing relationship between flow velocity, grain size, and state ofsediment movement for uniform material of density 2.56 (quartz and feldspar). (AfterSundborg, 1967; in Reineck & Singh, 1980).

SEDIMENTOLOGY APPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS EXPLORATIONTransportation Processes

Diagenesis / lithification processes basin fluid-flow & burial history petroleum system analyses exploration and production strategy

Diagenetic and enviromentally significant fluid/rock interactions within the principal hyrologicregimes in an actively filling sedimentary basin (Harrison, 1989 in Galloway, 1984)

Sea Level

COMPACTIONALHYDROSTATIC

COMPACTIONALGEOPRESSURED

THERMOBARIC

METEORICREGIME

- Dehydration reactions- Smectite diagenesis- Ferroan carboates- Input of basement-

derived fluids- Transition to

metamorphism

- Burial diagenesis- Quartz cement- Albitization of feldspar

calcite, kaolinite- Reactions associated

with hydrocarbonmaturation, migration

- Early diagenesis- Unconformity

diagenesis- Dissolution of Mg-

calcite, aragonitefeldspar, chert

- Precipitation ofkaolinite, calcite,smectite

Disposal ofcontaminants,

mine waste, nuclearwaster, etc

Deep well injectionof brines

Deepest wells (7 km)produce; origin ofsome ore-forming

fluids

SEDIMENTOLOGY APPLICATION IN OIL AND GAS EXPLORATIONDiagenesis / Lithification

Practical Flaws (1):

Coarsening upward sequence = a bar or even a delta

Barren sequence = fluvial deposit

Channel-like feature = distributary channel

Deltaic sands = channel/bars in delta-plain and/or delta-front

Coal = delta

Mahakam Delta = model for all Indonesian deltas

Practical Flaws (2):

Burrows/bioturbation = marine deposit

Type of delta inferred from 2-D data

Cross-bedding = channel

Depositional environment = template

No respect to process-response analyses

Vertical thinking

2. HYDRODYNAMICS: Sediment transport

Sediment transport type

Gravity Flow

Traction current

Turbidity current

Upper Flow Regime

Debris flow or mass flow

Lower Flow Regime

Water surface

Stream bed

AWater surface

Stream bed

BWater surface

Stream bed

Schematic representation of laminar vs. turbulent fluid flow:

A. Laminar flow over a smooth stream bed.

B. Laminar flow over a spherical particle on a smooth bed.

C. Turbulent flow over a smooth bed. The arrows indicate flow

paths of the fluid

(Boggs, 1995)

TYPE OF FLOW: LAMINAR VS TURBULENT FLOW

TRACTION CURRENT

Traction Current

Character: the movement of water which cause the sediments to be carried at the bottom of the water.

Traction current clear water, only shear stress between H20 molecules so moving the sands below it.

TRANSPORTATION

Traction CurrentHjulstrom Diagram

Diagram of Median fall diameter-Stream Power T.V (Harms et al, 1982)

Chutes & pools

= sand waves

Traction CurrentBedforms – Ripple / Dune Terminology

Flow direction

Internal character of ripples. Note dominance of forset over single bottom set

laminae and a stoss side laminae

Bottom set

Fore set cose

Traction CurrentCross Terminology

Ripple cross-lamination from Bayah Formation (Cihara Beach)

Traction CurrentBedforms – Antidune Genetic

Water surface

Scheme showing three modes of deposition in antidunes.

A. Poorly defined low-angled laminae on the down-stream slope;

B. Lamine draping over the complete antidune;

C. low-angled inclined laminae, dipping upstream. Type C is most common & originates when antidunesmove upstream & break. (Kennedy, 1961)

Traction CurrentBedforms – Parallel Structure

Bayah Formation, Cihara Beach

GRAVITY FLOW

Gravity Flow

Gravity flow is another type of sediment which due primarily to the difference in density between water with suspended sediments and clear water outside the suspension.

It can take place in otherwise still water.

The water contain suspended grains grains move with water and deposited

Turbidity current: sediment which is carried in suspension by turbulent current is borne out onto a slope gain a gravitational component become suspension is heavier than the surrounding clear water turn into a density current (turbidity current)

Turbidity current consist of suspensions of sediment in water.

