processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal...

Processes for Evaluating

The Optimum Inter-modal Terminal

Location

Jianfeng Yang

Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering

Queensland University of Technology

Masters of Engineering

By Research (BN72)

2007

Processes for Evaluating the Optimum Inter-modal Terminal Location

i

Keywords

Inter-modal terminal; Location; Port.

Abstract

In 2001, Australia’s annual freight movement load reached 310 billion million

tonne-kilometres. By 2020, it is forecast to be 630 billion tonnes-kilometres, an

expected rise of slightly over 100 percent of the current level. Due to accelerating

freight movement demand in Australia, a rising need for efficient transport

infrastructure can be expected. Terminals are a vital part of transport systems

which affect the development of whole regions. Terminal location is therefore

essential in evaluating the extent to which terminals play a positive role in shaping

regional development.

Inter-modal freight transportation is defined as a system that carries freight from

origin to destination by using two or more transportation modes. Inter-modal

terminal location has great bearing on, and is influenced by, infrastructural

efficiency. Terminal locations should optimize both the potential impacts of

regional development and effects on transport development. Consequently, it is

imperative to analyse the interaction of locations and effects in the process of

optimizing terminal location.

This research aims to define the effects of terminal location on transportation by

studying the different inter-modal system of the top Australia ports, and

introducing the relationship between these effects and transport strategic

modelling. Data on transport modelling elements will be investigated in four case

studies, followed by data sensitivity analysis to assess the way in which terminal

location affects transportation performance.


ii

To examine the effects of terminal location factor on transportation, a number of

key elements were selected by the Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional

Development Model and Strategic Modelling: Attractiveness, Location Decisions

of Firms, Economic Activity, Shipping/Trip Decision, Destination Choice, Mode

Choice, Route Choice, Link Loads, Link Times/Distances/Costs and Accessibility.

Environmental issue of a terminal are an additional important consideration in

freight movement, when presented as a cost of using the terminal.

The outcome of the case studies which make up this research is a statement of the

main effects of the studied elements on terminal location and the potentially

necessary improvements to the ports studied For example, 20 kilometres seems to

be the radius of an inter-modal terminal catchment level and rail service in

Victoria is therefore recommended to be increased to take into account

environmental issues. This is augmented by two further studies of the In-land Port

and Accessibility of the Port of Brisbane. In essence, this thesis is an attempt to

make Australian transport and social services planners aware of the effects of

factors relating to terminal location in the processes of evaluating the optimum

terminal location.


iii

Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………....…...i Key words……...…………………………………………………………...…….ii Contents............ ……………………………………………………………........iii List of Figures………………………………………………………………...….vi List of Tables……………………………………………………………........….ix Statement of Original Authorship…………………………………………........x Acknowledgements……………………………………………………...……….xi Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Scope........................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Structure of thesis........................................................................................ 2

Chapter 2 Literature review ................................................................................ 5 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Inter-modal terminal location...................................................................... 5 2.3 Inter-modal freight transport and regional development ............................ 6

2.3.1 Infrastructure investment and regional development............................. 6 2.3.2 Transport and regional development model........................................... 8

2.4 The Four stages of transport demand modelling....................................... 10 2.4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 10 2.4.2 Freight generation ................................................................................ 12 2.4.3 Freight Distribution.............................................................................. 16 2.4.4 Freight mode choice............................................................................. 15 2.4.5 Freight route assignments .................................................................... 20 2.4.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 20

2.5 Accessibility.............................................................................................. 21 2.5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 21 2.5.2 Indicators.............................................................................................. 21

2.6 Environmental Impacts ............................................................................. 22 2.6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 22 2.6.2 Air Pollution......................................................................................... 22 2.6.3 Noise Pollution..................................................................................... 23

2.7 Introduction of analysis elements into modelling components................. 23 2.8 Summary ................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 3 Methodology ...................................................................................... 27 3.1 Case Study Approach.................................................................................... 27 3.1.1 Study Area............................................................................................ 28 3.1.2 Case study structure ............................................................................. 29

3.2 Data analysis ................................................................................. 30 Chapter 4 Port of Sydney ................................................................................... 33

4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 33 4.1.1 New South Wales................................................................................. 33 4.1.2 Port of Sydney...................................................................................... 34

4.2 Transport network ..................................................................................... 35


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4.2.1 Network connection.............................................................................. 35 4.2.2 Freight transport mode share ................................................................ 37 4.2.3 Terminal location pattern...................................................................... 39 4.2.4 Terminal Access Routes ....................................................................... 42

4.3 Port Accessibility....................................................................................... 42 4.4 Environmental issues................................................................................. 44

4.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 47 Chapter 5 Port of Melbourne ............................................................................. 49 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 49

5.1.1 Victoria ............................................................................................. 49 5.1.2 Port of Melbourne............................................................................. 50

5.2 Transport network ......................................................................................... 51 5.2.1 Network connections ........................................................................ 51 5.2.2 Freight transport mode share ............................................................ 52 5.2.3 Terminal location pattern.................................................................. 54 5.2.4 Terminal access routes...................................................................... 55

5.3 Port accessibility............................................................................................ 56 5.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 58 5.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 60 Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane................................................................................. 61 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 61

6.1.1 Queensland ....................................................................................... 61 6.1.2 Port of Brisbane ................................................................................ 62

6.2 Transport Network......................................................................................... 63 6.2.1 Network Connections ....................................................................... 63 6.2.2 Freight transport mode share ............................................................ 65 6.2.3 Terminal location pattern.................................................................. 67 6.2.4 Terminal Access Routes ................................................................... 69

6.3 Port Accessibility........................................................................................... 70 6.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 71 6.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 72 6.6 Deeper study of Port of Brisbane .................................................................. 73

6.6.1 Inland port study in Brisbane ........................................................... 73 6.6.2 Accessibility of Fisherman Island .................................................... 75

Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle .............................................................................. 79 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 79

7.1.1 Western Australia .............................................................................79 7.1.2 Port of Fremantle ..............................................................................80

7.2 Transport network ......................................................................................... 81 7.2.1 Network connections ........................................................................81 7.5.2 Freight Transport Mode Share..........................................................83 7.2.3 Terminal location pattern..................................................................85 7.2.4 Terminal access routes......................................................................86

