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Processes for Evaluating
The Optimum Inter-modal Terminal
Location
Jianfeng Yang
Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering
Queensland University of Technology
Masters of Engineering
By Research (BN72)
2007
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
i
Keywords
Inter-modal terminal; Location; Port.
Abstract
In 2001, Australia’s annual freight movement load reached 310 billion million
tonne-kilometres. By 2020, it is forecast to be 630 billion tonnes-kilometres, an
expected rise of slightly over 100 percent of the current level. Due to accelerating
freight movement demand in Australia, a rising need for efficient transport
infrastructure can be expected. Terminals are a vital part of transport systems
which affect the development of whole regions. Terminal location is therefore
essential in evaluating the extent to which terminals play a positive role in shaping
regional development.
Inter-modal freight transportation is defined as a system that carries freight from
origin to destination by using two or more transportation modes. Inter-modal
terminal location has great bearing on, and is influenced by, infrastructural
efficiency. Terminal locations should optimize both the potential impacts of
regional development and effects on transport development. Consequently, it is
imperative to analyse the interaction of locations and effects in the process of
optimizing terminal location.
This research aims to define the effects of terminal location on transportation by
studying the different inter-modal system of the top Australia ports, and
introducing the relationship between these effects and transport strategic
modelling. Data on transport modelling elements will be investigated in four case
studies, followed by data sensitivity analysis to assess the way in which terminal
location affects transportation performance.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
ii
To examine the effects of terminal location factor on transportation, a number of
key elements were selected by the Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional
Development Model and Strategic Modelling: Attractiveness, Location Decisions
of Firms, Economic Activity, Shipping/Trip Decision, Destination Choice, Mode
Choice, Route Choice, Link Loads, Link Times/Distances/Costs and Accessibility.
Environmental issue of a terminal are an additional important consideration in
freight movement, when presented as a cost of using the terminal.
The outcome of the case studies which make up this research is a statement of the
main effects of the studied elements on terminal location and the potentially
necessary improvements to the ports studied For example, 20 kilometres seems to
be the radius of an inter-modal terminal catchment level and rail service in
Victoria is therefore recommended to be increased to take into account
environmental issues. This is augmented by two further studies of the In-land Port
and Accessibility of the Port of Brisbane. In essence, this thesis is an attempt to
make Australian transport and social services planners aware of the effects of
factors relating to terminal location in the processes of evaluating the optimum
terminal location.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………....…...i Key words……...…………………………………………………………...…….ii Contents............ ……………………………………………………………........iii List of Figures………………………………………………………………...….vi List of Tables……………………………………………………………........….ix Statement of Original Authorship…………………………………………........x Acknowledgements……………………………………………………...……….xi Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Scope........................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Structure of thesis........................................................................................ 2
Chapter 2 Literature review ................................................................................ 5 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Inter-modal terminal location...................................................................... 5 2.3 Inter-modal freight transport and regional development ............................ 6
2.3.1 Infrastructure investment and regional development............................. 6 2.3.2 Transport and regional development model........................................... 8
2.4 The Four stages of transport demand modelling....................................... 10 2.4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 10 2.4.2 Freight generation ................................................................................ 12 2.4.3 Freight Distribution.............................................................................. 16 2.4.4 Freight mode choice............................................................................. 15 2.4.5 Freight route assignments .................................................................... 20 2.4.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 20
2.5 Accessibility.............................................................................................. 21 2.5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 21 2.5.2 Indicators.............................................................................................. 21
2.6 Environmental Impacts ............................................................................. 22 2.6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 22 2.6.2 Air Pollution......................................................................................... 22 2.6.3 Noise Pollution..................................................................................... 23
2.7 Introduction of analysis elements into modelling components................. 23 2.8 Summary ................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 3 Methodology ...................................................................................... 27 3.1 Case Study Approach.................................................................................... 27 3.1.1 Study Area............................................................................................ 28 3.1.2 Case study structure ............................................................................. 29
3.2 Data analysis ................................................................................. 30 Chapter 4 Port of Sydney ................................................................................... 33
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 33 4.1.1 New South Wales................................................................................. 33 4.1.2 Port of Sydney...................................................................................... 34
4.2 Transport network ..................................................................................... 35
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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4.2.1 Network connection.............................................................................. 35 4.2.2 Freight transport mode share ................................................................ 37 4.2.3 Terminal location pattern...................................................................... 39 4.2.4 Terminal Access Routes ....................................................................... 42
4.3 Port Accessibility....................................................................................... 42 4.4 Environmental issues................................................................................. 44
4.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 47 Chapter 5 Port of Melbourne ............................................................................. 49 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 49
5.1.1 Victoria ............................................................................................. 49 5.1.2 Port of Melbourne............................................................................. 50
5.2 Transport network ......................................................................................... 51 5.2.1 Network connections ........................................................................ 51 5.2.2 Freight transport mode share ............................................................ 52 5.2.3 Terminal location pattern.................................................................. 54 5.2.4 Terminal access routes...................................................................... 55
5.3 Port accessibility............................................................................................ 56 5.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 58 5.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 60 Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane................................................................................. 61 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 61
6.1.1 Queensland ....................................................................................... 61 6.1.2 Port of Brisbane ................................................................................ 62
6.2 Transport Network......................................................................................... 63 6.2.1 Network Connections ....................................................................... 63 6.2.2 Freight transport mode share ............................................................ 65 6.2.3 Terminal location pattern.................................................................. 67 6.2.4 Terminal Access Routes ................................................................... 69
6.3 Port Accessibility........................................................................................... 70 6.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 71 6.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 72 6.6 Deeper study of Port of Brisbane .................................................................. 73
6.6.1 Inland port study in Brisbane ........................................................... 73 6.6.2 Accessibility of Fisherman Island .................................................... 75
Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle .............................................................................. 79 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 79
7.1.1 Western Australia .............................................................................79 7.1.2 Port of Fremantle ..............................................................................80
7.2 Transport network ......................................................................................... 81 7.2.1 Network connections ........................................................................81 7.5.2 Freight Transport Mode Share..........................................................83 7.2.3 Terminal location pattern..................................................................85 7.2.4 Terminal access routes......................................................................86
7.3 Port Accessibility........................................................................................... 86 7.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 87 7.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 89
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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Chapter 8 Location evaluation: Four case studies .......................................... 91 8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 91 8.2 Freight generation analysis ........................................................................... 91
8.2.1 Population and employment growth ................................................ 91 8.3 Mode choice analysis .................................................................................... 94
8.3.1 Freight transport mode share............................................................ 94 8.3.2 Terminal location pattern ..................................................................... 97 8.4 Route choice analysis.................................................................................... 98
8.4.1 Terminal access routes ..................................................................... 98 8.4.2 Port accessibility ................................................................................ 100 8.4.3 Environmental issues ......................................................................... 102
8.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 105 Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research ................................................. 107 9.1 Conclusions................................................................................................. 107 9.2 Further Research ......................................................................................... 108
List of References…………………………...…………………………............111
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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Figures
Figure 1.1. Structure of thesis.................................................................................. 2
Figure 2.1 Inter-modal terminal ..............................................................................5
Figure 2.2. Transport and regional development.....................................................9
Figure 2.3. Structural approach to urban freight demand modelling.....................11
Figure 2.4 Spatial considerations of terminals, customers and ports. ...................19
Figure 2.5. Terminal location analysis model ......................................................24
Figure 3. 1 Structure of research methodology .....................................................27
Figure 3. 2 Map of Australia showing the five main ports....................................28
Figure 4.1 Location of New South Wales ............................................................ 33
Figure 4.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – New South Wales................... 34
Figure 4.3. Location of Port of Sydney. ................................................................ 35
Figure 4.4. Major connections in Transport network of New South Wales.......... 36
Figure 4.5.Main inter-modal terminal sites in New South Wales. ........................ 37
Figure 4.6. Percentage of Total State Freight Movements Carried by Mode, NSW.
............................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 4.7. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
NSW ...................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 4.8. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network near Sydney
City ........................................................................................................................ 40
Figure 4.9 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location .............................................. 41
Figure 4.10. Proposed port access routes .............................................................. 46
Figure 4.11. Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail in TEUs. ......................... 44
Figure 4.12. Noise complaints on port by location................................................ 45
Figure 4.13. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s northern
facilities ................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 4.14. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s southern
facilities ................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 5.1 Location of Victoria ........................................................................... 49
Figure 5.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Victoria. ................................. 50
Figure 5.3. Location of Port of Melbourne............................................................ 51
Figure 5.4. Major connections in the Victorian transport network ....................... 52
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
vii
Figure 5.5 Percentage of total State freight movements carried, by mode, Victoria
............................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 5.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried, by mode,
Victoria.................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 5.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Victoria ... 54
Figure 5.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.............................................. 55
Figure 5.9. Metropolitan inter-modal freight terminal hubs ................................. 56
Figure 5.10. Access points and routes, Port of Melbourne. .................................. 57
Figure 5.11. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s northern facilities. ... 59
Figure 5.12. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s southern facilities…60
Figure 6.1 Location of Queensland....................................................................... 61
Figure 6.2. Gross State product (current prices) – Queensland. ........................... 62
Figure 6. 3. Location of Port of Brisbane.............................................................. 63
Figure 6.4. Major Connections in the Queensland transport network .................. 64
Figure 6.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode,
Queensland............................................................................................................ 65
Figure 6.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
Queensland............................................................................................................ 66
Figure 6.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in South East
Queensland............................................................................................................ 68
Figure 6.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.............................................. 69
Figure 6.9. Proposed access routes of port............................................................ 70
Figure 6.10. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities at river mouth. 71
Figure 6.11. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities closer to CBD. 72
Figure 6.12 Intermodal total demand for imports/exports of Port of Brisbane,
2005-2020 ............................................................................................................. 74
Figure 6.13 Access of Fisherman Island. .............................................................. 75
Figure 7.1 Location of Western Australia............................................................. 79
Figure 7.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Western Australia .................. 80
Figure 7.3. Location of Port of Fremantle............................................................. 81
Figure 7.4. Major resource areas and major connections in transport network of
Western Australia.................................................................................................. 82
Figure 7.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode, WA. .. 83
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
viii
Figure 7.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
WA ........................................................................................................................ 84
Figure 7.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Southwest
Western Australia. ................................................................................................. 85
Figure 7.8. Proposed port access routes ................................................................ 86
Figure 7.9. Locations of studied areas of the Port of Fremantle. .......................... 87
Figure 7.10. Operations reducing noise pollution from port’s facility and its Inter-
modal terminal....................................................................................................... 88
Figure 7.11. Operations of reducing noise pollution from facilities. .................... 88
Figure 8.1 Population of Selected Australia States 1954-2004. ............................ 92
Figure 8.2. Percentage of population in employment 2001-2004 ......................... 92
Figure 8.3 Product growth of selected ports.......................................................... 93
Figure 8.4. Tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001. .................................... 94
Figure 8.5. Intrastate tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001....................... 95
Figure 8. 6 Percentage of terminal catchments in distance range ......................... 98
Figure 8.7. Rail Mode Usage of States in 2001................................................... 102
Figure 8.8. Reduction of noise pollution from port facilities .............................. 104
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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Tables
Table 2. 1 Presentations of elements in transport and regional development and
transport modelling. ................................................................................................ 9
Table 2.2. Number of registered businesses in Greater SEQ, by industry type.... 13
Table 2.1. Metropolitan road freight task………………………………………..17
Table 2.4. Modal choice between certain origin-destination multiples. ............... 18
Table 2.5 Presentations of elements in Inter-modal Freight Transport and
Regional Development Model and Transport Modelling ..................................... 24
Table 4. 1 Condition of Access Main Roads of Inter-modal Terminal................. 42
Table 5.1 Conditions of access: main roads to inter-modal terminals .................. 56
Table 5.2 Entry sites to terminals listed in Figure 5.10 ........................................ 58
Table 6.1 Condition of main access roads of inter-modal terminal .................... 69
Table 6.2 Traffic composition and V/C ratios of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal..
............................................................................................................................... 76
Table 8.1 Freight origin location patterns in selected inter-modal systems......... 97
Table 8.2 Terminal access route connections ....................................................... 99
Table 8.3. The competing roads presented in the case studies, comparing their
road grades and lane numbers ............................................................................. 100
Table 8.4. Access points of ports’ main facilities ............................................... 101
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
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Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature
Date
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
xi
Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful and deeply indebted to my principal supervisor Prof. Luis Ferreira and previous principal supervisor Prof. Rod Troutbeck for their enthusiastic and expert guidance, constructive suggestions, encouragement throughout the course of this study and valuable assistance in many ways. Without such assistance this study would not have been what it is. Their immense patience and availability for comments whenever approached, even during the heavy pressure of work throughout the entire period of study, deserves grateful appreciation. Associate Professor Stephen Kajewski is to be mentioned with thanks for kindly agreeing to serve as associate supervisor.
I would like thank the Infrastructure Theme and the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering for providing financial support, necessary facilities and technical support.
It is a pleasure to thank fellow post-graduate students and friends for their support and contribution to this research. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to my parents for their support, encouragement, and patience.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background The transport sector accounts for 4.9 percent of total economic activity in
Australia.. In 2001, Australia’s freight movement load reached 310 billion million
tonne-kilometres (ABS, 2001) and in 2002-03 the sector contributed
approximately $38.7 billion to Gross Domestic Product (Department of Transport
and Regional Services, 2005). By 2020, the annual freight load is forecast to reach
up to 630 billion tonnes-km, an expected rise of slightly over 100 percent of the
current level (AusLink, 2004).
Due to this accelerating demand for freight movement, a rising need for efficient
transport infrastructure can be expected. Efficient infrastructure facilitates
specialized production, price competitiveness, time sensitivity and reliability of
Australian goods and services in both intra-industry1 and world trade markets
(AusLink, 2004).
Inter-modal terminals, necessary for the transhipment of unit loads from one mode
to another, are very important in this transport chain (Macharis en Verbeke, 1999).
A good starting point in the evaluation of terminal location in Australia is to study
the most important Australia sea ports and their inter-modal systems.
1.2 Scope As a connecting point in the transport chain, the location of a terminal has the
potential to affect freight transport accessibility and regional development. The
intention of this research is to study the manner in which the location of a terminal
affects transportation.
The research is based on studies of the principal Australian sea-ports and their
associated inter-modal systems. For the purpose of this research, principal
seaports are defined as those that handle in excess of 400,000 Twenty-foot
Equivalent Units (TEUs), that is, the Ports of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and
1 Intra-industry trade refers to the exchange of products belonging to the same industry. The term is usually applied to international trade, where the same kinds of products and services are both imported and exported.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 1 Introduction
2
Fremantle. These seaports are the product/attraction centres of their inter-modal
systems which contain road-rail inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.
Data regarding transport modelling items will be presented in four case studies,
and will be followed by data sensitivity analysis. Based on the analysis, the effects
of inter-modal terminal location on transportation performance will be presented.
1.3 Structure of thesis The thesis is structured into nine chapters, as shown in Figure 1.1, with a view to
providing a logical and consistent sequence of information.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2 Literature review
Chapter 4 Case study:
Port of Sydney
Chapter 5 Case study:
Port of Melbourne
Chapter 6 Case study:
Port of Brisbane
Chapter 7 Case study:
Port of Fremantle
Chapter 9 Conclusion and
further study
Chapter 8 Data analysis:
four case studies
Figure 1.1. Structure of thesis.