Gravity FlowTurbidity current

Postulated structure of head & body of a turbidity current advancing into deep water. The tail is not shown. (After Allen, J.R.L., 1985)

Gravity FlowSubmarine Canyons & Deep Sea Fans

Gravity FlowWalker’s Model

Gravity FlowBouma Sequence: Graded Beds

Scour base

3. SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

A key to the interpretation of the “Depositional Setting” of sedimentary rocks

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURESPrimary Bedforms (formed DURING deposition)

2A-Flute casts2B-Tool Marks

Groove castsProd marks, bounce marksChevron marks

2. Erosion Structures on the UNDER side of beds (sole markings)

3A-Rill marks3B-Wind erosion3C-Raindrop imprints

3. Erosion Structures on the UPPER side of beds (sole markings)

1A-Plane Beds1B-Ripples

1C-Dunes

Planar laminationsRipples cross-lamination &Small-scale cross-laminationLarge-scale cross-stratifications (cross bedding)Graded Bedding

1. Internal Structures

After Bjorlykke (1984)

• Swaley & Hummocky

• Herringbone

• Flaser-wavy-lenticular

• Symmetric & Asymmetric Ripple

• convolute

Variant :

Bed form

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURESSecondary Bedforms (formed AFTER deposition)

4A Dish structures (immediately after deposition)

4B Sandstone dykes4C Sand volcanoes

4. Water Escape

6A-Dessication mudcraks6B-Shrinkage cracks, synaeresis6C-Frost cracks (polygons)

6. Cracks

7A-SlumpingGrowth faults

7. Deformation Structures (due to gravity)

5A-Load casts5B-Ball & pillow structures5C-Clay diapirs

5. Load Structures (inverse density gradient)

After Bjorlykke (1984)

+ Biogenic Structure

1.a. Primary Bedform:Cross Stratification

= Mega ripples

Cross lamination / ripple cross -lamination / small-scale cross-lamination

Cross lamination

Cross bedding / Large scale cross-stratification

Parallel lamination / Parallel bedding

Cross bedding

Cross StratificationBedform Hierarchy

Cross StratificationVariant 1: Swale & Hummocky Cross Stratification

STORM SURGE

MEAN SEA LEVEL

HUMMOCKY DEPOSITION

TURBIDITE DEPOSITION

FAIRWEATHER WAVE BASE

STORM WAVE BASE

GRADED RHYTHMITE DEPOSITION(SIMPLE FALLOUT)

Cross StratificationVariant 1: Swale & Hummocky Cross Stratification

Cross StratificationVariant 2: Herringbone

‘Tide in’ and ‘Tide out’ are in opposite direction

Wave & beach profile are in upright position

Location of Formation

• flaser bedding - commonly forms in relatively high energy environments (sand flats)

• wavy bedding - commonly forms in environments that alternate frequently from higher to

lower energies (mixed flats)

• lenticular bedding - commonly forms in relatively low energy environments (mud flats)

Cross StratificationVariant 3: Structure caused by tidal

(Flaser-Wavy-Lenticular)

subtidal

Low tide level

intertidal

High tide level

supratidal

CHANNEL

Lenticular

beddingsubtidal

Wavy bedding

Roofed

Fioser

bedding

Lateral

accretion

bedding

Low tide

High tide

intertidal

supratidal

Cross StratificationVariant 4: Asymmetric Wave Ripple

L5 - 15 M

Symmetric wave ripple

Asymmetric wave ripple

breaker

1.b. Primary Bedform:Non-Cross Stratification

Note High Energy Planar Beds

Photo: G. Voulgaris

Beach Face - South Carolina Foreshore

Traction CurrentBedforms – Parallel Structure

Gravity FlowBouma Sequence: Graded Beds

2. Primary Bedform: Erosion Structures on the UNDER side of beds (sole markings)

Flute casts, Tool Marks, Groove casts, Crescent, Prod marks, bounce marks, Chevron marks

Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BEDSole Marking: Formation of Flute Cast

