remote sensing of aerosol-cloud interaction presented by lorraine a. remer nasa/goddard space flight...

Remote sensing of aerosol-cloud interaction

Presented by Lorraine A. RemerNASA/Goddard Space Flight Center

1. Basis of remote sensing2. Remote sensing of clouds and aerosols3. Observations of aerosol modification of cloud microphysics 3.1 Explanation4. Observations requiring better explanation 4.1 More explanation5. Observations of aerosol modification of cloud environment 5.1 Explanation6. Aerosol effects on convection (briefly)7. The skeptical arguments 7.1 Refuting the skeptics8. Two examples of continuing work in this area

What happens when radiation interacts with a small particle?

What happens when radiation interacts with a small particle?

The pattern of the scattered radiation depends on the relative sizes of the wavelength and the particle.

The angular distribution of the scattered radiation is the “phase function”

What happens when radiation interacts with a small particle?

It the relative size that is important. Larger particle, same wavelength produces the same effect as same particle with shorter wavelength.

All of the aboveis a simplificationof a more complex problem

The interaction between the particle and the incident radiation can be described by:

The complex refractive index (determined by particle composition)And the size distribution of the particles

The composition of the particle also plays a role. Here it is absorbing some of the incident radiation. However, it can be nonabsorbing and still alter the phase function.

This particle property is called “complex refractive index”

A distribution of particles creates a radiation field.

The more particles, generally the larger amounts of radiation scattered in each direction, as determined by the particles’ phase functions and particle properties.

Remote sensing ismeasuring the resultsof this interaction from a distance

wavelength

radi

ance

wavelength

radi

ance

Aerosolloading

Backscattered radiation Forward scattered radiation

What are clouds and aerosols?

Collections of suspended particles, with different sizes and different compositions.

Cloud droplet

Aerosol particle

Measuring the result of solar radiation interacting with aerosol and cloud particles can be used to infer information about the suspended particles.

cloudaerosol

The sensor is receiving solarradiation scattered frommany different atmosphericand terrestrial objects.

Result of remote sensing of aerosol from the MODIS satellite

wavelength

radi

ance

Aerosolloading

Backscattered radiation

wavelength

radi

ance

Backscattered radiation

Spectral slope= particle size

Remote sensing of cloud droplet size from MODIS satellite

Nakajima and King (1990)

Scattered radiation in a visible channel (shorter wavelength)Is proportional to the optical thickness of the cloud

Scattered radiation ina mid-IR channel (longer wavelength)is proportional to thedroplet size

smaller

Brighter

K. Nielson3.7 µmAVHRR

What is going on here?

These streaksare brighter at3700 nm

All clouds are “seeded” by aerosol particles.

If the aerosol particle is hygroscopic, it will collect water vapor that condenses onto the particle creating a liquid droplet.

Aerosol particles that act as cloud seeds are called Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)

Without aerosol particles the air would be extremely super saturated before clouds would form. We have clouds because we have aerosols.

Cloud microphysics is the name given to the process of cloud droplet formation.

Twomey effect.

Same amount of liquid water is dividedBetween more CCN.

Result: more but smaller cloud droplets

More droplets: more light scattered (brighter clouds)

Smaller droplets: more light scattered at longer wavelengths

smaller

Brighter

Explanation:

If there were more CCN, then more but smaller cloud droplets would form smaller droplets backscatter more solar radiation at longer wavelengths.

The streaks in the cloud are the result of ships below the cloudEmitted fine hygroscopic particles from their smoke stacks.

These streaks are called ship tracks and are a remote sensing proof of the Twomey effect

Kaufman and Nakajima 1993

Smoke from biomass burning Covers South America during the Dry season.

What does it do to clouds?

Kaufman and Nakajima 1993

As aerosol loading increases, cloud droplet size decreases.

Using cloud free pixels toQuantify aerosol loadingAnd cloudy pixels to retrieveDroplet size

Long

wav

elen

gth

refle

ctan

ceMeasured reflectance at 2.1 µm

Kaufman and Nakajima 1993

But visible cloud reflectance decreases as aerosol loading increases.

Visi

ble

wav

elen

gth

refle

ctan

ce

Twomey’s theory says the opposite should occur

Measured reflectance at 0.64 µm

Explanation:

Black carbon is absorbing light, making the clouds less reflective

A remote sensing observation leads to a modification of Twomey’s theory

Kaufman and Fraser 1997South America

Wetzel and Stowe 1999Global oceans - stratus

Kaufman and Fraser 1997South America

Wetzel and Stowe 1999Global oceans - stratus

Because the large statistical data base available from remote sensing methods we can both prove Twomey’s theory and also start to see caveats.