Chapter 3 Methodology
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 1 Introduction
3
Chapter 2: Literature review
The literature review chapter will review previous research on freight transport
definition and transport and regional development, and will describe the four steps
of transport modelling. It will also consider environmental issues and simplify the
items of transport and regional development into items of freight transport and
regional development in order to group these items into the four transport
modelling steps
Chapter 3: Methodology
The methodology chapter outlines the study area and the methods to be used in
case studies of location-related aspects in transport modelling and the data
analysis methodology which will be used in the subsequent study.
Chapters 4- 7: Case studies
The four case studies provide detailed overviews of the principal ports and the
performance of their inter-modal networks in relation to terminal location. The
factors considered include population and employment, freight movement, mode
share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to
ports and air and noise pollution.
Chapter 8: Data analysis
Chapter 8 is a discussion chapter with sensitivity analysis of the four case studies,
and discusses the effects of terminal location on transportation based on the case
studies.
Chapter 9: Conclusions and further research
Chapter 9 summarises the work described in the thesis, drawing a conclusion
about effects of terminal location on transportation in transport modelling. It also
recommends concepts where further research would be beneficial.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 1 Introduction
4
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
5
Chapter 2
Literature review
2.1 Introduction Inter-modal freight transportation is defined as a system that carries freight from
origin to destination by using two or more transportation modes. This research
focuses on a seaport-related inter-modal terminal system which has great
economy in transport procedures. Bontekoning et al. (2004) provide a
comprehensive review of the inter-modal rail-truck freight transport literature.
Inter-modal freight terminals are key elements in a freight transport system that
function as transfer points of freight from one mode to another (see Figure 2.1).
Types of terminals defined as connectors can be classified as ports (ocean and
river), airports, road/rail terminals, or pipeline/road terminals.
Figure 2. 1 Inter-modal terminal
Transport links and terminal location can have positive influences on regional
economic development when the terminal location is optimal. Further terminal
location analysis also benefits when these links and influences are defined and
quantified using transport modelling techniques.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
6
2.2 Inter-modal terminal location Macharis (2001) gave a practical application of the optimum location of an inter-
modal terminal in Belgium, taking into account three sets of stakeholders: users,
terminal owners/operators and the community. His approach used a weighting
method to evaluate cost, financial, environmental, congestion and employment
impacts from the points of view of those stakeholders. Racunica and Wynter
(2000) studied the optimum location of an inter-modal freight hub in an European
case, solving a nonlinear concave-cost hub location problem with economic
considerations. Several location investigations have been reported, focusing on
financial impacts (e.g. Arnold et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2003; Peterson and
Southworth, 2000; West and Kawamura, 2005). These previous studies on
terminal location topic were based on cases in European countries, and there is to
date no terminal location research based on Australia’s port related inter-modal
systems, although these are major contributors to the Australian economy
(Department of Transport and Regional Services (DOTARS), 2005).
2.3 Inter-modal freight transport and regional development
2.3.1 Infrastructure investment and regional development
Introduction The success of cities and regions has always been based on the quality of their
infrastructure. Infrastructural investments promote economic growth, mainly at
the urban and regional level. Transport infrastructure investment is a significant
factor influencing economic development. New types of high quality
infrastructure may have a significant impact: for example, the new European high-
speed rail network may revolutionise travel around the continent, as happened
when the first generation railways were built over 150 years ago (Pietveld &
Nijkamp, 1993).
Kay (1993) states that transport infrastructures have the following characteristics:
They are networks involving delivery systems and there are substantial interactions in the provision of services to individual customers.
They form a small but indispensable part of the total costs of a wide range of products in which they are used. Thus, the losses that result from service failure are often very large relative to the basic cost of service provision.
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
7
They have substantial elements of natural monopoly. Competitive provision of infrastructure is costly, often prohibitively so. This need not exclude competition in the use of infrastructure.
Capital costs of infrastructure are generally large relative to their running costs.
The sunk costs of establishing an infrastructure are substantial. A high proportion of the total cost of a service has already been irrevocably incurred before that service is offered.
Transport infrastructure normally acts as a complement to other more important
underlying conditions which must also be met if further economic development is
to take place. That is, transport investment is not a necessary condition, but acts in
a supporting role when other factors are at work (Banister and Berechman, 2001).
On the other hand, as the World Bank (1994) suggests, one should take a very
broad-based approach to infrastructure, as it covers all the social overhead capital
necessary for development (e.g. health), rather than being limited to the narrower
notion of economic overhead capital (such as roads and sewerage).
Due to its complexity, infrastructure investment cannot be considered as a sole
factor in this research, but as one which directly or indirectly influences other
economic, environmental and social impact factors (Banister and Berechman,
2001).
Infrastructure impacts “The task of the transport infrastructure is to enable spatial interaction, i.e. the
mobility of persons and goods for social, cultural or economic activities. In the
context of spatial development, the quality of transport infrastructure in terms of
capacity, connectivity, travel speeds etc. determines the quality of locations
relative to other locations, i.e. the competitive advantage of locations, which is
usually measured as accessibility” (Spiekermann & Neubauer, 2002).
Regions have their own transport networks, and the freight flow patterns of these
networks, which include includes freight types, routes and volume, differ from
region to region. Any infrastructure investment to some degree influences the
local network structure, and forms a new freight pattern in the region, thus
changing the existing freight pattern (Pietveld & Nijkamp 1993).
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
8
However, good links decrease the importance of the terminal location factor:
when a region has good links, any addition to the network will have a
proportionally reduced impact. In this case, infrastructure is subject to decreasing
marginal productivities. An extensive high quality network may enable the
placement of industry at any location with minimum effect from terminal location
factors and this in turn reduces the importance of location as a decision factor for
terminals, firms and individuals (Pietveld & Nijkamp 1993).
As the discussions above indicate, linkage is the first positional impact on the
terminal location decision. Accessibility ensures convenient and efficient freight
flows between terminal and firms/terminals. To optimise freight flows, the
terminal should therefore be located on a well-linked site at a node of the network
that is predicted to bring about the greatest reduction in both travel time and
distance.
2.3.2 Transport and regional development model Schürmann and Talaat (2000) described a transport and regional development
model, as shown in Figure 2.2. “The relationship between regional development
and transport can be seen as a self-reinforcing positive feedback loop in which
regional economic growth creates more traffic and, vice versa, transport
opportunities generate regional economic growth”:
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
9
Figure 2.2. Transport and regional development.
(Based on Schürmann and Talaat, 2000)
The items in the loop show different aspects for consideration in transportation
(Schürmann and Talaat, 2000) and their presentation in modelling:
Attractiveness Indicating the trend of traffic travelling to a zone (Connectors)
Location decisions of firms
Indicating the location of a freight zone (Origin/Destination)
Economic activity Indicating the traffic volume of a freight zone (Product/Attract)
Location decisions of households
Indicating the location of a household zone
Migration Indicating the location movement of a household zone
Activities Indicating the quantity of traffic travelling from a household zone
Vehicle ownership Indicating the trend of trip decision and mode choice of households
Shipping/trip decision Indicating the trend of being a household/freight zone
Destination choice Indicating an Origin/Destination (OD) pair selection;
Mode choice Indicating the travel mode selection
Route choice Indicating travel route selection
Link loads Indicating the congestion of links
Link times/distances/costs
Indicating the travel time/link length/penalty of using the link
Accessibility Indicating the ease of egress from or access to the zone (access mode and capacity)
Table 2. 1 Presentations of elements in transport and regional development and
transport modelling. As this loop represents transport and regional development, it is useful to use the
items described in the loop in analysing the influences between terminal location
and transport.
Inter-modal freight transport is “the concept of transporting freight on two or
more different modes in such a way that all parts of the transportation process,
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
10
including the exchange of information, are efficiently connected and coordinated”
(Muller, 1999).
Because this research is about freight transportation, it is necessary to exclude the
non-freight-related items such as Location decisions of households, Migration,
Activities and Vehicle ownership from this loop, in keeping with the definition of
inter-modal freight transport. The simplified list of items gives us a more focused
representation of freight transport and regional development for the purposes of
this study. It comprises Attractiveness, Location decisions of firms, Economic
activity, Shipping/trip decision, Destination choice, Mode choice, Route choice,
Link loads, Link times/distances/costs and Accessibility.
2.4 The Four stages of transport demand modelling
2.4.1 Introduction “The term freight demand or freight generation means the aggregate amount of
freight generated by the economy or facility” (Al-Deek, et al., 2001). State freight
demand estimation is closely linked to forecasting future state and regional
economic activity. Hence it is essential to have a general understanding and
awareness of the relationship between transport demand and a state's industrial
production (generation) and consumption (attraction) by major commodity
groupings and geographic locations, trade relationships with industries in other
states and countries, and long-term changes in industrial location, technology, and
economics.
Since the issue is rather complex, transport planners use freight demand models to
understand urban freight patterns and to formulate and evaluate strategies or
policies to improve the efficiency of goods movement. In particular, these models
can relate infrastructure and environmental issues to the transportation system
(Brogan, et al., 2001).
Freight generation activities include primary production activities such as mining,
forestry, agriculture and aquaculture. As “the derived demand [for freight
transportation] is closely related to some index of real output” (Wilson, 1980),
measures of industrial output are normally used to estimate current and future
commodity production levels. According to the U.S. Department of
Transportation’s Quick Response Freight Manual (1996), the most desirable
Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location
Chapter 2 Literature Review
11
measures are those that quantify goods output in physical units. However,
forecasts of these variables are not generally available. Fortunately, some data
such as dollar measures of output, employment, population, or real personal
income have strong relationships with freight generation, so that they are
normally used as indicator variables. For example, in Iowa’s freight planning
typology (Souleyrette et al., 1998), meat products and farm machinery were
considered. The generation of both commodities was estimated by determining
the levels of employment in the two industries (Brogan et al., 2001).
Freight transport demand models can be interfaced with transport models to
facilitate accurate accounting for multimodal terminal activity and other
phenomena that may not typically be included in travel demand models (Pendyala,
2002).
To model freight demand, the structural approach to freight modelling integrates
the freight component of the transportation system into the standard four-step
travel forecasting process (Figure 2.3): generation (predicting the trips produced
by or attracted to a traffic analysis zone), distribution (matching trip generation
and attractions to determine trip interchanges or the number of trips between each
pair of zones), mode choice (estimating the trips made by different modes such as
road or multi-modal), and traffic route assignment (predicting the route as a
sequence of roadway links to be used by each trip). (Aultamn-Hall et al, 2004)
Figure 2.3. Structural approach to urban freight demand modelling (Based on Victoria et al., 2004)
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In this section, the basic concept and approaches of freight movement demand
modelling will be presented, as well as the freight indicators. Key issues of freight
movement demand will also be indicated in the description below and considered
later in the research.
2.4.2 Freight generation “Freight generation is concerned with estimating the number of freight
movements produced by and attracted to each analysis zone in terms of the
quantity of goods (e.g., consignments, tonnage, etc.) or the number of vehicles
required to transport the goods (e.g., truck trips, trips by vehicle type, etc)”
(Victoria, et al., 2004). According to Pendyala (2002), goods movement is
generated by different trip purposes which can be broadly classified as:
• Movement of goods directly from producers to consumers
• Movement of goods through multi-channel distribution chains that
involves warehousing operations
• Movement of goods from one mode to another (i.e., transhipment or inter-
modal movements).
For example, Gorys et al (1999), in a study defining a strategic freight network for
the Greater Toronto Area, identified four distinct and specific land users as strong
indicators of freight movement origins and destinations: manufacturing and
assembly facilities; warehouses; inter-modal terminals; and trucking support
facilities, including yards, terminals, parking, and service locations. The
geographic concentration of trucking companies, their clients and their servers in
freight centres or activity modes, coupled with higher truck volume linkage, lent
itself to the creation of a series of demand overlays for freight movement trips and
the identification of candidate elements of a strategic freight network (Gorys et al
1999).
Indicators In most cases, it is difficult to measure production activities and goods output in
physical units. However, some data which are strongly related to these activities
or goods can act as indicators and enable planners to measure activities and output
using numerical methods. Employment and population data are indicators which
have traditionally been used to estimate freight generation (Brogan et al., 2001).
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Freight generation activities are likely to include primary production activities
such as mining, forestry and agriculture. Land use indicates the top resource
freight flow by providing the locations of primary industries. Since employment
data relate to the size of industries, they are also often used to predict freight
production in an area (Brogan et al., 2001).
Freight attraction is considered to be final demand, being the consumption of
commodities by households (consumers) and businesses, which may include
distribution and retail centres (Queensland Transport, 2004). Compared with
freight generation, attraction poses greater difficulty in terms of identifying
appropriate indicators, since attraction models must identify household indicators
as well as business indicators. While population is generally used to estimate the
amount of freight attracted to a particular area, simpler methods have also been
used to estimate freight attraction. In Iowa’s freight planning typology
(Souleyrette et al., 1998), for instance, the attraction of farm machinery was
assumed to be proportional to acres of farmland (Queensland Traport, 2004).
Sometimes registered businesses will not contribute to freight generation due to
the nature of their activities. In these cases, freight attraction is considered as the
primary factor of freight distribution. As shown in Table 2.2 below, perhaps most
interesting is that 63% of registered business can be classified as non-freight
generating (‘Other’). On the other hand, these businesses, pursuing activities such
as property and business services and education, might still be used as indicators
to measure attracted freight flows.
Table 2.2. Number of registered businesses in Greater SEQ, by industry type
(Queensland Transport, 2004)
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Industrial location patterns “While the relationships between terminals and the manufacturing sector are
evident in the urban landscape, even closer links exist with the service sector,
although the relationships may be not quite as visible” (Rodrigue et al., 2006). A
very wide range of transport services is created to meet the demands of terminal
activity, which may include activities as various as train maintenance, locomotive
repair, warehousing and stores. “Together they comprise an important business
sector that contributes to the overall effectiveness of the terminal, while clearly
being dependent upon it for business” (Rodrigue et al., 2006).. This reflects a
symbiotic relationship in the location patterns of these firms. The Quick Response
Freight Manual (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1996) states:
Industrial location patterns are critical to determine transport demand as measured in ton-miles, line-haul miles or other units which reflect length of haul. The spatial distribution of economic activity also influences mode choice, with many commodities likely to be shipped by one mode when distances are short and by another when distances are longer. Travel time, reliability, shipping costs and other logistics costs are all a function of distance and vary from mode to mode. Another freight characteristic that is influenced by location (and hence distance) is the perishability of the product.
Terminals represent an important and special category of land use. Normally, they
are the largest single users of land in the area. Because of the intense transport
linkages they generate with other urban functions and their externalities their
impacts are frequently negative. Terminals such as ports exert a significant
influence over neighbouring land uses. Thus, “industrial land is commonly
associated with terminal sites, which are the most important industrial zones in a
city” (Rodrigue et al., 2006).
To further understand freight transportation in the region, it was considered important to identify the county's key freight generation locations. The high concentration of these types of land uses at the activity centres results in significant freight traffic generation” (JHK & Associates, 1993).
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With the “symbiotic relationship2” (Rodrigue et al., 2006) between a terminal and
the industries surrounding it, a terminal will inevitably be the communication
centre region wide. Its site, without doubt, is the most significant freight task-
concentrated land in its area.