Erosion of bedDeposition Burial and

lithification

Subaerial

erosion

Tectonic

tilting

Tectonic

overturningSubaerial

erosion

Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BEDSole Marking: Flute Cast

Straight ridges the result of objects being dragged on surface

Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BEDSole Marking: Groove Cast

Erosion Structure on UNDER SIDE of BEDSole Marking: Crescent

3. Primary Bedform: Erosion Structures on the UPPER side of beds (sole markings)

Rill marks, Wind erosion, Raindrop imprints

Erosion Structure on the UPPER SIDE of BEDSole Marking: Rain Drops

4. Secondary Bedform: Water Escape

Dish structures, Sandstone dykes, Sand volcanoes

Dish Structure - Ordovician - KTy

Secondary StructureWater Escape: Dish Structure

5. Secondary Bedform: Load Structures

Load Casts, Flame Structures, Ball & Pillow Structures, Clay Diapirs

Carbonate Load Cast – Ordovician -Kty

Secondary StructureLoad Structure: Load Cast

Secondary StructureLoad Structure: Flame Structure

Secondary StructureLoad Structure: Ball & Pillow

6. Secondary Bedform: Cracks

Dessication mudcraks, Shrinkage cracks, synaeresisFrost cracks (polygons)

Product of desiccation &

contraction of muddy sediments

Secondary StructureCracks: Mud Cracks

Mud cracks demonstrate drying-out of a thin layer of sediment fine enough to have significant cohesion. Definite proof of terrestrial setting or very shallow water marginal marine.

7. Secondary Bedform: Deformation Structures

Slumping & Growth faults

Secondary StructureDeformation Structures due to Gravity: Slumping

Bayah Formation, G. Walat

Secondary StructureDeformation Structures due to Gravity: Growth Fault

Biogenic Structure

SOME CLUES … !

Gravity FlowThe Bouma Sequence

Comparing Bouma w/ Allen SequenceG

Where does turbidite happen?

Turbidite =

High energy + suspension mixed (mud, mass flow), + SLOPE

alluvial fan, crevasse splay, submarine fan, thalweg (lag deposit), pro delta, continental shelf.

Some CluesNormal & Abnormal Process

FLUVIAL TIDAL WAVE

Climbing Ripple a. Flaser-Wavy-Lenticular (ripple bed form)

a. Hummocky (HCS) –Swale

b. Wave Ripple –interference ripple

Through cross-bed b. Clay doublete / couplette Low angle cross stratification (foreshore sandstone)

c. Clay drapes (should be on fore set)

Rare burrow d. Lots burrow Fair burrow

FLUVIAL

TSUNAMI

Graded bedding (turbidite) distal floodplain climbing

ripple on flood plain (covered by suspension ?)

Hummocky (HCS) – Swale (?)

Some CluesTidal Process Clues: clay doublette / couplette

Fine-grained

Some CluesTidal Process Clues: Mud drapes

Mud drapes typical of tidal channel deposit

normal

Climbing ripple

Some CluesClimbing Ripple on Flood Plain

The Genetic of Sand-Shale Striping Form

1. Clay drape cause of tide ripple & clay

2. Classical flysch graded bedding & clay

3. Big Lake algal blooming when lake level rise & down

4. Flood Plain deposit when flood

Vertical & Lateral Succession

Three Types of Sediment Accumulations

Vertical Change Succession

1. Progradation

Lateral outbuilding, or progradation, of strata in a sea-ward direction.

Progradation can occur as a result of a sea-level rise accompanied by a high

sediment flux (causing a regression).

Coarsening upward

Example where c/u happen:

Delta (in general), Delta front (mouth bar), Bar (open marine), alluvial fan, crevasse splay, submarine fan

2. Aggradation

Vertical build up of a sedimentary sequence. Usually occurs when there is a relative rise

in sea level produced by subsidence and/or eustatic sea-level rise, and the rate of

sediment influx is sufficient to maintain the depositional surface at or near sea level.

Blocky

Massive, no structure: turbid / mass flow (sediment grain size are all the same) all to be sedimentation directly ≤ 1 m

3. Retrogradation

The movement of coastline land-ward in response to a transgression.