-Black carbon absorption-Not all geographic regions or cloud types-Saturation at higher aerosol loading

Without remote sensing how would we ever see these effects in the real world?

Koren et al. 2004 (South America)

We have looked at cloud microphysics, let’s look at cloud coverage now.

Koren et al 2004

When you have a lot of smoke, you don’t have clouds

Longitude

Stra

tifor

m c

loud

frac

tion

Stra

tifor

m d

ropl

et ra

dius

Kaufman et al., 2005 Atlantic ocean

Dust belt

Smoke belt

AOD<0.10

AOD>0.3

Longitude

Stra

tifor

m c

loud

frac

tion

Stra

tifor

m d

ropl

et ra

dius

Kaufman et al., 2005 Atlantic ocean

Dust belt

Smoke belt

For a specific distancefrom the continent,more aerosol isassociated with moreclouds and smallerdroplets

Puzzle:

Over South America aerosols areAssociated with an decrease ofCloud coverage

Over the Atlantic aerosols areAssociated with an increase ofCloud coverage

How can aerosols increase cloud coverage? MICROPHYSICS

If droplets are small enough they will not fall as precipitation. Cloud liquid water stays suspended longer. Clouds last longer and cloud coverage increases. OR Clouds spread out more and cloud coverage increases.

Albrecht 1989

How can aerosols decrease cloud coverage? RADIATION

If the aerosol absorbs solar radiation aerosols will change the environment in which the cloud develops. Clouds can evaporate in place (Ackerman et al., 2000) Atmospheric stability can change (Davidi et al., 2009) Sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface can be decreased (Feingold et al. 2005)

Koren et al., (2008)

Aerosol optical depth

microphysics

radiation

Aerosol effects on microphysics are strongest in pristine conditions and then saturateAerosol effects through radiative processes are linear, strongest in low cloud fraction and build as aerosol loading builds

Koren et al. 2008 Satellite observations confirm this theory

Remote sensing “discovered” a contradiction in how aerosol can affect cloud coverage,

And then confirmed a theoretical hypothesis that explained the contradiction as a superposition of two types of processes.

Next, let’s look at how aerosols might affect convective cloud development.

Unlike previous examples, we will start from theory and move to observations

Glaciation Leveland Vertical Profile of Droplet Sizeare associated withCloud-Aerosol Interactions.

Clean Cases

Polluted Cases

Rosenfeld schematic of convective clouds

In convective clouds,

Aerosols change microphysics at cloud base, - more but smaller droplets - it takes longer for small droplets to be big enough to coalesce - the droplets do not get big enough to be rain - glaciation is postponed - mixed phase layer is extended - more lightning - more latent heat is released creating more updraft - taller clouds - more ice - more severe convection - ultimately more precipitation

Rosenfeld hypothesis

Rosenfeld and Woodley 2001

Increasing AOD

Incr

easi

ng c

loud

top

heig

ht

Increasing cloud cover Increasing anvils

Decreasing droplet size

Koren et al. 2005

Many aspects of the Rosenfeld hypothesis have been observed by remote sensing measurements

The problems with these remote sensing studies (and perhaps why you should not believe them)

1. Use of AOD as proxy for CCN2. Possibility of retrieval artifacts creating artificial associations 3. Possibility of meteorology driving both cloud and aerosol trends together

Koren et al., 2010

MODIS RGB MODIS AODSevere cloud maskMODIS AOD

Koren et al., 2010

Severe cloud clearing (pink symbols) produces lower AOD than standard (aqua), suggesting some cloud contamination in the product

Even so, the relationship between AOD and cloud pressure and cloud fraction remain the same.

Inverse cloud top pressure Cloud fraction

Koren et al., 2010Correlations between AOD, Cloud fraction and cloud top pressureWith 280 meteorological variables from GDAS

Koren et al., 2010

CTP

AOD

Clouds and aerosols are not correlated with The same meteorological variables

Criticisms of remote sensing studies are valid, but the associations between aerosol and cloud variables are very robust and cannot be dismissed.

lightningparticles

Cloud microphysics

ozone

Yuan et al. (submitted)

TRMM–LIS Flash counts

MODIS OMI percent increase in 2005

Take home messages (remote sensing) :

1. Interaction between solar radiation and suspended particles changes the radiation in ways that can be modeled with accuracy.2. The interaction between radiation and particles is dependent on the relative size of the particle and the wavelength of the incident radiation, as well as the composition of the particle and their shape.3. Thus, by measuring the scattered radiation with sufficient wavelength range and/or number of angles, some of the particle properties can be retrieved.4. For clouds, we can retrieve the cloud optical thickness and droplet effective radius.5. For aerosols, by measuring intensity of the scattered radiation and making assumptions about the surface we can retrieve aerosol loading, a measure we call aerosol optical depth.6. The process of inferring information about the particles from measuring the radiation that interacts with the particles is called “remote sensing”.