7.3 Port Accessibility........................................................................................... 86 7.4 Environmental issues..................................................................................... 87 7.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 89


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Chapter 8 Location evaluation: Four case studies .......................................... 91 8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 91 8.2 Freight generation analysis ........................................................................... 91

8.2.1 Population and employment growth ................................................ 91 8.3 Mode choice analysis .................................................................................... 94

8.3.1 Freight transport mode share............................................................ 94 8.3.2 Terminal location pattern ..................................................................... 97 8.4 Route choice analysis.................................................................................... 98

8.4.1 Terminal access routes ..................................................................... 98 8.4.2 Port accessibility ................................................................................ 100 8.4.3 Environmental issues ......................................................................... 102

8.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 105 Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research ................................................. 107 9.1 Conclusions................................................................................................. 107 9.2 Further Research ......................................................................................... 108

List of References…………………………...…………………………............111


vi

Figures

Figure 1.1. Structure of thesis.................................................................................. 2

Figure 2.1 Inter-modal terminal ..............................................................................5

Figure 2.2. Transport and regional development.....................................................9

Figure 2.3. Structural approach to urban freight demand modelling.....................11

Figure 2.4 Spatial considerations of terminals, customers and ports. ...................19

Figure 2.5. Terminal location analysis model ......................................................24

Figure 3. 1 Structure of research methodology .....................................................27

Figure 3. 2 Map of Australia showing the five main ports....................................28

Figure 4.1 Location of New South Wales ............................................................ 33

Figure 4.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – New South Wales................... 34

Figure 4.3. Location of Port of Sydney. ................................................................ 35

Figure 4.4. Major connections in Transport network of New South Wales.......... 36

Figure 4.5.Main inter-modal terminal sites in New South Wales. ........................ 37

Figure 4.6. Percentage of Total State Freight Movements Carried by Mode, NSW.

............................................................................................................................... 38

Figure 4.7. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried by mode,

NSW ...................................................................................................................... 39

Figure 4.8. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network near Sydney

City ........................................................................................................................ 40

Figure 4.9 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location .............................................. 41

Figure 4.10. Proposed port access routes .............................................................. 46

Figure 4.11. Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail in TEUs. ......................... 44

Figure 4.12. Noise complaints on port by location................................................ 45

Figure 4.13. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s northern

facilities ................................................................................................................. 46

Figure 4.14. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s southern

facilities ................................................................................................................. 47

Figure 5.1 Location of Victoria ........................................................................... 49

Figure 5.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Victoria. ................................. 50

Figure 5.3. Location of Port of Melbourne............................................................ 51

Figure 5.4. Major connections in the Victorian transport network ....................... 52


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Figure 5.5 Percentage of total State freight movements carried, by mode, Victoria

............................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 5.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried, by mode,

Victoria.................................................................................................................. 53

Figure 5.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Victoria ... 54

Figure 5.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.............................................. 55

Figure 5.9. Metropolitan inter-modal freight terminal hubs ................................. 56

Figure 5.10. Access points and routes, Port of Melbourne. .................................. 57

Figure 5.11. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s northern facilities. ... 59

Figure 5.12. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s southern facilities…60

Figure 6.1 Location of Queensland....................................................................... 61

Figure 6.2. Gross State product (current prices) – Queensland. ........................... 62

Figure 6. 3. Location of Port of Brisbane.............................................................. 63

Figure 6.4. Major Connections in the Queensland transport network .................. 64

Figure 6.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode,

Queensland............................................................................................................ 65


Queensland............................................................................................................ 66

Figure 6.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in South East

Queensland............................................................................................................ 68

Figure 6.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.............................................. 69

Figure 6.9. Proposed access routes of port............................................................ 70

Figure 6.10. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities at river mouth. 71

Figure 6.11. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities closer to CBD. 72

Figure 6.12 Intermodal total demand for imports/exports of Port of Brisbane,

2005-2020 ............................................................................................................. 74

Figure 6.13 Access of Fisherman Island. .............................................................. 75

Figure 7.1 Location of Western Australia............................................................. 79

Figure 7.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Western Australia .................. 80

Figure 7.3. Location of Port of Fremantle............................................................. 81

Figure 7.4. Major resource areas and major connections in transport network of

Western Australia.................................................................................................. 82

Figure 7.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode, WA. .. 83


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WA ........................................................................................................................ 84

Figure 7.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Southwest

Western Australia. ................................................................................................. 85

Figure 7.8. Proposed port access routes ................................................................ 86

Figure 7.9. Locations of studied areas of the Port of Fremantle. .......................... 87

Figure 7.10. Operations reducing noise pollution from port’s facility and its Inter-

modal terminal....................................................................................................... 88

Figure 7.11. Operations of reducing noise pollution from facilities. .................... 88

Figure 8.1 Population of Selected Australia States 1954-2004. ............................ 92

Figure 8.2. Percentage of population in employment 2001-2004 ......................... 92

Figure 8.3 Product growth of selected ports.......................................................... 93

Figure 8.4. Tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001. .................................... 94

Figure 8.5. Intrastate tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001....................... 95

Figure 8. 6 Percentage of terminal catchments in distance range ......................... 98

Figure 8.7. Rail Mode Usage of States in 2001................................................... 102

Figure 8.8. Reduction of noise pollution from port facilities .............................. 104


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Tables

Table 2. 1 Presentations of elements in transport and regional development and

transport modelling. ................................................................................................ 9

Table 2.2. Number of registered businesses in Greater SEQ, by industry type.... 13

Table 2.1. Metropolitan road freight task………………………………………..17

Table 2.4. Modal choice between certain origin-destination multiples. ............... 18

Table 2.5 Presentations of elements in Inter-modal Freight Transport and

Regional Development Model and Transport Modelling ..................................... 24

Table 4. 1 Condition of Access Main Roads of Inter-modal Terminal................. 42

Table 5.1 Conditions of access: main roads to inter-modal terminals .................. 56

Table 5.2 Entry sites to terminals listed in Figure 5.10 ........................................ 58

Table 6.1 Condition of main access roads of inter-modal terminal .................... 69

Table 6.2 Traffic composition and V/C ratios of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal..