This can occur during a sea-level rise with low sediment flux.

Fining upward

Example where f/u happen (winning current normal process):

Channel fill to be abandonment

Lateral Accretion Surfaces

(lateral progradation)

.......

..........

........

. .... .

Lateral Accretion

Lag Deposit

Lateral accretion indicate meandering (subaerial & / subaquaeous)

Lateral Change Succession

Sedimentation Proces Lateral Accretion Surfaces

Lateral Accretion

Cross StratificationVariant 5: Symmetric & Asymmetric Wave Ripple

Cruziana

Zoophycos

Skolithos

MUDDY SUBSTRATE SANDY SUBSTRATE

LOWER MIDDLE UPPER

WAVES BEGIN TO BUILD UP

SHOALING WAVES

SPILLING BREAKERS

SURF ZONE LOW

HIGH TIDE

Ichnofacies

LONGSHORE BARS

SHOREFACE

OFFSHORE

FORESHORE

STORM WAVE BASE

5 –15 ML

Cruziana

Zoophycos

Skolithos

MUDDY SUBSTRATE SANDY SUBSTRATE

LOWER MIDDLE UPPER

SURF ZONE LOW

HIGH TIDE

Ichnofacies

LONGSHORE BARS

SHOREFACE

OFFSHORE

FORESHORE

STORM WAVE BASE

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY

EXAGGERATED

5 –15 ML

4. FLUVIAL DELTAIC SEDIMENTATION

FLUVIAL

SYSTEM

( 3%>) Low Bed load/Total load ratio High (>11%)Small Sediment size LargeSmall Sediment load LargeLow Flow velocity HighLow Gradient High

ided M

eandering S

SEDIMENT

Mud – rich Sand - rich

Channel Boundary

( 3%>) Low Bed load/Total load ratio High (>11%)Small Sediment size LargeSmall Sediment load LargeLow Flow velocity HighLow Gradient High

ided M

eandering S

SEDIMENT

Mud – rich Sand - rich

Channel Boundary

Channel patterns displayed by dingle-channel segments and the

spectrum of associated variables. (modified from Schumm, 1981)

Fluvial Characterization

Fluvial Deltaic for Explorationist

AbandonedChannel

sequence

ActiveChannel

sequence

Sand deposite inactive braided channels Mudy deposition in

abandoned channels

AbandonedChannel

sequence

ActiveChannel

sequence

Sand deposite inactive braided channels Mudy deposition in

abandoned channels

Physiography and facies of a braided alluvial channel system

1. Braided channels system

2. Meandering channels architecture

SYSTEM

DeltaWhy Delta is unique ?

Delta contains all the petroleum system components from Source Rock to Trap.

Processes in Delta are composed of terrestrial processes & marine processes marine

Prerequirement: 1. There is a fluvial/river.

2. Standing body of water.

3. Positive feature.

Sediment influx from

aerial (aerial processes) is

bigger then sea processes.

Fan shaped of deltas of the Mississippi river at Gulf of Mexico

Fan shaped of Mahakam Deltas

When Delta Formed ?:

Fluvial /

Standing

Body of

Create

Positif

featureRESULT

Estuarine

Alluvial Fan

Tombolo, Barrier

Bar, Spit bar

Why Delta Formed ?

Alluvial Fan Estuarine

TomboloEstuarine

No Standing body of water No Positive feature

No River

No Positive feature

It is form from Terrestrial to Sea …

DeltaWhere is Delta forming ?

Alluvial Fan enter to the lake Called Fan Delta

Fan Delta (delta on terrestrial)

MORPHOLOGY AND ENVIRONTMENT OF DELTA

Morphology and environment of delta (Allen, GP 1998)

- Delta Plain

Dominated by Fluvial Processes & all terrestrial characters (Subaerial Delta)

- Delta Front

Indicated by Fluvial & Marine

Processes (Subaerial &

Subaquaeous Delta)

- Pro Delta

Dominated by Marine

Processes (Subaquaeous

Delta)

MEANDERING / TRIBUTARY/ FLUVIAL

DELTA PLAIN

ALLUVIAL PLAIN

DISTRIBUTARY

PRODELTA

DELTA FRONT

INTER DISTRIBUTARY

HEAD OF PASSES

SEDIMENT INPUT

MISSISSIPPI

MAHAKAM

DANUBA

SAO FRANSISCO

COPPER

WAVE ENERGY FLUX TIDAL ENERGY FLUX

FLIVIALDOMINATED

WAVEDOMINATED

TIDEDOMINATED

Yukon?