To best support industrial activities, terminals should be located close to industrial
land and with efficient access. Particularly for industries with significant needs,
new terminals release heavy freight pressure (Rodrigue et al., 2006).
Terminals support local business development, but are also an attraction factor for
freight demand (Rodrigue et al., 2006). New industries will be attracted by the
freight transport of a terminal, to share its transport capacity and in turn
influencing the terminal’s development by leading, for example, to full utilisation
of capacity and a need for additional investment. Therefore, terminals have to
consider both new and potential freight generation in the region.
2 A symbiotic relationship is a relationship between two entities which is mutually beneficial for the participants of the relationship. (Learnthat, 2004)
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2.4.3 Freight Distribution “Freight distribution links vehicle trip ends (i.e., origins and destinations) or
commodity flow ends (i.e., origins and destinations) between analysis zones,
including external zones” (Victoria et al., 2004). Freight distribution is essentially
a destination-choice model that produces a vehicle trip or commodity origin-
destination matrix or table (such as table 2.3).
There were 49 million tonnes of freight moved by articulated vehicles in the SEQ
region in 2001, as shown in table 2.3. Of this task there are a small number of key
tasks:
• 18 million tonnes Intra-Brisbane City
• 8 million tonnes Intra-Ipswich City
• 2.2 million tonnes Intra-Gold Coast.
The movement of freight between Brisbane and Ipswich, and Brisbane and the
Gold Coast, represents the next biggest intra-SEQ freight tasks:
• Ipswich to Brisbane (2.3 million tonnes) and Brisbane to Ipswich (2.2
million tonnes)
• Gold Coast to Brisbane (1.3 million tonnes) and Brisbane to Gold Coast
(2.5 million tonnes).
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Tabl
e 2.
3. M
etro
polit
an ro
ad fr
eigh
t tas
k (B
ased
on
Que
ensl
and
Tran
spor
t, 20
04)
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2.4.4 Freight mode choice “Freight mode choice is concerned with predicting commodity flows (e.g.,
volume) from the available freight transportation modes between all origin-
destination pairs.” (Victoria, et al., 2004) The choice of mode used to move
freight is dependent upon the type and location of economic activities. Table 2.4
shows that the most likely transport mode choice is dependent on particular O-D
groups. Long distance freight travel (intrastate, interstate and marine) would be
more likely to use multi-modal freight movement to potentially reduce transport
costs or to take advantage of different modes which meet particular freight
transport requirements. For example, in most cases, air transport meets the need
for time-limited travel; sea transport meets the need for low-cost travel; road
transport meets the need for inland time-limited travel; and rail transport meets the
need for inland low-cost travel.
Table 2.4. Modal choice between certain origin-destination multiples. (Based on Queensland Transport, 2004)
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Another study analysing the relationship between distance from origin to terminal
and freight movement mode choice in NSW was done by Strategic design +
Development Pty Ltd (2004).
Figure 2.4 Spatial considerations of terminals, customers and ports. (Based on Strategic design + Development Pty Ltd, 2004)
The inner catchment is focussed on the immediate township surrounding the
terminal and may extend to 50 km. Subject to price and service frequency, freight
movements will generally be attracted to the terminal for rail movement to the
focal port. These customers are represented by C1 in the diagram.
The outer catchment will vary according to the relative position and distance of
the focal port and competing ports:
Customer C2 is likely to prefer the inter-modal movement option, provided the
road movement distance is less than the rail movement; an example is export hay
from Forbes, NSW, which is moved by road to Blayney terminal.
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Customer C3 will make choices based on the comparative distance to the terminal
and the port – the direct road option may provide a lower overall cost.
Customer C4 is located more than 50 kilometres from the terminal, and modal
choice will depend on the relative distances by road to the terminal and rail from
the terminal to the port.
Customer C5 will favour the direct road movement to port as the least-cost path;
an example is Hunter wine exports or Mudgee meat exports.
Customer C6 has the opportunity to discriminate between export ports; an
example is Coleambally Rice, which can move in either direction (i.e. Sydney or
Melbourne).
2.4.5 Freight route assignments Freight route assignments, the last approach in freight movement demand
modelling, estimate which routes will be taken by freight vehicles to transport
commodities between each origin and each destination. Three basic approaches
exist (Victoria, et al., 2004):
• All-or-nothing assignment: involves assigning all trips along the shortest
route between each origin and each destination without considering
congestion
• Incremental assignment: involves allocating a limited number of trips at a
time tied to the cheapest available route, updating after each allocation the
new travel costs to each link as a result of the allocation
• Multi-path assignment: an extension of the incremental approach in which
at any stage of the allocation process all trips from an origin are assigned
to different routes between the origin and each destination, not necessarily
to the least cost route.
2.4.6 Summary The freight movement demand model process is based on the freight movement
pattern, which is influenced by the quantity of freight, to choose a suitable freight
route with the optimum mode.
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2.5 Accessibility
2.5.1 Introduction Typically, accessibility refers to the ease with which desired destinations may be
reached and is frequently measured as a function of the available opportunities
moderated by some measure of impedance, such as distance, travel time or cost
(Hu and Saleh, 2005). Ease of access depends not just upon transport systems, but
upon patterns of land use. Qualitative and quantitative accessibility measures seek
to define the level of opportunity and choice, taking account of both the existence
of opportunities and the transport options available to reach them (Steer Davies
Gleave & Derek Halden Consultancy, 2001).
Access to major airports, seaports and inter-modal terminals is a key issue in
defining a strategic network to facilitate both the tasks of importing and exporting.
In a number of cases the performance of this pivotal element of the inter-modal
logistics chain is impeded by poor links between ports and freight intensive
locations. Road and rail transport congestion in the immediate terminal
environment also presents barriers (Department of Transport and Regional
Services, 2002).
Improvements in accessibility, which can be presented as transport infrastructure
investments, lead to changes in generalised transport costs via shorter distances or
higher speeds (better accessibility), which give rise to reductions in fuel, capital
and labour costs. Such changes will have impacts on the transport system in the
form of mode choice, choice of time of day and the generation and attraction of
trips per zone (Piet and Bruinsma, 1998).
2.5.2 Indicators Simple accessibility indicators take into account only intraregional transport
infrastructure measured in terms of such criteria as total length of motorways and
numbers of railway stations (e.g. Biehl, 1986; 1991), or travel time to the nearest
nodes of interregional networks (e.g. Lutter et al., 1993). While these kinds of
indicators may contain valuable information about the region itself, they fail to
recognise the network character of transport infrastructure in which parts of the
region are linked with each other, and the region linked with other regions. More
detailed descriptors of the real infrastructural connections are therefore required.
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
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More complex accessibility indicators take account of the connectivity of
transport networks by distinguishing between the network itself, i.e. its nodes and
links, and the activities (such as work, shopping or leisure) or opportunities (such
as markets or jobs) that can be reached by it. In general terms, accessibility then is
a construct of two functions, one representing the activities or opportunities to be
reached and the other representing the effort, time, distance or cost needed to
reach them (Bökemann, 1982).
2.6 Environmental Impacts
2.6.1 Introduction Freight terminals impact on their local environment from an aesthetic perspective
as well as removing large areas of land from alternative uses or developments
which may be perceived to be of higher value to the local community. They also
succeed in making adjacent land unsuitable for a range of residential, business and
community developments which require a less industrial environment. To
minimise this conflict it is useful to attend to both reducing the negative impacts
of terminals and to maximising the benefits to local communities (Meyrick and
Associates, 2006).
2.6.2 Air Pollution Air pollution is taken to be “the presence in the atmosphere of substances or
energy in such quantities and of such duration as to be liable to cause harm to
human, plant, or animal life, or damage to human-made materials and structures,
or changes in the weather and climate, or interference with the comfortable
enjoyment of life or property or other human activity” (Elsom, 1992). Standards
generally regulate the amount of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
sulphur, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (PM) or soot that can be released
(Wikipedia, 2006h).
The environmental problems associated with transport have led to a more critical
attitude towards large transport infrastructure projects (Piet and Bruinsma, 1998).
For example, it is consistent with the NSW Government’s Action for Air policy
(EPA, 1998) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and with the Action for
Transport 2010 Integrated Transport Plan (Department of Transport, 1998) to
increase rail usage to 25% of total freight movements. The Port of Sydney
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supports the NSW Government’s new target to move 50% of containers from the
port by rail by 2015 and is continuing a focus on the efficiency of freight rail links
(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003b).
2.6.3 Noise Pollution Noise pollution is unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment
(Wikipedia, 2006g). Noise pollution can be caused by many sources, including
highways, vehicles, police cars, ambulances, factories, concerts, music, air-
conditioners, engines, machine, aircraft, helicopters, alarms, public address
systems, industrial development and construction work. In general, noise
pollution refers to any noise irritating to one's ears which comes from an external
source.
A number of railway operation noise sources, other than those stemming from
movements outside transport facilities such as train pass-by noises (largely
wheel/rail), will be identified and briefly discussed in later chapters. People
primarily affected by these noise sources may include railway staff and
passengers on trains, railway trackside staff, and wayside residents. Both
environmental pollution and hearing protection may be involved. Sources include
the following: close proximity to wheel/rail noise; locomotive noise; freight
vehicle noise; warning signal noise; near field bridge noise; marshalling yard
noise; flange squeal on tight curves; maintenance machine noise; and track
machinery warning horn noise (Stanworth, 1982).
2.7 Introduction of analysis elements into modelling components Sections 2.3 and 2.4 show the similarity between the Inter-modal Freight
Transport and Regional Development (IFTRD) model and the four steps of
transport modelling. Their links can be seen in the components:
IFTRD model Transport modelling
Attractiveness Presents the trend of freight movement of a freight zone
Location decision of firms Presents the location of Origin/Destination (OD) freight zone
Economic activity Presents the production/attraction of each freight zone
Destination choice Presents the OD pair of freight zones;
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Mode choice Presents the opportunity to transit to rail in freight movement
Route choice Presents the priority of links in freight movement
Link loads Presents the capacity/congestion of links
Link times/distances/costs Presents the travel time/length/penalty of link
Accessibility Presents the mode/capacity when traffic accesses to the terminal
Table 2.5 Presentations of elements in Inter-modal Freight Transport and
Regional Development Model and Transport Modelling
In addition, the element of environmental issues of a terminal is an important
consideration in freight movement when presented as a cost of using the terminal.
Figure 2.5. Terminal location analysis model
Attractiveness
Location decision of firms
Economic activity
Destination choice
Mode choice
Route choice
Link loads
Link times/distances/costs
Accessibility
Freight generation
Route assignment
Mode choice
Freight distribution
Environmental issues (cost)
Terminal location
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2.8 Summary In the literature review chapter, a terminal location analysis model was developed
which includes a number of research focus items selected from the transport and
regional development model according to freight transport theory. These items
were also presented in detail in the concept study of the four steps of transport
modelling.
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27
Chapter 3
Methodology
3.1 Case Study Approach
The case studies (Chapters 4 to 7) analyse the performance of four important ports
in Australia and the impact of their inter-modal transport network on terminal
location decision, using the Terminal Location Analysis Model developed in
Chapter 2. Note that for Destination Choice, in this research a port is considered
to be the freight centre and freight destination of its inter-modal system; that is,
freight zones are the points of origin and freight direction is towards the port. Link
loads and link times/costs in route choice are not studied due to limits on the size
of this thesis. The structure of the case studies is as shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3. 1 Structure of research methodology (Developed by author)
Introduction • States • Ports
Transport Networks • Network Connections • Freight Transport Mode Share • Terminal Location Pattern • Terminal Access Routes
Port Accessibility
Environmental Issues
Case Studies Data Analysis
Freight Generation Analysis • Population and
Employment Growth • Ports Product Growth
Mode Choice Analysis • Mode Share • Firms location Decision • Terminal Location Pattern
Route Choice Analysis • Terminal Access Route • Port Accessibility • Environmental Issues
Summary
28
3.1.1 Study Area
The primary objective of this research is to examine the optimum inter-modal
terminal location in transport and regional development in Australia. As an inter-
modal terminal itself, a seaport connects to an inter-modal transport network
containing two main modes, rail and road, that serve the freight zones related to
the seaport (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005; Victorian Resources Online, 2006a;
Victorian Resources Online, 2006b; Queensland Transport, 2005; Ozhorizons,
2006). A useful starting point in analysing the role of terminal location in the
development of the region of a seaport is to undertake case studies of the
country’s main seaports and their inter-modal networks. For this purpose, main
seaports are defined as those handling in excess of 400,000 Twenty-foot
Equivalent Units (TEUs); that is, the Ports3 of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and
Fremantle. These seaports are the product/attraction centres of their inter-modal
systems which contain road-rail inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.
Figure 3. 2 Map of Australia showing the five main ports (Map developed by author)
3 Port of Flinders was excluded due to insufficient data.
29
3.1.2 Case study structure
Introduction
The study starts with an introduction section about the state and its port’s freight
generation, which is indicated by population and employment factors. State and
port population growth, employment growth and economic growth and
performance are presented with year series.
Transport networks
This section considers mode choice and route choice
1) Network connections
This section reviews the major transport connections to the port from the rest of
the state, showing the available main modes and the main mode connecting the
freight zones of the state to the freight centre, the port.
2) Freight transport mode share
This section considers main transport modes’ mode share of total freight
movement and intrastate freight movement by percentage in tonne-kilometres. It
shows the preferable mode in freight movement of the state, in relation to the
location of the inter-modal terminal.
3) Terminal location pattern
This section looks at the distance from the freight zone centriod to the closest
inter-modal terminal, to examine the radius of the inter-modal terminal
catchments of each inter-modal system.
A figure containing freight zones and inter-modal terminal location information
pertaining to the study area is read into the MapInfo GIS mapping software and
the scale registered in metres. The minimum distance from each freight zone to an
inter-modal terminal is selected as terminal catchment data, used to show the
terminal location pattern of the study area, or percentage of terminal catchments in
distance range. This indicates the optimum distance from freight zones to the
inter-modal terminal in exchanging freight modes.
30
4) Terminal access routes
The available modes and inter-modal routes heading from freight zones to port are
considered. The modes are restricted to rail and road, since other modes are not in
the research area of this thesis.
Because the route from a terminal to the port is fixed, the inter-modal terminal
access route becomes important in the performance of the whole trip. Higher
priority roads, e.g. motorway and highway, are considered and route conditions
affecting accessibility, for example road grade and number of lanes, are indicated.
Port accessibility
This section looks at the available access modes and the number of access points
to the port. A seaport is an inter-modal terminal in large size, and with the heavy
duty of transiting goods its accessibility will be the bottle neck to the port’s
development. To ascertain how the access conditions impinge on the port’s
development, access conditions will be examined against the port’s growth.
Environmental issues
This section examines two main environmental pollution effects from the port’s
facilities, noise and air pollution, indicating the pollution resources and the
operation of the port’s management.
3.2 Data analysis Chapter 8, the data analysis chapter, is based on the four case study chapters,
examining the links between terminal location and the elements in transport
modelling and the effect of terminal location on the port’s performance. The
chapter is structured as follows:
Freight generation analysis
This section analyses the population and employment growth of the specific state
and examines the effect of these two freight generation indicators on the port’s
performance, i.e., the port’s product growth.