............................................................................................................................... 76

Table 8.1 Freight origin location patterns in selected inter-modal systems......... 97

Table 8.2 Terminal access route connections ....................................................... 99

Table 8.3. The competing roads presented in the case studies, comparing their

road grades and lane numbers ............................................................................. 100

Table 8.4. Access points of ports’ main facilities ............................................... 101


x

Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature

Date


xi

Acknowledgements

I am extremely grateful and deeply indebted to my principal supervisor Prof. Luis Ferreira and previous principal supervisor Prof. Rod Troutbeck for their enthusiastic and expert guidance, constructive suggestions, encouragement throughout the course of this study and valuable assistance in many ways. Without such assistance this study would not have been what it is. Their immense patience and availability for comments whenever approached, even during the heavy pressure of work throughout the entire period of study, deserves grateful appreciation. Associate Professor Stephen Kajewski is to be mentioned with thanks for kindly agreeing to serve as associate supervisor.

I would like thank the Infrastructure Theme and the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering for providing financial support, necessary facilities and technical support.

It is a pleasure to thank fellow post-graduate students and friends for their support and contribution to this research. Finally, I wish to express my appreciation to my parents for their support, encouragement, and patience.


Chapter 1 Introduction

1

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background The transport sector accounts for 4.9 percent of total economic activity in

Australia.. In 2001, Australia’s freight movement load reached 310 billion million

tonne-kilometres (ABS, 2001) and in 2002-03 the sector contributed

approximately $38.7 billion to Gross Domestic Product (Department of Transport

and Regional Services, 2005). By 2020, the annual freight load is forecast to reach

up to 630 billion tonnes-km, an expected rise of slightly over 100 percent of the

current level (AusLink, 2004).

Due to this accelerating demand for freight movement, a rising need for efficient

transport infrastructure can be expected. Efficient infrastructure facilitates

specialized production, price competitiveness, time sensitivity and reliability of

Australian goods and services in both intra-industry1 and world trade markets

(AusLink, 2004).

Inter-modal terminals, necessary for the transhipment of unit loads from one mode

to another, are very important in this transport chain (Macharis en Verbeke, 1999).

A good starting point in the evaluation of terminal location in Australia is to study

the most important Australia sea ports and their inter-modal systems.

1.2 Scope As a connecting point in the transport chain, the location of a terminal has the

potential to affect freight transport accessibility and regional development. The

intention of this research is to study the manner in which the location of a terminal

affects transportation.

The research is based on studies of the principal Australian sea-ports and their

associated inter-modal systems. For the purpose of this research, principal

seaports are defined as those that handle in excess of 400,000 Twenty-foot

Equivalent Units (TEUs), that is, the Ports of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and

1 Intra-industry trade refers to the exchange of products belonging to the same industry. The term is usually applied to international trade, where the same kinds of products and services are both imported and exported.



2

Fremantle. These seaports are the product/attraction centres of their inter-modal

systems which contain road-rail inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.

Data regarding transport modelling items will be presented in four case studies,

and will be followed by data sensitivity analysis. Based on the analysis, the effects

of inter-modal terminal location on transportation performance will be presented.

1.3 Structure of thesis The thesis is structured into nine chapters, as shown in Figure 1.1, with a view to

providing a logical and consistent sequence of information.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2 Literature review

Chapter 4 Case study:

Port of Sydney


Port of Melbourne


Port of Brisbane


Port of Fremantle

Chapter 9 Conclusion and

further study

Chapter 8 Data analysis:

four case studies

Figure 1.1. Structure of thesis.

Chapter 3 Methodology



3

Chapter 2: Literature review

The literature review chapter will review previous research on freight transport

definition and transport and regional development, and will describe the four steps

of transport modelling. It will also consider environmental issues and simplify the

items of transport and regional development into items of freight transport and

regional development in order to group these items into the four transport

modelling steps

Chapter 3: Methodology

The methodology chapter outlines the study area and the methods to be used in

case studies of location-related aspects in transport modelling and the data

analysis methodology which will be used in the subsequent study.

Chapters 4- 7: Case studies

The four case studies provide detailed overviews of the principal ports and the

performance of their inter-modal networks in relation to terminal location. The

factors considered include population and employment, freight movement, mode

share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to

ports and air and noise pollution.

Chapter 8: Data analysis

Chapter 8 is a discussion chapter with sensitivity analysis of the four case studies,

and discusses the effects of terminal location on transportation based on the case

studies.

Chapter 9: Conclusions and further research

Chapter 9 summarises the work described in the thesis, drawing a conclusion

about effects of terminal location on transportation in transport modelling. It also

recommends concepts where further research would be beneficial.



4


Chapter 2 Literature Review

5

Chapter 2

Literature review

2.1 Introduction Inter-modal freight transportation is defined as a system that carries freight from

origin to destination by using two or more transportation modes. This research

focuses on a seaport-related inter-modal terminal system which has great

economy in transport procedures. Bontekoning et al. (2004) provide a

comprehensive review of the inter-modal rail-truck freight transport literature.

Inter-modal freight terminals are key elements in a freight transport system that

function as transfer points of freight from one mode to another (see Figure 2.1).

Types of terminals defined as connectors can be classified as ports (ocean and

river), airports, road/rail terminals, or pipeline/road terminals.

Figure 2. 1 Inter-modal terminal

Transport links and terminal location can have positive influences on regional

economic development when the terminal location is optimal. Further terminal

location analysis also benefits when these links and influences are defined and

quantified using transport modelling techniques.



6

2.2 Inter-modal terminal location Macharis (2001) gave a practical application of the optimum location of an inter-

modal terminal in Belgium, taking into account three sets of stakeholders: users,

terminal owners/operators and the community. His approach used a weighting

method to evaluate cost, financial, environmental, congestion and employment

impacts from the points of view of those stakeholders. Racunica and Wynter

(2000) studied the optimum location of an inter-modal freight hub in an European

case, solving a nonlinear concave-cost hub location problem with economic

considerations. Several location investigations have been reported, focusing on

financial impacts (e.g. Arnold et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2003; Peterson and

Southworth, 2000; West and Kawamura, 2005). These previous studies on

terminal location topic were based on cases in European countries, and there is to

date no terminal location research based on Australia’s port related inter-modal

systems, although these are major contributors to the Australian economy

(Department of Transport and Regional Services (DOTARS), 2005).