Mahakam

Calorado

Mekang

Ganges - BrahmaputraKlang - Langor

Kelantan

Sao Fransisco

Brotos

Burdenia

Si Bernard(Miss)

Danube

Lefourch(Miss)

PraqueminesModern Miss

Cooper

Morphologic and stratigraphic classification of delta system based on relative intensity of fluvial and marine processes. (Modified from Galloway, 1975)

Delta Classification

FLUVIAL-DOMINATED DELTA (FLUVIAL INFLUENCE)

Mississippi Delta crevasse onto the sea (not onto flood plain) also called Crevasse Delta / Splay Delta (indicate by many marine organism)

River-Dominated DeltaInter-distributary Bay

River-Dominated DeltaMississipi Delta

RIVER – DOMINATED DELTA

Elongate shape

Larga-scale, gradational C.U.S.

Clean, moderately sorted sands

0 10 20 30 40 50

Kilometers

Channel deposite

Sand ridge

River-Dominated DeltaSedimentation Character

10 2 -

12 –

Schematic illustration of progradation in deltaic and non deltaic coasts. On deltaic coasts,

progradation is due to a local source of fluvial sediment, whereas on non deltaic coasts the

sediment is transported along the coast from a distant fluvial source. (Adapted from Allen, 1996).

Fluvial

Sedimentology Supply

Prograding

10’s – 100’s km

Coastal Marshor lagoon

Fluvial DistriburyChannel-Fill

Upward-CoarseningMouth Bar Sand

Offshore Marine MudstoneOffshore Marine Mudstone

Shorelance Sand

Coastal Marshor lagoon

River-Dominated DeltaProgradation

WAVE-DOMINATED DELTA (TIDE INFLUENCE)

Wave-Dominated DeltaNile Delta - Egypt

Source: Worldwind NASA

WAVE – DOMINATED DELTA

Cuspate shape

Large-scale, often top-heavy C.U.S.

Clean, well sorted sands

ATLANTIC

Wave-Dominated DeltaSedimentation Characteristic

SAO FRANCISCO DELTACOMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

Prodelta turbidite model @ Kutei Basin

Wave-Dominated DeltaProdelta Turbidit model in Kutai Basin

TIDE-DOMINATED DELTA (TIDE INFLUENCE)

Tide-Dominated DeltaBrahmaputra Delta - India

TIDE-DOMINATED DELTA

Estuarine/linear shape

Large-scale, often disjointed C.U.S.

Clean, well sorted sands

T. KARANG

K. MORIB

P. SWET-TENHAM

5 - 10

10 - 20

20 - 60

KLANG DELTACOMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

Tide-Dominated DeltaSedimentation Character

RIVER & TIDE-DOMINATED DELTA (MAHAKAM DELTA)

River & Tide-Dominated DeltaDelta Mahakam

Note: Delta Plain is shown, while Delta Front and Pro Delta is below the sea level.

SOME CLUES … !

Which one is … ?

KLANG DELTACOMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

SAO FRANCISCO DELTACOMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

10 2 -

12 –

MISSISSIPPI DELTACOMPOSITE STRATIGRAPHIC COLUMN

Can you show where is The River, Wave, & Tide-Dominated Delta?

Core Identification …

The core character which likely indicate Wave, Fluvial & Tide-Dominated Delta are:

Wave-dominated Delta abundant wave processes:

wave ripple, swalley, HCS, beach deposit (low angle cross lamination), biogenic structure,

Tide-dominated Delta abundant tide processes:

Herringbone cross sratification, mud drapes / clay drape on foreset, flaser-wavy-lenticular, clay doublet, biogenic structure.

Fluvial-dominated Delta Fluvial character:

Climbing ripple, graded bedding, burrowing

Reference

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