Mode choice analysis
This section presents the mode share of rail and road transport of total freight
movement and intrastate freight movement by percentage in tonne-kilometres,
freight zone location decision and inter-modal terminal location pattern.
31
Route choice analysis
This section analyses the available terminal access modes of freight zones and the
access routes leading to the port, specifically looking at whether road and/or rail
mode is available for freight movement from freight zones and reviewing high
grade access roads as the key component of the routes connecting to the terminal.
As a concept of transport accessibility, the total number of lanes of higher priority
roads may be related to a port’s performance.
Port accessibility
Port accessibility studies the condition of a port’s access points, including the
number, the access modes and their working condition, against the port’s
performance.
Environmental issues
Environmental issues include noise pollution and air pollution from a port’s
facilities. This section examines the pollution resources and the port’s
management operation against the pollution.
Summary
The results of each case study and the data analysis are summarised in Chapter 8.
32
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Chapter 4 Port of Sydney
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Chapter 4
Port of Sydney
4.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Sydney-
related transport system by analysing the elements included in the Inter-modal
Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in Chapter 2. It
investigates detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Sydney and
considers the performance of the port’s inter-modal network in relation to
terminal location, taking into account factors such as population and employment,
freight movement, mode share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones,
available routes, access to ports and air and noise pollution.
4.1.1 New South Wales
New South Wales (NSW), the oldest and most populous state of Australia, is
located in the south-east of the country, north of Victoria and south of Queensland
(Figure 4.1). It occupies 801,348.8 km2 (Australian Bureau of Statistics - ABS,
2005a) and has the largest population and highest level of full-time employment
of Australia’s states – 6.7 million (ABS, 2006a) and 2.3 million respectively.
(ABS, 2005b)
Figure 4.1 Location of New South Wales
(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006a)
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As shown in Figure 4.2, the Gross State Product (GSP) of New South Wales
increased more than 200% over the 15 years from 1898/90 to 2005/05, from
AUS$140.7 billion to AUS$305.4 billion. New South Wales GSP was also around
one-third of total Australian GDP in the same period.
GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, NSW
125000.0145000.0165000.0185000.0205000.0225000.0245000.0265000.0285000.0305000.0325000.0
89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05
$mill
ion
Figure 4.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – New South Wales
(Data sourced from ABS, 2005c)
4.1.2 Port of Sydney
Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is Australia's oldest and largest city and
a centre of international finance. It hosts the second largest container port in
Australia (Figure 4.3). With 99% of Australia’s international trade transported by
sea, Sydney’s ports are pivotal to Australia’s economic future.
The ports of Sydney are the focii of a vast network of road, rail and sea links
servicing domestic and international markets. Although 85% of containerised
products are delivered within 40 kilometres of the ports (Sydney Ports
Corporation, 2004b), people from all parts of NSW rely on the ports for the
delivery of goods and the export of products to overseas markets.
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Chapter 4 Port of Sydney
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Figure 4.3. Location of Port of Sydney.
(Map developed from Australian Salaried Medical Officers’ Federation, 2003;
Sydney Ports Corporation, 2004a)
The Port of Sydney is owned and managed by the Sydney Ports Corporation. As
shown in Figure 4.3 (areas in red), the port consists of three geographically
separate facilities: Sydney Harbour, Botany Bay, and Glebe Island and White Bay.
Sydney’s ports are a major infrastructure asset for New South Wales, handling
around $45.5 billion worth of international and domestic trade (Sydney Ports
Corporation, 2003b). During the 2004/2005 financial year, the ports handled 25.9
million tonnes of cargo (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005), including over one
million containers. This is about 30%of the total containerised trade in Australia
(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003b).
4.2 Transport network
4.2.1 Network connection
New South Wales is connected to the neighbouring states by an integrated
transport network which also provides direct inland links to other capital cities
(Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide) from Sydney. The major connections are
listed below (Bureau of Transport and Regional Services, 2005).
Port of SydneySYDNEY
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Figure 4.4 shows these transport connections extending across New South Wales,
supporting the state’s development by linking its freight zones, with especially
strong connections to Sydney.
Figure 4.4. Major connections in Transport network of New South Wales.
(Map based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)
Connecting Queensland: Pacific Highway, New England Highway, Mitchell Highway and rail lines.
Connecting Victoria: Princess Highway, Hume Highway, Sturt
Highway, Newell Highway and rail lines.
Connecting South Australia: Sturt Highway and rail lines.
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Chapter 4 Port of Sydney
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Regional inter-modal terminals, an important part of the freight transport network,
are located around freight centres to improve the transport system. There are 20 of
these state-wide inter-modal terminals in New South Wales (Figure 4.5) providing
local industry with more transport options for freight movement.
Figure 4.5.Main inter-modal terminal sites in New South Wales.
(Based on Developing Freight Hubs, 2005)
4.2.2 Freight transport mode share
In 2000/01, a total of 301.3 million tonnes and 52,942.6 million tonnes kilometres
freight was moved to points all over Australia from New South Wales (ABS,
2001).
Figure 4.6 shows that Road and Rail networks shared the highest proportion of
total tonnage handled, up to 98.25% together (183.8 and 112.3 million tonnes
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Chapter 4 Port of Sydney
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respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic shipping, sea freight
accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-kilometres travelled than of
total tonnage moved. The four main transport modes were, in descending order,
road transport at 56.21% (26,440.3 million of total tonne-kilometres travelled),
followed by rail (37.1%) and sea (12.85%). By contrast, air accounted for less
than 1% of the freight carried.
.
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, NSW
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIRMODE
TONNESTONNE-KILOM ETRES
Figure 4.6. Percentage of Total State Freight Movements Carried by Mode, NSW.
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
A high proportion (96.4%) of tonnes goods transported by the rail network was
for the movement of freight intrastate (Figure 4.7). About 75% of tonne-
kilometres of rail freight were for intrastate movements.
Similarly, a high percentage (89%) of the total tonnes moved by road was within
the same state. However, in contrast to rail, only 47% of the total tonne-kilometres
transported by road was intrastate freight. Road and rail were the two major
transport modes in intrastate freight movement.
A minority of freight movements by sea were intrastate in nature (0.86% of the
total tonne-kilometres travelled and 21.4% of the total tonnes carried).
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INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, NSW
0%10%20%30%40%50%
60%70%80%90%
100%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIRMODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETERS
Figure 4.7. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
NSW
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
4.2.3 Terminal location pattern
Because 85% of containerised products from the Port of Sydney is delivered to
points within 40 kilometres of the port (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2004b), this
section will focus on the freight zones and terminals within this area.
The industrial zones in Figure 4.8 are located within 50 kilometres of the port.
Several large zones are within 10 km of the port, with the remainder located along
the major transport arteries such as the Great Western Highway, Pennant Hills
Road, Cumberland Highway and rail lines.
The map also shows seven inter-modal terminals, namely Botany, Camellia,
Chullora, Enfield, Marrickville, Villawood and Yennora; four of these are located
within industrial areas and three along dedicated rail freight lines belonging to the
port. To meet the need for port development with a dedicated rail freight line
directly linked to port facilities, it is proposed that the terminal on the Enfield site
be used as an Inland-Port4 of Port of Sydney. Four of the terminals, sited within
4 An inland port is a location where the processing of trade can be shifted from the national borders and where multiple modes of transportation and a wide variety of services are offered at a common location. Inland ports that provide value-added services in addition to trade processing will support industry efforts to create more efficient supply chains. (Leitner, S.J. and R. Harrison, 2001)
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10-20 kilometres of the port, act as buffers transferring freight onto rail, thus
reducing the heavy freight load on roads within 10 kilometres of the Sydney CBD.
Figure 4.8. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network near Sydney
City
(Map based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)
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Figure 4.9 charts the shortest distance from each freight zone to an inter-modal
terminal (derived from Fig. 4.8), by ascending order of magnitude. The study area
encompasses 123 freight zones and eight inter-modal terminals. Considered in
terms of terminal catchments, a high percentage (70%) of freight zones is found to
be within 10 kilometres of the closest terminal. For these freight zones, the
terminal access route will not greatly affect the whole trip performance, but for
the remaining 30% of zones improved accessibility of access routes would
facilitate freight movement.
Distances from Freight Zones to Terminals
05
101520253035
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121Freight Zone Numbers
Dis
tanc
e (K
M)
Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Range
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%
10 15 20 25 30 35Distance Range (KM)
Figure 4.9 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location
4.2.4 Terminal Access Routes
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As seen in Figure 4.8, three major roads provide the main access routes
connecting terminals in inter-modal movement towards Port of Sydney. Table 4.1
sets out the road conditions of these routes, namely the M4, the Great Western
Highway and the Hume Highway.
Roads Road Grades Lanes
M4
Motorway
From 4 to 6 lanes, and in some stretches 8 lanes (SWR, 2005)
Great Western
Highway
Highway
4 lanes in urban section (Wikipedia, 2006i)
Hume Highway
National
2 lanes (MG, 2004)
Table 4. 1 Condition of Access Main Roads of Inter-modal Terminal.
(Developed by author)
These main roads connect the origin points of Port of Sydney freight to terminals
in Camellia, Yennora, Villawood, Chullora and Enfield, where goods transported
in road freight mode are shifted to rail mode.
4.3 Port Accessibility
One of the important factors impacting on a port’s development, its productivity,
greatly depends on its accessibility. The following discussion is about the Port of
Sydney’s accessibility.
Figure 4.10 shows two main roads, namely the Gore Hill Freeway (motorway)
and the Pacific Highway, which traverse the two main facilities areas of the Port
of Sydney. These corridors provide access to and between the port’s facilities and
its linked industrial zones and freeways, railways and terminals. While road and
rail networks provide access to Sydney’s manufacturing and distribution centres,
two existing inter-modal terminals are located in Botany and Marrickville and it is
proposed that an inter-modal terminal be built in Enfield as an Inland-Port to
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support the Port of Sydney’s increasingly heavy load. To support the port’s rapid
development, a dedicated rail freight network runs through four existing inter-
modal terminals (see map), they are Botany, Chullora, Enfield and Marrickville,
linking the port’s two main facilities areas and the proposed Inland port site.
Figure 4.10. Proposed port access routes
(Map reproduced from Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)
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4.4 Environmental issues
Air quality
The Port of Sydney supports the NSW Government’s target of moving 50% of
containers from the port by rail by 2015, to minimise air emissions through
encouraging increased containerised cargo movements by rail (Sydney Ports
Corporation, 2003a).
Figure 4.11 presents the trend relating to the transport of containerised cargo to
and from Port Botany by rail (instead of road) from 1999 to 2003. It demonstrates
that there was an increase in the number of containers moved to and from Port
Botany throughout the period shown.
Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
TEU
Figure 4.11. Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail in TEUs.
(Based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a)
Noise pollution
Noise mainly arises from the loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships
as well as from movement of cargo within terminals.
In the 2002/2003 financial year, the port handled a total of 111 complaints.
(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a) The charts in Figure 4.12 show the areas
complaints were received from.
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The number of noise complaints received regarding port operations at White Bay
is largely due to the proximity of residences to the cargo handling facility.
Noise Complaints by Location
White Bay69%, 69%
Darling Harbour13%, 13%
Botany10%, 10%
Other Berths8%, 8%
White Bay 69%
Darling Harbour 13%
Botany 10%
Other Berths 8%
Figure 4.12. Noise complaints on port by location
(Based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a)
Noise reduction measures at Port facilities
Figure 4.13 shows the Port of Sydney’s facilities (areas in yellow shapes). White
Bay and Darling Harbour, two of the major facilities, are located to the north of
the Sydney CBD, extremely close to residential areas due to Sydney’s
development history. However, some measures have been taken to reduce noise.
Figure 4.13 also shows a small forest park (within the green shape) which acts as
a buffer against noise from the port when goods are being loaded. The other
noise-reduction measure is having the port at a lower level than the residential
area (indicated in red).
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.Figure 4.13. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s northern
facilities
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006a)
The port facility in Botany Bay (Figure 4.14) is further from the CBD. It chooses
a more active method to block noise. The areas in the green curves are freight
terminal warehouses, which serve as excellent buffers to noise pollution from the
port.
Darling
Harbour White Bay
Sydney City
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Figure 4.14. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s southern
facilities
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006b)
4.5 Summary
New South Wales has a population of 6.7 million, with 2.3 million in full-time
employment. During the 2004/2005 financial year, The Port of Sydney handled
25.9 million tonnes of cargo: around $45.5 billion worth of international and
domestic trade, or about 30%of the total containerised trade in Australia. Eighty-
five per cent of containerised products from the port are delivered within a radius
of 40 kilometres of the port. In this state, road and rail mode freight movement
made up a combined 98.25% of total tonnage handled in 2001.
Over 80% of the 123 freight zones are located within 10km of the eight inter-
modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Sydney. There are
three main road access routes to these terminals, namely the Great Western
Highway, the Hume Highway and the M4.
Botany Bay
Botany Bay
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The Port of Sydney has two road access points and one rail access point in its two
main facilities. The port is surrounded by residential areas, but a buffer zone of
warehouses and parks helps to contain noise pollution from its facilities.
These data will contribute to the data analysis in Chapter 8, examining the
location of inter-modal terminals.
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Chapter 5
Port of Melbourne
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of
Melbourne-related transport system by analysing the elements included in the
Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in
Chapter 2. It investigates detailed information and descriptions of the Port of
Melbourne and the performance of the port’s inter-modal network in relation to
terminal location, taking into account factors such as population and employment,
freight movement, mode share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones,
available routes, access to ports and noise pollution
5.1.1 Victoria
The second oldest and second most populous state of Australia, Victoria is located
in the south-east of the country, south of New South Wales and east of South
Australia (Figure 5.1). It occupies 7,693.6 km2 (ABS, 2005a), and has a
population of 5 million (ABS, 2006a) with 2.4 million in full-time employment
(ABS, 2005b).
Figure 5.1 Location of Victoria
(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006c)
It can be seen from Figure 5.2 that Victoria has grown soundly, with Gross State
Product (GSP) increasing 207% in the 15 years between 1989/90 and 2004/05
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from AUS$107.1 billion to AUS$222 billion. The state makes a significant
contribution to the Australian economy, accounting for one-quarter of Australia’s
total GDP in the period in question.
GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, Vic.
100000.0
120000.0
140000.0
160000.0
180000.0
200000.0
220000.0
240000.0
89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05
$mill
ion
Figure 5.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Victoria.
(Data sourced from ABS, 2005c)
5.1.2 Port of Melbourne
Melbourne, which is less than 200 years old, is the second-largest city (after
Sydney) in Australia. It is the capital city of the state of Victoria, and was also the
capital city of Australia from 1901 until 1927. It is the site of the largest container
port in Australia (Figure 5.3).
As the city with the largest and busiest container port in Australia, Melbourne is
the natural transport hub for south-eastern Australia. It is located at the junction of
Victoria’s major road and rail networks, providing excellent access to South
Australia, Western Australia, regional New South Wales and the east coast of the
Australian mainland.