2.3 Inter-modal freight transport and regional development

2.3.1 Infrastructure investment and regional development

Introduction The success of cities and regions has always been based on the quality of their

infrastructure. Infrastructural investments promote economic growth, mainly at

the urban and regional level. Transport infrastructure investment is a significant

factor influencing economic development. New types of high quality

infrastructure may have a significant impact: for example, the new European high-

speed rail network may revolutionise travel around the continent, as happened

when the first generation railways were built over 150 years ago (Pietveld &

Nijkamp, 1993).

Kay (1993) states that transport infrastructures have the following characteristics:

They are networks involving delivery systems and there are substantial interactions in the provision of services to individual customers.

They form a small but indispensable part of the total costs of a wide range of products in which they are used. Thus, the losses that result from service failure are often very large relative to the basic cost of service provision.



7

They have substantial elements of natural monopoly. Competitive provision of infrastructure is costly, often prohibitively so. This need not exclude competition in the use of infrastructure.

Capital costs of infrastructure are generally large relative to their running costs.

The sunk costs of establishing an infrastructure are substantial. A high proportion of the total cost of a service has already been irrevocably incurred before that service is offered.

Transport infrastructure normally acts as a complement to other more important

underlying conditions which must also be met if further economic development is

to take place. That is, transport investment is not a necessary condition, but acts in

a supporting role when other factors are at work (Banister and Berechman, 2001).

On the other hand, as the World Bank (1994) suggests, one should take a very

broad-based approach to infrastructure, as it covers all the social overhead capital

necessary for development (e.g. health), rather than being limited to the narrower

notion of economic overhead capital (such as roads and sewerage).

Due to its complexity, infrastructure investment cannot be considered as a sole

factor in this research, but as one which directly or indirectly influences other

economic, environmental and social impact factors (Banister and Berechman,

2001).

Infrastructure impacts “The task of the transport infrastructure is to enable spatial interaction, i.e. the

mobility of persons and goods for social, cultural or economic activities. In the

context of spatial development, the quality of transport infrastructure in terms of

capacity, connectivity, travel speeds etc. determines the quality of locations

relative to other locations, i.e. the competitive advantage of locations, which is

usually measured as accessibility” (Spiekermann & Neubauer, 2002).

Regions have their own transport networks, and the freight flow patterns of these

networks, which include includes freight types, routes and volume, differ from

region to region. Any infrastructure investment to some degree influences the

local network structure, and forms a new freight pattern in the region, thus

changing the existing freight pattern (Pietveld & Nijkamp 1993).



8

However, good links decrease the importance of the terminal location factor:

when a region has good links, any addition to the network will have a

proportionally reduced impact. In this case, infrastructure is subject to decreasing

marginal productivities. An extensive high quality network may enable the

placement of industry at any location with minimum effect from terminal location

factors and this in turn reduces the importance of location as a decision factor for

terminals, firms and individuals (Pietveld & Nijkamp 1993).

As the discussions above indicate, linkage is the first positional impact on the

terminal location decision. Accessibility ensures convenient and efficient freight

flows between terminal and firms/terminals. To optimise freight flows, the

terminal should therefore be located on a well-linked site at a node of the network

that is predicted to bring about the greatest reduction in both travel time and

distance.

2.3.2 Transport and regional development model Schürmann and Talaat (2000) described a transport and regional development

model, as shown in Figure 2.2. “The relationship between regional development

and transport can be seen as a self-reinforcing positive feedback loop in which

regional economic growth creates more traffic and, vice versa, transport

opportunities generate regional economic growth”:



9

Figure 2.2. Transport and regional development.

(Based on Schürmann and Talaat, 2000)

The items in the loop show different aspects for consideration in transportation

(Schürmann and Talaat, 2000) and their presentation in modelling:

Attractiveness Indicating the trend of traffic travelling to a zone (Connectors)

Location decisions of firms

Indicating the location of a freight zone (Origin/Destination)

Economic activity Indicating the traffic volume of a freight zone (Product/Attract)

Location decisions of households

Indicating the location of a household zone

Migration Indicating the location movement of a household zone

Activities Indicating the quantity of traffic travelling from a household zone

Vehicle ownership Indicating the trend of trip decision and mode choice of households

Shipping/trip decision Indicating the trend of being a household/freight zone

Destination choice Indicating an Origin/Destination (OD) pair selection;

Mode choice Indicating the travel mode selection

Route choice Indicating travel route selection

Link loads Indicating the congestion of links

Link times/distances/costs

Indicating the travel time/link length/penalty of using the link

Accessibility Indicating the ease of egress from or access to the zone (access mode and capacity)

Table 2. 1 Presentations of elements in transport and regional development and

transport modelling. As this loop represents transport and regional development, it is useful to use the

items described in the loop in analysing the influences between terminal location

and transport.

Inter-modal freight transport is “the concept of transporting freight on two or

more different modes in such a way that all parts of the transportation process,



10

including the exchange of information, are efficiently connected and coordinated”

(Muller, 1999).

Because this research is about freight transportation, it is necessary to exclude the

non-freight-related items such as Location decisions of households, Migration,

Activities and Vehicle ownership from this loop, in keeping with the definition of

inter-modal freight transport. The simplified list of items gives us a more focused

representation of freight transport and regional development for the purposes of

this study. It comprises Attractiveness, Location decisions of firms, Economic

activity, Shipping/trip decision, Destination choice, Mode choice, Route choice,

Link loads, Link times/distances/costs and Accessibility.

2.4 The Four stages of transport demand modelling

2.4.1 Introduction “The term freight demand or freight generation means the aggregate amount of

freight generated by the economy or facility” (Al-Deek, et al., 2001). State freight

demand estimation is closely linked to forecasting future state and regional

economic activity. Hence it is essential to have a general understanding and

awareness of the relationship between transport demand and a state's industrial

production (generation) and consumption (attraction) by major commodity

groupings and geographic locations, trade relationships with industries in other

states and countries, and long-term changes in industrial location, technology, and

economics.