Take home messages (remote sensing of aerosol-cloud interaction):

1. We use aerosol optical depth as a proxy for aerosol particle number concentration. These two quantities are not the same.2. We look for correlations and associations between aerosol optical depth retrieved from clear sky scenes next to clouds and cloud properties retrieved from clouds. 3. We use these associations to suggest cause-and-effect. Correlation does not prove causality.4. We have concerns about making aerosol retrievals next to clouds (cloud contamination). In such cases there would be an artificial correlation between increase of AOD and increase of cloud cover.5. We have concerns about meteorology driving both AOD and cloud properties together so that when aerosol increase, cloud properties systematically change in the same direction.6. Even with these concerns, we find very robust associations between variables, so that the simple explanation is causality, though not proven.

Take home messages (history):

1. First we saw ship tracks, that perfectly illustrated Twomey’s theory of how how aerosol particles would cause the cloud to form more but smaller droplets, and this would result in brighter clouds.2. We saw this association between aerosol and cloud effective radius in South America, but did not see brighter clouds as a result. We explained this by darker smoke absorbing light.3. The more we looked the more complicated the process seemed to be: now you see it, now you don’t…. Saturation of the effect when AOD was too big.4. We were surprised to find associations between aerosols and cloud coverage, both inhibiting cloud cover and then enhancing cloud cover.5. We explained these associations by a superposition of processes: microphysical (Twomey) and radiative (aerosol changing the cloud environment through heating).6. We notice in convective clouds changes in cloud top height, thermodynamic phase, lightning etc that support Rosenfeld’s hypothesis.7. Obviously the work is not yet done, but already remote sensing has played a key role in advancing our knowledge of how aerosols and clouds interact.

References:

A.S. Ackerman et al., Science 288, 1042 (2000).

Albrecht, B. A.: Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractionalcloudiness, Science, 245(4923), 1227–1230, 1989.

Andreae, M. O.: Correlation between cloud condensation nucleiconcentration and aerosol optical thickness in remoteand polluted regions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 543–556,doi:10.5194/acp-9-543-2009, 2009

Davidi, Koren, Remer: 2009, ACP

Feingold, G., H. Jiang, and J. Y. Harrington, 2005: On smoke suppression of clouds inAmazonia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, No. 2, L02804, 10.1029/2004GL021369

Kaufman, Y. J. and Nakajima, T.: Effect of Amazon smoke oncloud microphysics and albedo – analysis from satellite imagery,J. Appl. Meteorol., 32, 729–744, 1993

Kaufman, Y. J. and Fraser, R. S.: The effect of smoke particles onclouds and climate forcing, Science, 277, 1636–1639, 1997

Kaufman, Y. J., Koren, I., Remer, L., Rosenfeld, D., and Rudich,Y.: The effect of smoke, dust, and pollution aerosol on shallowcloud development over the Atlantic Ocean, P. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA, 102, 11207–11212, 2005a

Koren, I., Kaufman, Y. J., Remer, L. A., and Martins, J. V.: Measurementof the effect of Amazon smoke on inhibition of cloudformation, Science, 303, 1342–1345, 2004.

Koren, I., Kaufman, Y. J., Rosenfeld, D., Remer, L. A., andRudich, Y.: Aerosol invigoration and restructuring of Atlanticconvective clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, LI4828,doi:10.1029/2005GL023187, 2005

Koren, I., Martins, J. V., Remer, L. A., and Afargan, H.: Smoke invigorationversus inhibition of clouds over the Amazon, Science,321, 946–949, 2008

Koren, Feingold, Remer: 2010, ACP

Nakajima, T. and King, M. D.: Determination of the optical thicknessand effective particle radius of clouds from reflected solarradiation measurements. Part 1: Theory, J. Atmos. Sci., 47,1878–1893, 1990.

Rosenfeld, D. and Woodley, W. L.: Deep convective clouds withsustained supercooled liquid water down to −37.5C, Nature,405, 440–442, 2000.

Twomey, S.: The influence of pollution on the shortwave albedo ofclouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1149–1152, 1977.

Wetzel, M. A. and Stowe, L. L.: Satellite-observed patterns in stratusmicrophysics, aerosol optical thickness, and shortwave radiativeforcing, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 31287–31299, 1999.

Yuan 2010 submitted