The Port of Melbourne handles 37% of Australia’s container trade and is also one
of the largest general cargo ports in Australia. Forty-two container shipping lines,
as well as a number of other general cargo carriers, make around 3,200 ship calls a
year to Melbourne, providing services to ports of call in all major parts of the
world (Melbourne Port Corporation, 2003). The Port of Melbourne is also one of
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Victoria’s major assets, handling some $70 billion in trade each year and
supporting around 80,000 Victorian jobs (Port of Melbourne Corporation, 2005).
Figure 5.3. Location of Port of Melbourne.
(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006b; Port Melbourne
Corporation, 2005)
5.2 Transport network
5.2.1 Network connections
Victoria is linked to neighbouring states by a huge and complicated transport
network, which includes strong land links from Melbourne. The major
connections are listed below (BTRE, 2005).
New South Wales : Calder Highway, Murray Valley Highway, Princess
Highway, Cann Valley Highway, Hume Highway,
Goulburn Valley Highway, Northern Highway and railway
lines across the northern state boundary.
South Australia: Princess Highway, Western Highway, Sturt Highway,
Newell Highway, Barrier Highway and railway lines
Port of Melbourne
Melbourne
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These transport networks extend throughout Victoria. The main routes are shown
in blue in Figure 5.4. Sixteen regional inter-modal terminals (gray spots in the
figure) are located around freight centres, and are important providers of mode
choice for local freight movement towards the port.
Figure 5.4. Major connections in the Victorian transport network
(Map developed from Victorian Resources Online, 2006a; Victorian Resources
Online, 2006b)
5.2.2 Freight transport mode share
In 2000/01, 138.1 million tonnes and 33,348.9 million tonnes-kilometres of
freight were moved to points all over Australia from Victoria (ABS, 2001).
Figure 5.5 shows that the road network carried a very high proportion (87.74% or
121.1 million tonnes) of the tonnage handled. Rail and sea accounted for almost
all the rest.
Road transport handled nearly half (49.91%) or 18,745.5 million of the total
tonne-kilometres moved, while rail and sea accounted for 18.56% (6,188.3 million)
and 25.01% (8341.5 million) respectively.
crossing the western state boundary.
National Roads
State Roads
Rail Lines
Inter-modal
Freight Network
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PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, Vic.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIR
MODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETRES
Figure 5.5 Percentage of total State freight movements carried, by mode, Victoria
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
Figure 5.6 illustrates that a very high proportion (87.49%) of goods moved by
road was interstate freight, while approximately 42% of tonne-kilometres by rail
was intrastate freight.
INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, Vic.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIRM ODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETERS
Figure 5.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried, by
mode, Victoria
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
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5.2.3 Terminal location pattern
Figure 5.7 demonstrates that apart from an extremely concentrated industrial zone
near the Melbourne metropolitan district, other industrial zones are widely located
in the rest of the state, clustered along the key transport arteries such as the Calder
Highway, the Goulburn Valley Highway, the Hume Highway, the Western
Highway and railway lines. The map also shows sixteen inter-modal terminals.
Figure 5.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Victoria
(Map developed from Victorian Resources Online, 2006a; Victorian Resources
Online, 2006b; Department of Infrastructure, 2003)
Figure 5.8 charts the shortest distance from each freight zone to an inter-modal
terminal (derived from Figure 5.7), by ascending order of magnitude. The study
area encompasses 116 freight zones and 25 inter-modal terminals. Considered in
terms of terminal catchments, 30% of freight zones are within 10 kilometres of a
terminal and 35% within 20 kilometres. For freight zones within 20 kilometres of
a terminal, the access route to the terminal does not greatly affect the whole trip
Main Roads
Motorways
Rail Lines
Industrial
Areas
Freight Network National Roads
State Roads
Rail Lines
Industrial Areas
Inter-modal Freight Terminals
Charlton
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performance, but for the 33% of zones that are more than 20 kilometres from a
terminal, improved access routes facilitate freight movement.
Distances from Freight Zones to Terminals
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111Freight Zone Numbers
Dist
ance
(KM
)
Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Rrange
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90Distance Ranges (KM)
Figure 5.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.
5.2.4 Terminal access routes
As seen in Figure 5.7, four main roads and rail lines are the principal access routes
between terminals in inter-modal movement towards the Port of Melbourne. The
main roads are the Sunraysia Highway, the Western Highway, the Calder
Highway and the Princes Highway. Their road conditions are as listed in Table
5.1.
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Roads Road Grades Lanes
Sunraysia Highway Highway 2 lanes (Answers Corporation, 2006)
Western Highway National 2 lanes (KG, 2002) Calder Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006j) Princes Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006k)
Table 5. 1 Conditions of access: main roads to inter-modal terminals
(Developed by author)
These main roads connect the origin points of Port of Melbourne freight to
terminals in Birchip, Ballarat, Horsham, Charlton, Warragul and the Melbourne
metropolitan environs, where goods transported in road freight mode are shifted to
rail.
5.3 Port accessibility
The Melbourne metropolitan area transport network is more complex than the
state-wide network. For example, of the sixteen freight terminals in the state, nine
are located within the metropolitan area, as shown in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9. Metropolitan inter-modal freight terminal hubs
(Based on Freight Intermodal Efficiency Group, 2004)
Facilities
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Furthermore, five of the nine freight terminals within Metropolitan Melbourne are
located outside the Melbourne Port facilities, and function as a huge freight buffer
for the Port. Buffering all goods to the container yards and freight yards, they
transfer freight onto the dedicated rail lines travelling through the port’s facilities.
Clustered inside the Port are nine main entry points for freight movements (Figure
5.10) some of which go through the Freight Victoria Dynon Container Terminal
and the National Rail Freight Corporation Melbourne Freight Terminal (area in
pink).
Figure 5.10. Access points and routes, Port of Melbourne.
(Figure reproduced from Department of Infrastructure, 2003)
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The terminals shown in Figure 5.10 are listed in Table 5.2 below.
Terminal number
Entry site
1 On the West Gate Freeway and connecting port facilities in the west and the south.
2 On Francis Street and connecting port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.
3 On Williamstown Road and connecting port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.
4 On Whitehall Street and connecting the port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.
5 On Footscray Road and connecting to the inner port facilities.
6 On Footscray Road and connecting to the inner port facilities via a dedicated rail freight line.
7 At the intersection of City Link and Footscray Road; both dedicated rail lines and roads are available.
8 On the West Gate Freeway and connecting the port facilities in the north and the south.
9 On Williamstown Road; this is the entry point for freight entering the southern port facility.
Table 5. 2 Entry sites to terminals listed in Figure 5.10
Access points 1 to 4 are to the port’s western facility. According to the size of
traffic flow arrows, points 1 and 2 are the main entries for this facility. Access
points 5 to 7 mainly serve the central port facility. Dedicated rail freight lines
connect all entries, providing direct freight transferral. Access points 8 and 9 are
located in the southern facility, which has a freeway traversing it with a rail mode
connection only.
Figure 5.10 showed that the Port of Melbourne has a variety of accesses to its
facilities, with both road and rail mode access to the main entry points. Of
particular note is access point 7 at the main port, which is a multi-modal transport
junction handling both road and rail freight from the inter-modal terminal next to
the port, from the inner port (by the dedicated rail lines) and from other places of
origin.
5.4 Environmental issues
Noise mainly arises from the loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships
as well as from the movement of cargo within terminals.
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The Port of Melbourne has developed extremely close to Melbourne city (Figure
5.11) due to its fundamental role in Melbourne’s early development. The areas in
the green shape are the freight terminal and container terminal sites which handle
freight from and to the port. Their huge yards act as noise buffers between
residential areas and port facilities. The port facility is shown yellow in the figure.
Figure 5.11. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s northern facilities.
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006c)
In Figure 5.12, office buildings, warehouses and parks (in the green shape) are
located between houses and the port’s southern facilities (in the yellow shape).
With a buffer of this magnitude, noise pollution from the port is minimized.
Melbourne Ports
Melbourne City
Phillip Bay
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Figure 5.12. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s southern facilities.
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006d)
5.5 Summary
Victoria has a population of 5 million, with 2.4 million in full-time employment.
Handling around $70 billion worth of international and domestic trade during the
2004/2005 financial year, the Port of Melbourne hosts around 3,200 ship calls a
year, comprising 37% of Australia’s container trade. In this state, road and rail
mode freight movement shared over 95% of total tonnage handled in 2001.
Over 67% of the state’s 116 freight zones are located within 10km of the 25 inter-
modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Melbourne. There
are four main road access routes to these terminals, namely the Calder Highway,
the Princes Highway, the Sunraysia Highway and the Western Highway. The Port
of Melbourne has nine access points for both road and rail freight movement in its
facilities. The port is surrounded by warehouses and parks which help to buffer
nearby residents from noise pollution from the port’s facilities.
These data will contribute to the analysis in Chapter 8 examining the location of inter-modal terminals.
Melbourne Ports
Melbourne City
Phillip Bay
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Chapter 6
Port of Brisbane
6.1 Introduction
Chapter 6 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Brisbane-
related transport system by analysing the elements listed in the Inter-modal
Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in Chapter 2. It
reviews detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Brisbane and the
performance of its inter-modal network in relation to terminal location, taking into
account population and employment, freight movement, mode share, transport
networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to ports, and noise
pollution.
6.1.1 Queensland
Queensland (Qld), the third most populous and in recent years the fastest-growing
state of Australia, is located in the north-east of the country, north of New South
Wales, east of the Northern Territory and north-east of South Australia (Figure
6.1). It occupies 1,734,156.8 km2 (ABS, 2005a), and has a population of 3.9
million (ABS, 2006), of whom 2 million are full-time employed (ABS, 2005b).
Figure 6.1 Location of Queensland
(Accessed from Wikipedia, 2006d)
Queensland has experienced an impressive 267% increase in Gross State Product
(GSP) in the last 15 years, as shown in Figure 6.2, from AUS$59.5 billion in
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1989/90 to AUS$158.5 billion in 2004/05, accounting for 18% of Australia’s total
GDP in the period mentioned.
GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, Qld
50000.0
70000.0
90000.0
110000.0
130000.0
150000.0
170000.0
89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05
$mill
ion
Figure 6.2. Gross State product (current prices) – Queensland.
(Data sourced from ABS, 2005c)
6.1.2 Port of Brisbane
Brisbane, the capital and most populous city in Queensland, is situated at the heart
of south east Queensland, Australia's fastest growing region. It is the third most
populous urban area in Australia, behind Sydney and Melbourne. It hosts the third
largest container port in Australia.
Port of Brisbane
Brisbane
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Figure 6. 3. Location of Port of Brisbane.
(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006c; Port of Brisbane
Corporation, 2002)
The Port of Brisbane, Australia’s fastest-growing container port, is situated on the
southern side of the mouth of the Brisbane River, just 23 kilometres from the
city’s Central Business District, as shown in Figure 6.3. Other port land and
facilities are located at various sites upriver, including Clunies Flats, Hemmant,
Colmslie, Pinkenba, Eagle Farm and Hamilton. The port provides world-class
cargo-handling and warehousing facilities, and an interface between rail, road and
sea transport at the Brisbane Multimodal Terminal (BMT). Over the past 20 years,
over $1.1 billion has been invested in infrastructure and assets (Port of Brisbane
Corporation, 2005a).
The Port of Brisbane handles 12% of Australia’s container trade and is also one of
the largest general cargo ports in Australia. It is also one of Queensland’s major
assets, handling some 726,145 TEUs and 26 million tonnes in trade during the
2004/2005 financial year (Port of Brisbane Corporation, 2005a).
6.2 Transport Network
6.2.1 Network Connections
Queensland is linked to neighbouring states by a complex transport network,
including direct inland links to its main neighbouring capital city, Sydney (BTRE,
2005). The major connections with New South Wales are the Bruce Highway, the
Flinders Highway, the Landsborough Highway, the Warrego Highway and rail
lines.
This transport network, shown in Figure 6.4, covers the entire state. The state’s
development is supported by connections between major cities within Queensland,
with especially strong links to Brisbane.
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Figure 6.4. Major Connections in the Queensland transport network
(Map developed from The Queensland Dive Tourism Association Inc, 2005)
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6.2.2 Freight transport mode share
In 2000/01, 315 million tonnes (93,416.2 million tonne–kilometres) of freight
were moved form Brisbane to all parts of Australia (ABS, 2001). Respective
mode usage is shown in Figure 6.5.
From Figure 6.5, it is evident that in 2001 road and rail networks shared the
overwhelming bulk of total tonnage handled, up to 94.85% together (126.8 and
172 million tonnes respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic
shipping, sea freight accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-
kilometres travelled than for total tonnage moved.
Rail transport handled nearly half of total tonne-kilometres travelled at 45.45%
(42,458.2 million), with road and sea accounting for 20.53% (19,174.1 million)
and 33.97% (31,735.8 million) respectively. It is interesting to note that sea
freight accounts for much higher percentages of both tonnage and tonne-
kilometres in Brisbane’s than in Sydney’s case, and that it is comparable with
road transport. By contrast, air accounted for less than 1% of freight carried.
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, Qld
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIR
MODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETRES
Figure 6.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode,
Queensland
(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)
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From Figure 6.6 it can be seen that almost all (99.35%) of the tonnage transported
by the rail network was for the movement of freight intrastate. Similarly, 95.73%
of tonne-kilometres of rail freight were for intrastate movements.
Rail followed the same pattern with over ninety percent (93.99%) of the total
tonnes moved by road being within the same state. However, in contrast to rail, a
much lower 58.71% of the total tonne-kilometres transported by road was
intrastate freight.
Interestingly, a high proportion of freight movements by sea were intrastate in
nature (78.67% of the total tonne-kilometres travelled and 79.44% of the total
tonnes carried). Unlike other states, road, rail and sea were the major forms of
intrastate freight transport. However, road transport’s percentage of total tonne-
kilometres was much lower.
Compared to other states, Queensland has higher percentages in intrastate
movement of each freight mode;. this also applies to air freight, with 38.05% of
the total tonne-kilometres travelled and 38.1% total tonnes carried on the air
network being intrastate freight.
INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, Qld
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIRMODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETERS
Figure 6.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
Queensland.
(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
67
6.2.3 Terminal location pattern
South East Queensland (SEQ), where the Port of Brisbane is located, is the fastest
growing region in Queensland. As the largest and busiest port in SEQ, the Port of
Brisbane plays a significant role in the region’s distribution network. This section
will focus on accessibility within this area.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
68
Figure 6.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in South East
Queensland.
(Map reproduced from Queensland Transport, 2006)
Figure 6.7 shows an extremely concentrated industrial zone surrounding the
Brisbane metropolitan district with industrial zones distributed throughout the
region but clearly sited along the major arteries of the transport network, the
Bruce Highway, the Warrego Highway, the Pacific Highway, the Cunningham
Highway and rail lines.
There are two major inter-modal terminals within SEQ, the Acacia Ridge Freight
(ACR) Terminal and the Brisbane Multi-Modal Terminal (BMT), at Fisherman
Island (Queensland Transport, 2005). As Queensland provides such a well-
connected freight transport network, different areas have different route and mode
options to move freight from industrial enterprises to the port. At the same time,
because SEQ is one of the fastest growing regions in Australia, its transport
network and freight movement needs to be organized directly and efficiently.