Since the issue is rather complex, transport planners use freight demand models to

understand urban freight patterns and to formulate and evaluate strategies or

policies to improve the efficiency of goods movement. In particular, these models

can relate infrastructure and environmental issues to the transportation system

(Brogan, et al., 2001).

Freight generation activities include primary production activities such as mining,

forestry, agriculture and aquaculture. As “the derived demand [for freight

transportation] is closely related to some index of real output” (Wilson, 1980),

measures of industrial output are normally used to estimate current and future

commodity production levels. According to the U.S. Department of

Transportation’s Quick Response Freight Manual (1996), the most desirable



11

measures are those that quantify goods output in physical units. However,

forecasts of these variables are not generally available. Fortunately, some data

such as dollar measures of output, employment, population, or real personal

income have strong relationships with freight generation, so that they are

normally used as indicator variables. For example, in Iowa’s freight planning

typology (Souleyrette et al., 1998), meat products and farm machinery were

considered. The generation of both commodities was estimated by determining

the levels of employment in the two industries (Brogan et al., 2001).

Freight transport demand models can be interfaced with transport models to

facilitate accurate accounting for multimodal terminal activity and other

phenomena that may not typically be included in travel demand models (Pendyala,

2002).

To model freight demand, the structural approach to freight modelling integrates

the freight component of the transportation system into the standard four-step

travel forecasting process (Figure 2.3): generation (predicting the trips produced

by or attracted to a traffic analysis zone), distribution (matching trip generation

and attractions to determine trip interchanges or the number of trips between each

pair of zones), mode choice (estimating the trips made by different modes such as

road or multi-modal), and traffic route assignment (predicting the route as a

sequence of roadway links to be used by each trip). (Aultamn-Hall et al, 2004)

Figure 2.3. Structural approach to urban freight demand modelling (Based on Victoria et al., 2004)



12

In this section, the basic concept and approaches of freight movement demand

modelling will be presented, as well as the freight indicators. Key issues of freight

movement demand will also be indicated in the description below and considered

later in the research.

2.4.2 Freight generation “Freight generation is concerned with estimating the number of freight

movements produced by and attracted to each analysis zone in terms of the

quantity of goods (e.g., consignments, tonnage, etc.) or the number of vehicles

required to transport the goods (e.g., truck trips, trips by vehicle type, etc)”

(Victoria, et al., 2004). According to Pendyala (2002), goods movement is

generated by different trip purposes which can be broadly classified as:

• Movement of goods directly from producers to consumers

• Movement of goods through multi-channel distribution chains that

involves warehousing operations

• Movement of goods from one mode to another (i.e., transhipment or inter-

modal movements).

For example, Gorys et al (1999), in a study defining a strategic freight network for

the Greater Toronto Area, identified four distinct and specific land users as strong

indicators of freight movement origins and destinations: manufacturing and

assembly facilities; warehouses; inter-modal terminals; and trucking support

facilities, including yards, terminals, parking, and service locations. The

geographic concentration of trucking companies, their clients and their servers in

freight centres or activity modes, coupled with higher truck volume linkage, lent

itself to the creation of a series of demand overlays for freight movement trips and

the identification of candidate elements of a strategic freight network (Gorys et al

1999).

Indicators In most cases, it is difficult to measure production activities and goods output in

physical units. However, some data which are strongly related to these activities

or goods can act as indicators and enable planners to measure activities and output

using numerical methods. Employment and population data are indicators which

have traditionally been used to estimate freight generation (Brogan et al., 2001).



13

Freight generation activities are likely to include primary production activities

such as mining, forestry and agriculture. Land use indicates the top resource

freight flow by providing the locations of primary industries. Since employment

data relate to the size of industries, they are also often used to predict freight

production in an area (Brogan et al., 2001).

Freight attraction is considered to be final demand, being the consumption of

commodities by households (consumers) and businesses, which may include

distribution and retail centres (Queensland Transport, 2004). Compared with

freight generation, attraction poses greater difficulty in terms of identifying

appropriate indicators, since attraction models must identify household indicators

as well as business indicators. While population is generally used to estimate the

amount of freight attracted to a particular area, simpler methods have also been

used to estimate freight attraction. In Iowa’s freight planning typology

(Souleyrette et al., 1998), for instance, the attraction of farm machinery was

assumed to be proportional to acres of farmland (Queensland Traport, 2004).

Sometimes registered businesses will not contribute to freight generation due to

the nature of their activities. In these cases, freight attraction is considered as the

primary factor of freight distribution. As shown in Table 2.2 below, perhaps most

interesting is that 63% of registered business can be classified as non-freight

generating (‘Other’). On the other hand, these businesses, pursuing activities such

as property and business services and education, might still be used as indicators

to measure attracted freight flows.

Table 2.2. Number of registered businesses in Greater SEQ, by industry type

(Queensland Transport, 2004)

halla

This table is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library



14

Industrial location patterns “While the relationships between terminals and the manufacturing sector are

evident in the urban landscape, even closer links exist with the service sector,

although the relationships may be not quite as visible” (Rodrigue et al., 2006). A

very wide range of transport services is created to meet the demands of terminal

activity, which may include activities as various as train maintenance, locomotive

repair, warehousing and stores. “Together they comprise an important business

sector that contributes to the overall effectiveness of the terminal, while clearly

being dependent upon it for business” (Rodrigue et al., 2006).. This reflects a

symbiotic relationship in the location patterns of these firms. The Quick Response

Freight Manual (U.S. Department of Transportation, 1996) states:

Industrial location patterns are critical to determine transport demand as measured in ton-miles, line-haul miles or other units which reflect length of haul. The spatial distribution of economic activity also influences mode choice, with many commodities likely to be shipped by one mode when distances are short and by another when distances are longer. Travel time, reliability, shipping costs and other logistics costs are all a function of distance and vary from mode to mode. Another freight characteristic that is influenced by location (and hence distance) is the perishability of the product.

Terminals represent an important and special category of land use. Normally, they

are the largest single users of land in the area. Because of the intense transport

linkages they generate with other urban functions and their externalities their

impacts are frequently negative. Terminals such as ports exert a significant

influence over neighbouring land uses. Thus, “industrial land is commonly

associated with terminal sites, which are the most important industrial zones in a

city” (Rodrigue et al., 2006).

To further understand freight transportation in the region, it was considered important to identify the county's key freight generation locations. The high concentration of these types of land uses at the activity centres results in significant freight traffic generation” (JHK & Associates, 1993).



15

With the “symbiotic relationship2” (Rodrigue et al., 2006) between a terminal and

the industries surrounding it, a terminal will inevitably be the communication

centre region wide. Its site, without doubt, is the most significant freight task-

concentrated land in its area.

To best support industrial activities, terminals should be located close to industrial

land and with efficient access. Particularly for industries with significant needs,

new terminals release heavy freight pressure (Rodrigue et al., 2006).

Terminals support local business development, but are also an attraction factor for

freight demand (Rodrigue et al., 2006). New industries will be attracted by the

freight transport of a terminal, to share its transport capacity and in turn

influencing the terminal’s development by leading, for example, to full utilisation

of capacity and a need for additional investment. Therefore, terminals have to

consider both new and potential freight generation in the region.

2 A symbiotic relationship is a relationship between two entities which is mutually beneficial for the participants of the relationship. (Learnthat, 2004)



16

2.4.3 Freight Distribution “Freight distribution links vehicle trip ends (i.e., origins and destinations) or

commodity flow ends (i.e., origins and destinations) between analysis zones,

including external zones” (Victoria et al., 2004). Freight distribution is essentially

a destination-choice model that produces a vehicle trip or commodity origin-

destination matrix or table (such as table 2.3).

There were 49 million tonnes of freight moved by articulated vehicles in the SEQ

region in 2001, as shown in table 2.3. Of this task there are a small number of key

tasks:

• 18 million tonnes Intra-Brisbane City

• 8 million tonnes Intra-Ipswich City

• 2.2 million tonnes Intra-Gold Coast.

The movement of freight between Brisbane and Ipswich, and Brisbane and the

Gold Coast, represents the next biggest intra-SEQ freight tasks:

• Ipswich to Brisbane (2.3 million tonnes) and Brisbane to Ipswich (2.2

million tonnes)

• Gold Coast to Brisbane (1.3 million tonnes) and Brisbane to Gold Coast

(2.5 million tonnes).



17

Tabl

e 2.

3. M

etro

polit

an ro

ad fr

eigh

t tas

k (B

ased

on

Que

ensl

and

Tran

spor

t, 20

04)



18

2.4.4 Freight mode choice “Freight mode choice is concerned with predicting commodity flows (e.g.,

volume) from the available freight transportation modes between all origin-

destination pairs.” (Victoria, et al., 2004) The choice of mode used to move

freight is dependent upon the type and location of economic activities. Table 2.4

shows that the most likely transport mode choice is dependent on particular O-D

groups. Long distance freight travel (intrastate, interstate and marine) would be

more likely to use multi-modal freight movement to potentially reduce transport

costs or to take advantage of different modes which meet particular freight

transport requirements. For example, in most cases, air transport meets the need

for time-limited travel; sea transport meets the need for low-cost travel; road

transport meets the need for inland time-limited travel; and rail transport meets the

need for inland low-cost travel.

Table 2.4. Modal choice between certain origin-destination multiples. (Based on Queensland Transport, 2004)



19

Another study analysing the relationship between distance from origin to terminal

and freight movement mode choice in NSW was done by Strategic design +

Development Pty Ltd (2004).

Figure 2.4 Spatial considerations of terminals, customers and ports. (Based on Strategic design + Development Pty Ltd, 2004)

The inner catchment is focussed on the immediate township surrounding the

terminal and may extend to 50 km. Subject to price and service frequency, freight

movements will generally be attracted to the terminal for rail movement to the

focal port. These customers are represented by C1 in the diagram.

The outer catchment will vary according to the relative position and distance of

the focal port and competing ports:

Customer C2 is likely to prefer the inter-modal movement option, provided the

road movement distance is less than the rail movement; an example is export hay

from Forbes, NSW, which is moved by road to Blayney terminal.



20

Customer C3 will make choices based on the comparative distance to the terminal

and the port – the direct road option may provide a lower overall cost.

Customer C4 is located more than 50 kilometres from the terminal, and modal

choice will depend on the relative distances by road to the terminal and rail from

the terminal to the port.

Customer C5 will favour the direct road movement to port as the least-cost path;

an example is Hunter wine exports or Mudgee meat exports.

Customer C6 has the opportunity to discriminate between export ports; an

example is Coleambally Rice, which can move in either direction (i.e. Sydney or

Melbourne).

2.4.5 Freight route assignments Freight route assignments, the last approach in freight movement demand

modelling, estimate which routes will be taken by freight vehicles to transport

commodities between each origin and each destination. Three basic approaches

exist (Victoria, et al., 2004):

• All-or-nothing assignment: involves assigning all trips along the shortest

route between each origin and each destination without considering

congestion

• Incremental assignment: involves allocating a limited number of trips at a

time tied to the cheapest available route, updating after each allocation the

new travel costs to each link as a result of the allocation

• Multi-path assignment: an extension of the incremental approach in which

at any stage of the allocation process all trips from an origin are assigned

to different routes between the origin and each destination, not necessarily

to the least cost route.

2.4.6 Summary The freight movement demand model process is based on the freight movement

pattern, which is influenced by the quantity of freight, to choose a suitable freight

route with the optimum mode.



21

2.5 Accessibility

2.5.1 Introduction Typically, accessibility refers to the ease with which desired destinations may be

reached and is frequently measured as a function of the available opportunities

moderated by some measure of impedance, such as distance, travel time or cost

(Hu and Saleh, 2005). Ease of access depends not just upon transport systems, but

upon patterns of land use. Qualitative and quantitative accessibility measures seek

to define the level of opportunity and choice, taking account of both the existence

of opportunities and the transport options available to reach them (Steer Davies

Gleave & Derek Halden Consultancy, 2001).

Access to major airports, seaports and inter-modal terminals is a key issue in

defining a strategic network to facilitate both the tasks of importing and exporting.

In a number of cases the performance of this pivotal element of the inter-modal

logistics chain is impeded by poor links between ports and freight intensive

locations. Road and rail transport congestion in the immediate terminal

environment also presents barriers (Department of Transport and Regional

Services, 2002).