Figure 6.8 charts the shortest distance from each freight zone to an inter-modal
terminal (derived from Figure 6.7), by ascending order of magnitude. The study
area encompasses 153 freight zones and 2 inter-modal terminals. Considered in
terms of terminal catchments, 30% of freight zones are within 10 and 20
kilometres of a terminal. For freight zones within 20 kilometres of a terminal, the
access route to the terminal does not greatly affect the whole trip performance, but
for the 40% of zones that are more than 20 kilometres from a terminal, improved
access routes facilitate freight movement.
Distances from Freight Zones
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141Freight Zone Numbers
Dis
tanc
e (K
M)
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
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Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Range
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance Range (KM)
Figure 6.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location South East Queensland
6.2.4 Terminal Access Routes
Figure 6.7 shows the main road access routes connecting terminals in inter-modal
movement towards Port of Brisbane, together with their road conditions.
Roads Road Grades
Lanes
Bruce Highway Highway 2 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006l)
Warrego Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006n)
Cunningham Highway National 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006o)
Pacific Motorway Motorway 4 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006p)
Table 6.1 Condition of main access roads of inter-modal terminal
(Developed by author)
These main roads enable movement of freight for Port of Brisbane from its source
to the Acacia Ridge terminal, where it is shifted from road freight mode to rail
mode.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
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6.3 Port Accessibility
Brisbane’s CBD is more distant from the port than either Sydney or Melbourne
CBD is from theirs. As a result, there is more flexibility in the task of transport
network organization.
Figure 6.9. Proposed access routes of port
(Map reproduced from Queensland Transport, 2005)
Figure 6.9 depicts the Gateway Motorway (route in green), located between
Brisbane’s CBD and the port. A Corridor branching from this motorway provides
access to the port’s facilities, connecting other main freight producing and
industrial zones. Freight transported by rail from the north, west and south is
concentrated by the Acacia Ridge inter-modal terminal. This terminal, located
outside the Brisbane CBD, improves the inter-modal ability of freight zones
surrounding the Brisbane metropolitan area, as well as the Port of Brisbane.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
71
6.4 Environmental issues
Noise mainly arises from: loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships
movement of cargo within terminals.
This section considers the mouth of the Brisbane River, right behind Fisherman
Island. The port’s facility area is within the yellow shape on the figure.
Figure 6.10. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities at river mouth
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006e)
As Brisbane has a shorter development history than either Sydney or Melbourne,
more advanced modern land use planning has been applied. As shown on the map
(Figure 6.10), the areas in green are parklands or warehouses. Given these huge
green areas, residential areas are distant from the port’s facilities. Consequently,
noise pollution from the port can be buffered.
Port’s facilities
CBD
Port Facilities
CBD
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
72
Figure 6.11. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities closer to CBD
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006f)
The yellow areas in Figure 6.11 are port facilities close to Brisbane city. Noise
pollution is a potentially critical issue in the city’s development. However, the
areas in green, which are parklands and warehouses, fully shield the port facilities,
reducing the impact of noise pollution on residences. For the facilities close to city,
the environmental impacts of rail access include noise, visual intrusive of
potentially social dislocation through alignments cutting communities off.
6.5 Summary
Queensland has a population of 3.9 million population and 2 million full-time
employed persons. Handling 12% of Australia’s container trade, Port of Brisbane
is also one of the largest general cargo ports in Australia and is one of
Queensland’s major assets, handling some 726,145 TEUs and 26 million tonnes in
trade during the 2004/2005 financial year. In Queensland, road and rail networks
share the overwhelming bulk of total tonnage handled, up to 94.85% together
(126.8 and 172 million tonnes respectively) in 2001.
Over 60% of the state’s 153 freight zones are located within 20km of the two
inter-modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Brisbane.
There are four main access routes to these terminals, namely the Bruce Highway,
the Cunningham Highway, the Pacific Highway and the Warrego Highway.
Port of Brisbane has one road and one rail access point for its core facility on
Fisherman Island. The port’s other facilities are surrounded by warehouses and
parks which help to buffer noise pollution from the facilities to the residents.
These data will contribute to the analysis in Chapter 8 of the location of inter-
modal terminals.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
73
6.6 Deeper study of Port of Brisbane
As there are more available data resources for Port of Brisbane, deeper studies
were undertaken on inland port and accessibility.
6.6.1 Inland port study in Brisbane
Acacia Ridge is the most important Inter-modal terminal in SEQ and indeed in the
whole of Queensland. Located in SEQ's key industrial western corridor, it is
977km from Sydney and 14km from Brisbane (Queensland Transport, 2005).
The terminal at Acacia Ridge plays a key role in interstate business, both on the
North-South and East-West corridors (Pacific National, 2003). The Acacia Ridge
terminal started operations some 30 years ago and has gradually replaced the
South Brisbane and Clapham interstate terminals (Queensland Transport, 2005).
In the new SEQ Regional Plan, initiatives in the Infrastructure Plan include
expanding the capacity of the Acacia Ridge rail terminal (Department of Local
Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation, 2005).
Acacia Ridge has all the characters of an inland port as discussed in the previous
section, e.g. road freight buffer, direct connection to the Port of Brisbane.
However, the Port of Brisbane is now searching for a suitable site to develop its
own inland port to manage its booming growth. What has caused this to happen?
Essentially it is because Acacia Ridge is the only rail terminal in Queensland
connected to the national standard-gauge rail network. The rest of the Queensland
system is narrow gauge. Just to quantify how serious that is, Queensland's
revenues make up about 25 per cent of GSP. Effectively, every cent is earned
through Acacia Ridge (The Australian, 2006). Due to its significant role in the
whole state, the demands upon Acacia Ridge are too great for it to service the Port
of Brisbane on its own. Clearly, the capacity of Acacia Ridge needs to be
extended. However, it will be hard to fully meet the Port’s rocketing demands
even after extensions.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
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INTERMODAL TOTAL DEMAND FOR IMPORTS/EXPORTS 2005/2020, Port of Brisbane
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
450,000
500,000
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
TEU
s
Brisbane
Max Capacity
Min Capacity
Figure 6.12 Intermodal total demand for imports/exports of Port of Brisbane,
2005-2020
(Queensland Transport, 2005; Meyrick and Associates, 2006)
,Inter-modal demand of the Port of Brisbane is predicted to reach 430,000 TEUs
by 2020, based on the 70,000 TEUs in 2005 with a 12.86% increase each year.
Also, the total capacity of BMT and ACR are decreaseing a maximum from
313,500 TEUs to 183,000 and a minimum from 190,700 to 60,200 TEUs from
2004 to 2026. As a result, Port of Brisbane inter-modal demand (Figure 6.12) will
reach the minimum capacity of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal in 2012 and its
maximum capacity in 2016. This period is the time range for increasing inter-
modal capacity for the Port of Brisbane. Thus, based on current estimates, an
additional inter-modal terminal or inland port is required for Port of Brisbane
between 2012 and 2016.
Two potential inland port sites have been identified:
Bromelton (Colliers International, 2006)
The potential site at Bromelton is located on the interstate rail line, to the west of
Beaudesert and the Mt Lindsay Highway. Its development is dependent on the
provision of the necessary infrastructure to support any such operation as well as
any resulting industries and their needs, i.e. water, roads, electricity. This site may
offer an alternative with little rail infrastructure required, but it does require
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
75
further upgrading works to the Mt Lindsay Highway to cater for additional road
traffic movements (Queensland Transport, 2005).
Ebenezer/Purga (Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and
Recreation, 2005)
Ebenezer is located in West Ipswich. The area around Ebenezer has the potential
to provide the best solution for a future inter-modal terminal as it is the only site
in SEQ capable of accommodating larger scale major industry. Significant
industrial development is expected in this area in the longer term. This site’s
potential is highly dependent on provision of a standard gauge rail line to the area
as well as improved narrow gauge rail operations and infrastructure (Queensland
Transport, 2005)
These two sites are the proposed inland ports of Brisbane Port. They have
advantages and disadvantages if they are to fulfil this role. Further research is
needed to evaluate which would provide the better solution, or if they might work
together.
6.6.2 Accessibility of Fisherman Island
Figure 6.13 Access of Fisherman Island.
Fisherman
Island
Bris
bane
Riv
er
Ocean
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
76
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006j)
As shown in Figure 6.13, Fisherman Island is located at the mouth of the Brisbane
River. It is the centre of the port’s activities, providing world-class cargo-handling
and warehousing facilities, as well as an interface between rail, road and sea
transport at the Brisbane Multimodal Terminal (BMT) (Port of Brisbane
Corporation, 2003).
This facility was built to relocate associated industry away from residential areas,
achieving navigable channel depths without the need for excessive dredging along
the river and optimising use of the Gateway Port area for trade, transport and
industry purposes. With strong average annual growth expected in containers
(6.9%), motor vehicles (4.7%) and bulk (2.9%), trade projections to the year 2025
show anticipated growth in all cargo types (reaching up to 1.9 million TEUs).
Total trade is projected to reach up to 61.4 million tonnes by the year 2025.. (Port
of Brisbane Corporation, 2005b).
However, as shown in the figure, the main facility of Brisbane Port is connected
to the mainland by a two-lane road bridge and a rail line bridge, indicating
potential problems of access.
As shown in Figure 6.13, the Port of Brisbane (PoB) Motorway (Mwy) is a two
lane road. Due to the Port of Brisbane’s heavy freight load, this motorway may be
a bottleneck for the port’s development.
Road LV %HV Volume V/C Max V/C
Gateway Mwy 40425 12% 47917 0.809 0.90
PoB Mwy 12266 28% 17562 0.297 0.90
Table 6.2 Traffic composition and V/C ratios of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal.
(Based on Queensland Transport, 2005)
Table 6.2 shows the results of a Volume/Capacity (V/C) study of roads connected
to the port in which the Port of Brisbane Motorway achieved 0.297 of V/C. As
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
77
this is much less than the Max V/C (0.90), the Port’s two lane road is still far from
being a bottleneck. However, the V/C of the Gateway Motorway connected to the
Port of Brisbane Motorway is very considerable, with 0.809 of Max V/C (0.90).
The State Government has addressed this problem in the SEQ Regional Plan. The
government is:
proceeding with the Gateway Upgrade Project which will
provide for a new duplicate bridge over the River (that is, 6
lanes in each direction), upgrading to either 6 (section south
of Wynnum Road) or 8 lanes (Wynnum Road to the Bridge)
on the Southside and a new 4 lane diversion on the Northside
(thus providing an 8 lane capacity from the Bridge to Nudgee
Road). The SEQ infrastructure Plan also provides for
completion of the Port Motorway to 4 lanes for its entire
length to the port within 10 years. (Queensland Transport,
2005)
The infrastructure plan will increase the road capacity and the accessibility of the
port by potentially reducing the congestion issue. However, an associated plan
should be developed to address the additional traffic and potential traffic delays in
the construction phase, so that reliable access to the port is maintained.
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Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane
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Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
79
Chapter 7
Port of Fremantle
7.1 Introduction
Chapter 7 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Fremantle
related transport system by analysing the elements listed in the Inter-modal
Freight Transport and Regional Development Model in Chapter 2. It investigates
detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Fremantle and the
performance of its inter-modal network with regard to terminal location. The
factors considered include population and employment, freight movement, mode
share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to
ports and noise pollution.
7.1.1 Western Australia
Western Australia (WA), Australia’s largest state, occupies 2,532,482.5 km2
(Australian Bureau of Statistics - ABS, 2005a), and has a total population of 2
million people (ABS, 2006a) and 1 million employed (ABS, 2005b) (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1 Location of Western Australia
(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006e)
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
80
Western Australia’s striking growth of over 250% in Gross State Product (GSP) in
the last 15 years is shown in the Figure 7.2. GSP rose from AUS$39.7 billion in
1989/90 to AUS$100.9 billion in 2004/05. This significant contribution to
Australia’s economy accounted for 11.3% of total Australia GDP in the period
shown.
GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, WA
35000.0
45000.0
55000.0
65000.0
75000.0
85000.0
95000.0
105000.0
89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05
$mill
ion
Figure 7.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Western Australia
(Data sourced from ABS, 2005c)
7.1.2 Port of Fremantle
Perth is the state capital and most populous city of Western Australia (Figure 7.3).
In June 2004, Perth became the fourth largest city in Australia. It hosts the largest
and busiest port of Western Australia.
As the city with the largest and busiest container port in Western Australia, Perth
is the natural transport hub for WA. It is located at the junction of South West
WA’s major road and rail network, providing excellent access to South Australia,
extending to Victoria and even the east coast of the Australian mainland.
For more than 100 years, the Port of Fremantle has played a key role in Western
Australia’s economic growth. As a major general cargo port, it is a trading
gateway to the world for importers and exporters with handling 467,313 TEUs
containerised cargos in 2005. The Port of Fremantle is undoubtedly one of the
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
81
state’s significant individual sources of jobs and revenue, directly and indirectly
accounting for an estimated 5,792 jobs and $728 million in economic output
annually in 2000 (Port of Fremantle Corporation, 2000).
Figure 7.3. Location of Port of Fremantle.
(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006d; Port of Fremantle
Corporation, 2005)
7.2 Transport network
7.2.1 Network connections
Western Australia (WA) is linked to the neighbouring state by a direct inland link,
the Trans Australia Railway, to Adelaide from Perth. It is also an important
interstate railway line connecting WA to other states.
The major connections to South Australia are the Eyre Highway and the Trans
Australia Railway (BTRE, 2005), which support the state’s development with
connections to other major cities within Western Australia, and especially strong
links to Perth.
Port of Fremantle
Perth
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
82
Kewdale
Picton
Major Freight Origins
Inter-modal Terminals
Study Area
Figure 7.4. Major resource areas and major connections in transport network of
Western Australia
(Map reproduced from Ozhorizons, 2006; SKM, 2004; Bovis Lend Lease, 2005; Department of Industry and Resources, 2003, 2004, 2005)
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
83
As an important part of the freight transport chain, regional inter-modal terminals
are located around freight centres to support the transport system. Five regional
inter-modal terminals in the port’s main service area provide more mode choices
for local industries to move freight to the port.
7.5.2 Freight Transport Mode Share
In 2000/01, 138.1 million tonnes and 33,348.9 million tonne-kilometres of freight
were moved from Port of Fremantle all over Australia (ABS, 2001).
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, WA.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIR
MODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETRES
Figure 7.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode, WA.
(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)
From Figure 7.5, it can be ascertained that road and rail networks were
responsible for almost all the tonnage handled, up to 97.69% together (105.4 and
195.8 million tonnes respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic
shipping, sea freight accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-
kilometres travelled than for total tonnage moved.
Rail transport handled the highest proportion of total tonne-kilometres transported
at 57.31% (60,428.8 million). Sea transport carried 31.95% (33,691.1 million),
while road transport’s share was extremely low, accounting for only 10.7%
(11,280.5 million). It is interesting to note that the proportion of freight by sea is
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
84
much higher than road, compared with other states. The least important mode, air,
accounted for less than 1% of freight carried.
INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, WA.
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
ROAD RAIL SEA AIRMODE
TONNES
TONNE-KILOMETERS
Figure 7.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,
WA
(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)
Virtually all (99.24%) of the tonnage of goods transported by the road network
was for the movement of freight intrastate, as indicated in Figure 7.6. However, a
lower proportion of tonne-kilometres of rail freight (79.61%) was for intrastate
movements.