Improvements in accessibility, which can be presented as transport infrastructure

investments, lead to changes in generalised transport costs via shorter distances or

higher speeds (better accessibility), which give rise to reductions in fuel, capital

and labour costs. Such changes will have impacts on the transport system in the

form of mode choice, choice of time of day and the generation and attraction of

trips per zone (Piet and Bruinsma, 1998).

2.5.2 Indicators Simple accessibility indicators take into account only intraregional transport

infrastructure measured in terms of such criteria as total length of motorways and

numbers of railway stations (e.g. Biehl, 1986; 1991), or travel time to the nearest

nodes of interregional networks (e.g. Lutter et al., 1993). While these kinds of

indicators may contain valuable information about the region itself, they fail to

recognise the network character of transport infrastructure in which parts of the

region are linked with each other, and the region linked with other regions. More

detailed descriptors of the real infrastructural connections are therefore required.



22

More complex accessibility indicators take account of the connectivity of

transport networks by distinguishing between the network itself, i.e. its nodes and

links, and the activities (such as work, shopping or leisure) or opportunities (such

as markets or jobs) that can be reached by it. In general terms, accessibility then is

a construct of two functions, one representing the activities or opportunities to be

reached and the other representing the effort, time, distance or cost needed to

reach them (Bökemann, 1982).

2.6 Environmental Impacts

2.6.1 Introduction Freight terminals impact on their local environment from an aesthetic perspective

as well as removing large areas of land from alternative uses or developments

which may be perceived to be of higher value to the local community. They also

succeed in making adjacent land unsuitable for a range of residential, business and

community developments which require a less industrial environment. To

minimise this conflict it is useful to attend to both reducing the negative impacts

of terminals and to maximising the benefits to local communities (Meyrick and

Associates, 2006).

2.6.2 Air Pollution Air pollution is taken to be “the presence in the atmosphere of substances or

energy in such quantities and of such duration as to be liable to cause harm to

human, plant, or animal life, or damage to human-made materials and structures,

or changes in the weather and climate, or interference with the comfortable

enjoyment of life or property or other human activity” (Elsom, 1992). Standards

generally regulate the amount of carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),

sulphur, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (PM) or soot that can be released

(Wikipedia, 2006h).

The environmental problems associated with transport have led to a more critical

attitude towards large transport infrastructure projects (Piet and Bruinsma, 1998).

For example, it is consistent with the NSW Government’s Action for Air policy

(EPA, 1998) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and with the Action for

Transport 2010 Integrated Transport Plan (Department of Transport, 1998) to

increase rail usage to 25% of total freight movements. The Port of Sydney



23

supports the NSW Government’s new target to move 50% of containers from the

port by rail by 2015 and is continuing a focus on the efficiency of freight rail links

(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003b).

2.6.3 Noise Pollution Noise pollution is unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment

(Wikipedia, 2006g). Noise pollution can be caused by many sources, including

highways, vehicles, police cars, ambulances, factories, concerts, music, air-

conditioners, engines, machine, aircraft, helicopters, alarms, public address

systems, industrial development and construction work. In general, noise

pollution refers to any noise irritating to one's ears which comes from an external

source.

A number of railway operation noise sources, other than those stemming from

movements outside transport facilities such as train pass-by noises (largely

wheel/rail), will be identified and briefly discussed in later chapters. People

primarily affected by these noise sources may include railway staff and

passengers on trains, railway trackside staff, and wayside residents. Both

environmental pollution and hearing protection may be involved. Sources include

the following: close proximity to wheel/rail noise; locomotive noise; freight

vehicle noise; warning signal noise; near field bridge noise; marshalling yard

noise; flange squeal on tight curves; maintenance machine noise; and track

machinery warning horn noise (Stanworth, 1982).

2.7 Introduction of analysis elements into modelling components Sections 2.3 and 2.4 show the similarity between the Inter-modal Freight

Transport and Regional Development (IFTRD) model and the four steps of

transport modelling. Their links can be seen in the components:

IFTRD model Transport modelling

Attractiveness Presents the trend of freight movement of a freight zone

Location decision of firms Presents the location of Origin/Destination (OD) freight zone

Economic activity Presents the production/attraction of each freight zone

Destination choice Presents the OD pair of freight zones;



24

Mode choice Presents the opportunity to transit to rail in freight movement

Route choice Presents the priority of links in freight movement

Link loads Presents the capacity/congestion of links

Link times/distances/costs Presents the travel time/length/penalty of link

Accessibility Presents the mode/capacity when traffic accesses to the terminal

Table 2.5 Presentations of elements in Inter-modal Freight Transport and

Regional Development Model and Transport Modelling

In addition, the element of environmental issues of a terminal is an important

consideration in freight movement when presented as a cost of using the terminal.

Figure 2.5. Terminal location analysis model

Attractiveness

Location decision of firms

Economic activity

Destination choice

Mode choice

Route choice

Link loads

Link times/distances/costs

Accessibility

Freight generation

Route assignment

Mode choice

Freight distribution

Environmental issues (cost)

Terminal location



25

2.8 Summary In the literature review chapter, a terminal location analysis model was developed

which includes a number of research focus items selected from the transport and

regional development model according to freight transport theory. These items

were also presented in detail in the concept study of the four steps of transport

modelling.