The pattern for rail was similar, with nearly all (99.54%) of the total tonnes
moved by rail being within the state. Furthermore, 94.47% of the total tonne-
kilometres travelled by rail was for freight that was moved intrastate. As in other
states, road and rail were the two major transport modes in intrastate freight
movement. The only difference is that both road and rail modes were responsible
for a significantly higher proportion of intrastate movement.
A minority of freight movements by sea were intrastate in nature (13.83% of the
total tonne-kilometres travelled and 3.66% of the total tonnes carried).
On the air network, freight movement intrastate accounted for 2.67% of the total
tonne-kilometres travelled and 6.25% of total tonnes.
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
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7.2.3 Terminal location pattern
Figure 7.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Southwest
Western Australia.
(Map based on figure 7.4)
The industrial zones depicted in Figure 7.7, including the extremely concentrated
industrial zones located near the Perth metropolitan area, are spread throughout
the study area. However, it is important to note that industrial zones are clustered
along the main arteries of the transport network like the Great Northern Highway,
the Brand Highway, the Great Eastern Highway, the Albany Highway, the Eyre
Highway and rail lines.
In addition, there are five road-railway inter-modal terminals on the map, of
which four (namely Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Kewdale, North Fremantle, Picton and
Rottnest Island) are located around the Port of Fremantle and the other sites in
mid-south Western Australia. The remaining site is in Kalgoorlie-Boulder,
adjacent to the highly concentrated cluster of mining zones and the Trans
Australia Railway. Given this location, freight from the area largely abandons rail
Kewdale
Picton
Major Resource areas and Freight Origins
Inter-modal Terminals
Study Area
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
86
transport, instead using the road network to deliver freight to other industrial areas
or to the port which results in the movement costly (McKimm, 2006).
7.2.4 Terminal access routes
Since there is only one inter-modal terminal located surrounding the significant
freight zone, while the others are on-dock terminals, the access route condition of
such terminal are not comparable and does not contribute to this research. In this
case, port accessibility becomes more important than in the other case studies.
7.3 Port Accessibility
Figure 7.8. Proposed port access routes
(Map reproduced from MapInfo & GeoScience Australia, 2006)
From Figure 7.8 it can be seen that there is only one main road, the Leach
Highway, which goes through the port facility. This corridor provides access
between port facilities, connected industrial zones and other main roads, railways
and terminals. A rail freight route also connects the port’s facilities and industrial
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
87
zones. While road and rail networks provide access to Perth’s industrial and
distribution centres, an existing inter-modal terminal is located on the north of the
port’s facilities to support the Port of Fremantle’s heavy daily load. It handles the
freight from port to almost all the industrial zones in the state.
7.4 Environmental issues
Noise mainly arises from: loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships as
well as the movement of cargo within terminals.
Figure 7.9. Locations of studied areas of the Port of Fremantle.
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006g)
Port of Fremantle Inter-modal Terminal
Indian Ocean
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Port of Fremantle
Perth
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
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Figure 7.10. Operations reducing noise pollution from port’s facility and its Inter-
modal terminal.
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006h)
From Figure 7.10, it is evident that almost all the north facility of the Port (zone in
yellow) is on the ocean. The rest is neighbouring an inter-modal terminal (zone in
blue) and a spare container yard (zone in green) which isolates the port from
residential zones. However, a rail freight line (shown in white) passes between the
inter-modal terminal and the residential zone. Noise pollution from the rail line
can be a considerable issue.
Figure 7.11. Operations of reducing noise pollution from facilities.
(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006i)
The southern facilities of the port, sited in a busy suburb, face the same problem
of a rail line (shown in white in Figure 7.11) on their periphery, but with a huge
Port of Fremantle
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
89
zone of warehouses and shopping centres located in the area between the
residential area and the port, noise pollution for port is perfectly buffered.
7.5 Summary
Western Australia has a population of 2 million , of whom 1 million are employed.
Handling 467,313 TEUs containerised cargos in 2005, Port of Fremantle also
contributed AU$728 million in economic output annually in 2000. Road and rail
networks were responsible for almost all the tonnage handled of freight movement,
up to 97.69%.
There is only one inter-modal terminal located in a surrounding the freight zone,
at Kalgoorlie-Boulder; others are on-dock terminals. The use of rail is low and
costly, due to such poor locations of the on-dock terminals. The inter-modal
freight transport conditions do not enable optimum performance of Port of
Fremantle’s inter-modal system.
These data will contribute to the data analysis in Chapter 8 examining the location
of inter-modal terminals.
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Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle
90
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Chapter 8 Discussion
91
Chapter 8
Location evaluation: Four case studies
8.1 Introduction Chapter 8 analyses the data obtained in the four selected case studies, using as a
basis the Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development model
presented in Chapter 2. The elements selected are: Freight Generation Indicators
(population, employment and ports product growth); Mode Choice Indicators
(mode share, firms location and terminal location pattern); and Route Choice
Indicators (terminal access route, port accessibility and environmental issues). By
comparing the four cases, the advantages and disadvantages of each are
highlighted here.
8.2 Freight generation analysis 8.2.1 Population and employment growth
Population
Australia’s population experienced a significant increase in the last fifty years,
from 9 million in 1954 to 20 million in 2004 (ABS, 2006). This represents a 200
per cent increase. However, different States have experienced different population
growth rates.
Figure 8.1 shows that population growth has not occurred evenly across the
country as the proportion of Australia’s population resident in each state and
territory has changed over time. From 1954 to 2004 the proportion of the
Australian population living within New South Wales, the most populous state,
increased from 3.4 million to 6.7 million and that of Victoria from 2.5 to 5
million. Other states also show an increase over this time. The proportion of
Australia’s population living in Queensland increased from 1.3 million in 1954 to
3.9 million in 2004. Likewise, during the same period Western Australia
experienced an increase from 0.6 million to 2 million (ABS, 2006).
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Chapter 8 Discussion
92
POPULATION GROWTH OF SELECTED STATES
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004
YEAR
POPU
LATI
ON
GR
OW
TH (m
illio
n
NSWVic.QldWA
Figure 8.1 Population of Selected Australia States 1954-2004.
(Data sourced from ABS, 2006)
Employment
Employment also increased during this fifty year period of rapid Australian
population growth, as shown in Figure 8.2.
Employment Percentage of Population, 2001-2004
45.0%
45.5%
46.0%
46.5%
47.0%
47.5%
48.0%
48.5%
49.0%
49.5%
50.0%
2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
Perc
enta
ge o
f Pop
ulat
ion NSW
Vic.
Qld
WA
Figure 8.2. Percentage of population in employment 2001-2004
(Data rearranged from ABS, 2006; ABS, 2005b)
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
93
Western Australia had the greatest proportion of the population employed, with
49.8% in 2004. In contrast to Western Australia, New South Wales had the lowest
percentage of the population in employment at 47.1%. The percentage of people
in employment in Queensland overtook that for Victoria in 2003, and now ranks
second in the country. Queensland and Victoria were 48.6% and 48.2% in
employment respectively in 2004.
Although New South Wales had the largest employable population (3.8 million
between the ages of 16 and 55) in Australia, at 56.2% of the total state population,
this was less than the 57.8% (1.1 million) of total state population employable in
Western Australia. Victoria and Queensland had similar employable populations,
2.8 million (56.9%) and 2.2 million (56.7%) respectively.
8.2.2 Ports product growth
Product Growth of Selected Ports, Total Containerised Cargo
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
000'
TEU
s
SydneyMelbourneBrisbaneFremantle
Figure 8.3 Product growth of selected ports
(Data Resourced from Bureau of Transport and Regional Services, 2006)
Australia’s ports have experienced a significant increase in growth during the last
ten years. Figure 8.3 shows the growth of selected ports investigated in the case
studies. The Port of Melbourne leads in the total number of containerised cargoes,
increasing from a base of 0.81 million TEUs in 1994 to 1.91 million TEUs in
2005. Similar to Melbourne, the Port of Sydney handled 0.59 million TEUs in
1994 and 1.38 million TEUs in 2005. The Port of Brisbane and the Port of
Fremantle have increased the total number of containerised cargoes generally,
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
94
from 0.23 and 0.17 million TEUs in 1994 to 0.73 and 0.47 million TEUs,
respectively.
The populations of the studied states rank in order New South Wales, Victoria,
Queensland and Western Australia, with employment rates in a narrow range from
46% to 50%. Comparing freight generation indictors (population and employment)
and freight traffic demand indicators (product of port), the Port of Sydney ranks
second after the Port of Melbourne. The main reason for this is that 85% of the
freight demand of Port of Sydney is within a 50 kilometre radius from the port,
while Port of Melbourne demand is from the whole of Victoria. Brisbane has a
higher output than Fremantle because these ports serve the freight centre area of
states with the same relationship between population and employment and product
of port.
8.3 Mode choice analysis 8.3.1 Freight transport mode share
National mode share
Figure 8.4 compares the share of Australian freight-kilometres carried by each
mode of transport in the four states studied.
TONNE-KILOMETRES TRAVELLED BY MODE, Mode Share, 2001
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
NSW Vic. Qld WA
State/Territory of origin
RoadRailSeaAir
Figure 8.4. Tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001.
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
95
Freight originating in New South Wales accounted for 30% of the total tonne-
kilometres travelled by road (26,440 million). New South Wales has a heavier
road freight duty which requires a better road network condition than other States.
Rail and sea freight originating in Western Australia represented 45% and 35%
respectively of the total tonne-kilometres travelled by those modes of transport.
When combined, rail and sea freight in Queensland and Western Australia
accounted for 77% and 68% of each. Since Queensland is the faster developing
state according to its employment rate shown in Figure 8.2, its higher share rate of
rail and sea freight movement indicates that the rail system and the port facility
are in higher demand and potentially need improvement. Western Australia
developed with the highest domestic rail and sea mode share, resulting from its
offshore mining resource locations and the poor location of its rail terminal, as
discussed in the case study. Air freight originating in New South Wales and
Victoria combined accounted for over half of all tonne-kilometres travelled on the
air network.
Intrastate Movement
Intrastate movement is freight movement with both origin and destinations within
the same state. The following bar graph provides an overview of intrastate freight
movement percentage in each transport modes in each state studied (ABS, 2001).
Tonne-Kilometres, Intrastate Movement, 2001
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
NSW Vic. Qld WA
ROADRAILSEAAIR
Figure 8.5. Intrastate tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
96
(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)
Queensland and Western Australia clearly led in intrastate movement by rail,
accounting for 95.7% and 94.5% respectively. New South Wales followed with
75.9%, ahead of Victoria at 21.3%. Road transport was similar, with the same
ranking in intrastate movement in 2001. Sea freight transport accounted for 79.4%
of Queensland’s intrastate freight movement in contrast to other states which had
no more than 5% intrastate movements by sea. Similarly, 30% of intrastate
movement in Queensland were by air, compared with almost none in other states.
The data indicate that rail freight was in high demand in Australian interstate
freight movement, except in Victoria. Both road and rail freight were in extremely
high demand in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, while
Queensland had a more even demand for all modes of transport.
In Western Australia, the most important industry is mining because of Western
Australia’s abundant mineral resources (Department of Industry and Resources,
2005). From mine sites to export ports, freight contributes a significant proportion
to intrastate movement (Department of Industry and Resources, 2005). In the case
of Victoria, the low intrastate demand for freight services arises from its highly
developed manufacturing industry, which supplies products to the rest of
Australia. Thus, raw material imports and products sent interstate account for a
considerable proportion of freight movement from Victoria. Queensland, a
booming developing state, has experienced balanced growth, which leads to
balanced freight and transport mode demand. Besides, sea mode was an important
mode in supporting North Queensland’s communication with the Southern
Queensland. Air freight’s contribution should not be ignored either.
Summary
This research focuses on road and rail freight modes. As the state of freight
movement is outlined in this section, the higher demand freight modes are
presented combined with the freight movement demand results. Road transport is
in higher demand in Victoria for its manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs.
On the other hand, rail freight is in higher demand in Western Australia for its
mining industry’s movement between mineral sites and export ports. In these
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
97
cases, the significant industry in the state affects freight transport, for example,
road/rail mode demand. In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of
industrial zones are important factors in freight movement and choice of transport
mode.
8.3.2 Terminal location pattern In this research, all study zones are potential freight origins for the transport of
goods towards selected ports. The origin location patterns differ from case to case,
as shown in Figure 8.6 and Table 8.1. These are discussed below.
Case Study Areas Zones’ Location Pattern Description Port of
Sydney
In Sydney Metropolitan within 40 km of the port
The industrial zones are highly concentrated within 50 km of the port. A few industrial zones are located between the port’s two facilities ( Figure 4.8).
About 50% of total industrial zones are sited within 20-30 km of the port while a linear zone is sited along the transport artery from Western Sydney.
Port of
Melbourne
Throughout the state of Victoria
A particularly concentrated industrial zone is located near Melbourne. The other zones are spread over all the state along main transport routes (Figure 5.7).
Industrial zones in Victoria develop with good access to the transport network leading to Melbourne.
Port of
Brisbane
Within South East Queensland
An extremely concentrated industrial zone surrounds Brisbane, while industrial zones are spread over the entire SEQ region (Figure 6.7).
Recently the fastest growing region , SEQ’s network access is provided for industrial sites which are developing along networks.
Port of
Fremantle
South West Western Australia
Including the highly focused industrial zones located near Perth; the other zones are spread over all the study area with few transport routes.. (Figure 7.7).
Since mineral resources are spread through Western Australia, freight infrastructure is mainly built for the well developed mining industry.
Table 8.1 Freight origin location patterns in selected inter-modal systems
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98
Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Range
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance Range (KM)
SydneyMelbourneBrisbane
Figure 8. 6 Percentage of terminal catchments in distance range
Figure 8.6 shows the percentage of terminal catchments in the distance ranges 0 to
100 kilometres. From the available data, within 20 kilometres seems to be a
preferred distance range to access a terminal: approximately 70% of freight zones
were found to be within 20 kilometres of terminals in the Port of Sydney,
Melbourne and Brisbane studies. More distant catchments have a lower
percentage of freight zones located within them. Particularly in the case study of
Sydney, almost all freight zones are located within a 30 kilometre terminal
catchment. Goods from freight zones in Sydney are closer to terminals compared
with the larger catchments in the Melbourne and Brisbane case studies.
8.4 Route choice analysis 8.4.1 Terminal access routes
The discussion of terminal access routes concerns the available freight modes and
infrastructure (especially inter-modal terminals) between points of origin and
terminals (ARA, 2004).
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Chapter 8 Discussion
99
Case Study Areas Available Infrastructure Connect to Terminals
Port of Sydney
In Sydney Metropolitan within 40 km of the port
M4, Great Western Highway and Hume Highway
Camellia, Yennora, Villawood, Chullora and Enfield
Port of Melbourne
Throughout Victoria State
Sunraysia Highway, Western Highway, Calder Highway and Princes Highway
Birchip, Ballarat, Horsham, Charlton, Warragul and terminals surrounding Melbourne Metropolitan
Port of Brisbane
Within South East Queensland region
Bruce Highway, Warrego Highway, Cunningham Highway and Pacific Highway
Acacia Ridge
Table 8.2 Terminal access route connections
The inter-modal terminals supporting industrial zones are situated along rail lines
and close to highways or motorways. The highways/motorways are invariably
built along rail lines (for example, the Great Western Highway in Western Sydney,
the Hume Highway in Victoria, the Bruce Highway in SEQ and the Great Eastern
Highway in south-west Western Australia). This infrastructure style gives
industrial corporations many choices for freight movement. The mode chosen will
depend on which is easier to access and more suitable in terms of time and
distance for freight (Rietveld et al., 1998).
Road grades and lanes are the important elements in choosing routes. The higher
grade of roads or/and more lanes provide higher travel speeds because of their
potentially better accessibility and priority. In the case study of Port of Sydney,
the M4 and the Hume Highway are motorway and national highway. They have
higher priority in freight movement which make them the main routes for freight
vehicles accessing terminals. The Great Western Highway has a lower road grade
but its four lanes in the urban section increase its accessibility. In the case study of
Port of Melbourne, in the national road category, the Western Highway is a better
choice than the Sunraysia, although the Sunraysia has the same number of lanes.
In Queensland, the higher road grade Pacific Motorway and Cunningham
Highway are the important routes communicating with northern New South Wales.
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Chapter 8 Discussion
100
Case Road Road Grade
Lane numbers
M4 Motorway From 4 to 6 lanes, and in some areas 8 lanes (SWR, 2005)
Great Western Highway
Highway 4 lanes in urban section (Wikipedia, 2006i)
Port of
Sydney Hume Highway National 2 lanes. (MG, 2004)
Sunraysia Highway
Highway 2 lanes (Answers Corporation, 2006)
Western Highway
National 2 lanes (KG, 2002)
Calder Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006j)
Port of
Melbourne
Princes Highway
Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006k)
Bruce Highway Highway 2 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006l)
Warrego Highway
Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006n)
Cunningham Highway
National 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006o)
Port of
Brisbane Pacific
Motorway Motorway 4 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006p)
Table 8.3. The competing roads presented in the case studies, comparing their
road grades and lane numbers
(Based on case studies in previous chapters)
The condition of access roads is important since they connect industrial zones and
terminals at the beginning of the trip. At the end of the trip, access to ports is
another issue of considerable importance for freight movement.
8.4.2 Port accessibility Since the studied ports are located in capital cities, access is a significant problem
when freight goes through crowded metropolitan areas to ports. Sometimes this
can create bottlenecks in the continuing development of ports. The access points
of main port facilities are shown in Table 8.4.
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Chapter 8 Discussion
101
Case Annual Port
Product in 2005
Study Areas
No. of Road
AccessPoints
No. of Rail
Access Points
Comments
White Bay & Darling Harbour
2
1
Freight travels through the crowded metropolitan area.
Port of Sydney
1.38 million TEUs
Botany Bay 2
1
Facility is surrounded by industrial zones.
Port Melbourne
3
2
Huge inter-modal terminals isolate port from the metropolitan area.
Port of Melbourne
1.91 million TEUs
Port Phillip 2
0
West Gate Freeway goes through the facility.
Port of
Brisbane
0.73 million
TEUs
Fisherman
Island
1
1
Fisherman Island is isolated from the mainland. The only connection is a bridge with one road and one rail line.
Port of
Fremantle
0.47 million
TEUs
Fremantle
1
1
The port’s main facility is relatively isolated. Freight travels over a bridge connecting two facilities.
Table 8.4. Access points of ports’ main facilities
Sydney and Melbourne have more access routes to their ports than Brisbane and
Fremantle, which have one road access and one rail access only to their main
facilities. The 2005 data shows that the total number of access points is an
indication of a port’s annual product. The Ports of Sydney and Melbourne, with 6
and 7 access points respectively, lead the other ports in annual product (1.38
million TEUs and 1.91 million TEUs respectively), while the Ports of Brisbane
and Fremantle, with two access points each to their main facilities, have lower
annual products (0.73 million TEUs and 0.47 million TEUs).
In conclusion, the number of access points determines the freight destination
accessibility for each of the four case studies presented here. Limited access
points or routes and mode access can be a bottleneck for future port development.
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
102
On the other hand, more access points enhance the prospects of a port’s
development.
8.4.3 Environmental issues Air pollution
Air pollution is a significant problem in the freight movement process.
Environmentally-unfriendly materials released into the air by vehicles are
damaging the health and environments of plants, animals and human beings. Rail
transport releases less environmentally-damaging materials (Fenger, et al., 1999)
and can be considered an environmental friendly mode of transport. Its level of
usage (rail mode percentage in all modes) is used as an indicator of the air
pollution level of a transport system (Department of Transport, 1998). The higher
the usage of rail transport, the more environmentally friendly the transport system
is. On the other hand, the ability to move freight from road to rail depends on the
nature of the freight tasks.
Rail Freight Usage in Selected States, 2001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
NSW Vic. Qld WA
Mill
ion
Tonn
es-K
ilom
etre
s
Figure 8.7. Rail Mode Usage of States in 2001.
(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)
Figure 8.7 compares rail freight usage in various states in 2001. The ranking of
tonne-kilometres was: first Western Australia (60.4 million tonnes-kilometres),
then Queensland (42.5 million tonnes-kilometres), New South Wales (19.7
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 8 Discussion
103
million tonnes-kilometres) and Victoria (6.2 million tonnes-kilometres). As a
result, Queensland and Western Australia’s freight movement caused
proportionally less air pollution impact, since they achieved about 80% of total
rail usage. In Victoria, with the less than 5% rail usage, air pollution impact was
relatively higher. For environmental reasons, it is recommended that rail mode
share in Victoria be increased.
Noise pollution
Noise pollution is also a problem in the freight movement process, especially
when goods are being loaded at port facilities. Noise from transport and port
machines harms residents’ hearing, sleep and working health. Many strict rules
have been introduced to ensure ports’ co-operation, such as noise control by time,
noisy section relocation and so on. However, natural noise-buffering operations
are preferred in Australia, with examples as discussed in the four port studies.
Shown in Figure 8.8 are the noise-buffering operations of the case studies. The
areas in yellow are the port facilities. Between residential areas and the port there
is a series of forest parks, container terminal sites, parklands and warehouses
which block noise pollution from the port’s main operations section.
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Chapter 8 Discussion
104
Figure 8.8. Reduction of noise pollution from port facilities
Melbourne Ports
Melbourne City
Phillip Bay
Port of Brisbane
CBD
Port of Fremantle
Inter-modal Terminal
Darling Harbour
White Bay
Port of Sydney
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Chapter 8 Discussion
105
Where there is not enough space to put in any buffers, such as at the facility in
Sydney, another measure is the location of the port at a lower level than adjoining
residential areas, which helps to reduce noise pollution in limited spaces. When a
port’s facilities are developed extremely close to the CBD, for example
Melbourne, its huge freight terminal yards and container terminal sites act as
noise buffers between residential areas and port facilities. In Port of Fremantle an
inter-modal terminal is sited next to the port and transfers freight between modes
for the port’s daily freight movement. This terminal and a warehouse zone
separate the port from residential areas. However, the rail line which gives access
to the port and terminal runs through the gap between the terminal and the
residential area and noise pollution from this rail line is a considerable problem
impacting the continued development of the port (Fremantle Ports, 2007).
8.5 Summary The states discussed in this study rank in order of population size, New South
Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia. Their employment rates are
similar, 46% to 50%. In a comparison of freight generation (population and
employment) and freight traffic demand indicators (product of port), product of
Port of Sydney ranked second after the Port of Melbourne, mainly for the reason
that 85% of Port of Sydney freight demand is within a 50 kilometres radius of the
port, whereas Port of Melbourne is utilised by the whole of Victoria. Brisbane has
a higher output than Fremantle because these ports serve the freight centre area of
states having the same relationship between population and employment and
product of port of the state.
The analysis of mode choice involved the presentation of higher demand freight
modes combined with freight movement demand results to assess the state of
freight movement. Road transport was seen to be in higher demand in Victoria for
its manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs. On the other hand, rail freight
was in higher demand in Western Australia for mining industry movement
between mineral sites and processing factories. In these cases, the significant
industry in the state affects freight transport, for example, road/rail mode demand.
In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of industrial zones are
important factors in freight movement and choice of transport mode.
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Chapter 8 Discussion
106
The available data indicate that within 20 kilometres seems to be a preferred
terminal access range: about 70% of freight zones are within 20 kilometres of
terminals in Port of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane studies. As over 95% of
freight zones in Sydney are within 30 kilometres of a terminal, goods from freight
zones in Sydney are handier to access terminals compared with the more distant
catchments in the Melbourne and Brisbane cases.
Terminal access routes depend on the available freight modes and infrastructure
(especially inter-modal terminals) between origins and the terminals. In the case
study of Port of Sydney, the M4 and Hume Highway are motorway and national
highway. Their higher priority in freight movement make them the main freight
vehicle access routes to terminals. The Great Western Highway has a lower road
grade but the four lanes in its urban section increase its accessibility. In the case
study of Port of Melbourne, the Western highway is a better choice than the
Sunraysia in the national road category, even though the Sunraysia Highway has
the same number of lanes. In Queensland, the Pacific Motorway and the
Cunningham Highway, with higher road grades, are the important routes
connecting Queensland with northern New South Wales.
As a considerable problem of freight transport, four case studies indicate that the
number of access points determines freight accessibility to destinations. Limited
access points or routes and limited mode access can be a bottleneck for future port
development; on the other hand, more access points facilitate a port’s
development.
Air pollution levels in freight transport can be indicated by rail mode usage.
Freight movement in Queensland (42.5 million tonnes-kilometres) and Western
Australia (60.4 million tonnes-kilometres) caused less air pollution impact, since
they achieved about 80% rail usage. In Victoria (6.2 million tonnes-kilometres),
with less than 5% rail usage, air pollution impact was relatively higher. For
environmental reasons, rail mode share in Victoria is recommended to be
increased. Noise pollution between residential areas and port is ameliorated by a
series of forest parks, container terminal sites, parklands and warehouses which
block noise pollution from the port’s main operations section.
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Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research
107
Chapter 9
Conclusions and further research
9.1 Conclusions
Inter-modal terminals, necessary for the transhipment of unit loads from one mode
to another, are very important in the transport chain (Macharis en Verbeke, 1999).
This research has studied the key elements in both four steps strategic modelling
and the Transport and Regional Development Model and aggregated these key
elements into a new Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development
Model. It undertook a study of the principal Australian sea ports and their inter-
modal systems as a starting point for an evaluation of terminal location in
Australia. The Ports of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Fremantle are the
product/attraction centres of their inter-modal systems which contain road-rail
inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.
The case-studies started with the state and port’s freight generation as indicated by
population and employment factors. This was followed by a study of the major
transport connection to the port and intra-state and national freight transport mode
share. Terminal location pattern studied the distance from freight zone centroid to
the closest inter-modal terminal in order to examine the radius of the inter-modal
terminal catchment level of each inter-modal system. Terminal access routes
presented available modes and inter-modal routes heading from freight zones to
port. Since the route from terminal to the port is fixed by the railway, the inter-
modal terminal access route becomes important in the performance of the whole
trip. Seaport accessibility and its environmental impacts are potentially the bottle-
neck of the port’s development.
The results of the case-studies showed that the differential performance of ports
can be explained by the studied elements. Starting from freight generation, the
population of studied states ranked as New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland
and Western Australia while product of Port of Sydney ranked behind that of Port
of Melbourne and ahead of Brisbane and Fremantle. The main reason for this was
seen to be that 85% of the freight demand of Port of Sydney is within a 50
kilometres radius of the port whereas Port of Melbourne serves the whole of
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research
108
Victoria. The case of Brisbane has a higher output than Fremantle was explained
by the fact that these ports serve the freight centre area of states with the same
relationship between population and employment and product of port of the state.
In mode choice analysis, road transport was in higher demand in Victoria for its
manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs. On the other hand, rail freight was in
higher demand in Western Australia for its mining industry’s movement between
mineral sites and processing factories. In these cases, the significant industry in
the state affects freight transport, for example, road/rail mode demand.
In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of industrial zones are
significant factors in freight movement and choice of transport mode. From the
available data, within 20 kilometres seems to be the preferred distance range to
access the terminals. It was seen in the Port of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane
studies that about 70% of freight zones are within 20 kilometres of a terminal.
Furthermore, investigation of terminal access route showed the terminal
connection condition in each study area.
Limited access points, routes or mode access can be a bottleneck for future port
development; on the other hand, more access points remove this bottle-neck and
can be an indicator of a port’s performance. In considering environmental issues,
it was seen that the air pollution level in freight transport can be indicated by rail
mode usage. Queensland and Western Australia’s freight movement showed a
higher total rail usage (80%) than other states, compared with less than 5% in
Victoria. Rail mode share in Victoria is therefore recommending to be increased.
For noise pollution, a series of noise buffers such as forest parks, container
terminal sites, parklands and warehouses have been used to minimise the noise
impact on residential areas. This is helping in blocking noise pollution from the
port’s main operations section
9.2 Further Research
1. Modelling the impact of extensions of port infrastructure to accommodate
future demand. For example, should new “inland ports” be built and if so
where should they be located? To arrive at an answer, the future freight
demand of a port with optional inland ports must be predicted. Transport
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location
Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research
109
network improvement and environmental impacts should be involved in the
later modelling.
2. Location of “inland ports” in the major urban areas of Sydney, Melbourne
and Brisbane. Traffic, environment and vision impacts will be involved in
this study and the significant traffic demand increases caused by new inland
ports in urban transport network must be predicted. Modelling of
interchanges will also be necessary.
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Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research
110
Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location List of references
111
List of references
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2001), Freight Movement, Catalogue No.9220.0, ABS, Canberra, ACT, pp. 12-23. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005a), National Regional Profile: New South Wales, Catalogue No. 1379.0.55.001, ABS, Canberra, ACT. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005b). Labour Force, Australia. Catalogue No. 6291.0.55.001, ABS, Canberra, ACT. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005c), Australian National Accounts: State Accounts, Catalogue No. 5220.0, ABS, Canberra, ACT, p. 14. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006a), Population by States And Territories: New South Wales 2004, Year Book Australia, Catalogue No. 1301.0, ISSN 0312–4746, ABS, ACT, Page 105. Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006b), Employed Persons by Region, Industry Division, Catalogue 6291.0.55.001 RQ2_nov97, ABS, Canberra, ACT. Al-Deek, H., Klodzinski, J., Jujare, A. & El-Helw, A. (2001), Heavy Truck Freight Movement on External Road Networks Connecting with Florida Ports, Phase II, Transportation Systems Institute, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Central Florida. Answers Corporation (2006), Sunraysia Highway, Available at: http://www.answers.com/topic/sunraysia-highway. (Accessed April 25, 2006) Aultman-Hall, L., Guo, F., O’Brien, C., Padlo, P., & Hogge, B. (2004), Incorporating Truck Flows into the State-wide Planning Traffic Model, University of Connecticut, Connecticut Transportation Institute, Storrs, CT. AusLink (2004), The Future Freight Task, AusLink White Paper, ISSN 1440-9707, ISBN 0-9751940-4-6, Department of Transport and Regional Services, pp. 1, 4. Australian Railway Association (2004), Map of Transport Network of Australia and New Zealand. Australian Salaried Medical Officers’ Federation – ASMOF (2003), Branch Locations, http://www.asmof.org.au/branches/1054796584_22009.html (accessed April 22, 2006).
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