26

27

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Case Study Approach

The case studies (Chapters 4 to 7) analyse the performance of four important ports

in Australia and the impact of their inter-modal transport network on terminal

location decision, using the Terminal Location Analysis Model developed in

Chapter 2. Note that for Destination Choice, in this research a port is considered

to be the freight centre and freight destination of its inter-modal system; that is,

freight zones are the points of origin and freight direction is towards the port. Link

loads and link times/costs in route choice are not studied due to limits on the size

of this thesis. The structure of the case studies is as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3. 1 Structure of research methodology (Developed by author)

Introduction • States • Ports

Transport Networks • Network Connections • Freight Transport Mode Share • Terminal Location Pattern • Terminal Access Routes

Port Accessibility

Environmental Issues

Case Studies Data Analysis

Freight Generation Analysis • Population and

Employment Growth • Ports Product Growth

Mode Choice Analysis • Mode Share • Firms location Decision • Terminal Location Pattern

Route Choice Analysis • Terminal Access Route • Port Accessibility • Environmental Issues

Summary

28

3.1.1 Study Area

The primary objective of this research is to examine the optimum inter-modal

terminal location in transport and regional development in Australia. As an inter-

modal terminal itself, a seaport connects to an inter-modal transport network

containing two main modes, rail and road, that serve the freight zones related to

the seaport (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005; Victorian Resources Online, 2006a;

Victorian Resources Online, 2006b; Queensland Transport, 2005; Ozhorizons,

2006). A useful starting point in analysing the role of terminal location in the

development of the region of a seaport is to undertake case studies of the

country’s main seaports and their inter-modal networks. For this purpose, main

seaports are defined as those handling in excess of 400,000 Twenty-foot

Equivalent Units (TEUs); that is, the Ports3 of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and

Fremantle. These seaports are the product/attraction centres of their inter-modal

systems which contain road-rail inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.

Figure 3. 2 Map of Australia showing the five main ports (Map developed by author)

3 Port of Flinders was excluded due to insufficient data.

29

3.1.2 Case study structure

Introduction

The study starts with an introduction section about the state and its port’s freight

generation, which is indicated by population and employment factors. State and

port population growth, employment growth and economic growth and

performance are presented with year series.

Transport networks

This section considers mode choice and route choice

1) Network connections

This section reviews the major transport connections to the port from the rest of

the state, showing the available main modes and the main mode connecting the

freight zones of the state to the freight centre, the port.

2) Freight transport mode share

This section considers main transport modes’ mode share of total freight

movement and intrastate freight movement by percentage in tonne-kilometres. It

shows the preferable mode in freight movement of the state, in relation to the

location of the inter-modal terminal.

3) Terminal location pattern

This section looks at the distance from the freight zone centriod to the closest

inter-modal terminal, to examine the radius of the inter-modal terminal

catchments of each inter-modal system.

A figure containing freight zones and inter-modal terminal location information

pertaining to the study area is read into the MapInfo GIS mapping software and

the scale registered in metres. The minimum distance from each freight zone to an

inter-modal terminal is selected as terminal catchment data, used to show the

terminal location pattern of the study area, or percentage of terminal catchments in

distance range. This indicates the optimum distance from freight zones to the

inter-modal terminal in exchanging freight modes.

30

4) Terminal access routes

The available modes and inter-modal routes heading from freight zones to port are

considered. The modes are restricted to rail and road, since other modes are not in

the research area of this thesis.

Because the route from a terminal to the port is fixed, the inter-modal terminal

access route becomes important in the performance of the whole trip. Higher

priority roads, e.g. motorway and highway, are considered and route conditions

affecting accessibility, for example road grade and number of lanes, are indicated.

Port accessibility

This section looks at the available access modes and the number of access points

to the port. A seaport is an inter-modal terminal in large size, and with the heavy

duty of transiting goods its accessibility will be the bottle neck to the port’s

development. To ascertain how the access conditions impinge on the port’s

development, access conditions will be examined against the port’s growth.

Environmental issues

This section examines two main environmental pollution effects from the port’s

facilities, noise and air pollution, indicating the pollution resources and the

operation of the port’s management.

3.2 Data analysis Chapter 8, the data analysis chapter, is based on the four case study chapters,

examining the links between terminal location and the elements in transport

modelling and the effect of terminal location on the port’s performance. The

chapter is structured as follows:

Freight generation analysis

This section analyses the population and employment growth of the specific state

and examines the effect of these two freight generation indicators on the port’s

performance, i.e., the port’s product growth.

Mode choice analysis

This section presents the mode share of rail and road transport of total freight

movement and intrastate freight movement by percentage in tonne-kilometres,

freight zone location decision and inter-modal terminal location pattern.

31

Route choice analysis

This section analyses the available terminal access modes of freight zones and the

access routes leading to the port, specifically looking at whether road and/or rail

mode is available for freight movement from freight zones and reviewing high

grade access roads as the key component of the routes connecting to the terminal.

As a concept of transport accessibility, the total number of lanes of higher priority

roads may be related to a port’s performance.

Port accessibility

Port accessibility studies the condition of a port’s access points, including the

number, the access modes and their working condition, against the port’s

performance.

Environmental issues

Environmental issues include noise pollution and air pollution from a port’s

facilities. This section examines the pollution resources and the port’s

management operation against the pollution.

Summary

The results of each case study and the data analysis are summarised in Chapter 8.


Chapter 4 Port of Sydney

33

Chapter 4

Port of Sydney

4.1 Introduction

This chapter examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Sydney-

related transport system by analysing the elements included in the Inter-modal

Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in Chapter 2. It

investigates detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Sydney and

considers the performance of the port’s inter-modal network in relation to

terminal location, taking into account factors such as population and employment,

freight movement, mode share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones,

available routes, access to ports and air and noise pollution.

4.1.1 New South Wales

New South Wales (NSW), the oldest and most populous state of Australia, is

located in the south-east of the country, north of Victoria and south of Queensland

(Figure 4.1). It occupies 801,348.8 km2 (Australian Bureau of Statistics - ABS,

2005a) and has the largest population and highest level of full-time employment

of Australia’s states – 6.7 million (ABS, 2006a) and 2.3 million respectively.

(ABS, 2005b)

Figure 4.1 Location of New South Wales

(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006a)

halla

This figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library



34

As shown in Figure 4.2, the Gross State Product (GSP) of New South Wales

increased more than 200% over the 15 years from 1898/90 to 2005/05, from

AUS$140.7 billion to AUS$305.4 billion. New South Wales GSP was also around

one-third of total Australian GDP in the same period.

GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, NSW

125000.0145000.0165000.0185000.0205000.0225000.0245000.0265000.0285000.0305000.0325000.0

89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05

$mill

ion

Figure 4.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – New South Wales

(Data sourced from ABS, 2005c)

4.1.2 Port of Sydney

Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, is Australia's oldest and largest city and

a centre of international finance. It hosts the second largest container port in

Australia (Figure 4.3). With 99% of Australia’s international trade transported by

sea, Sydney’s ports are pivotal to Australia’s economic future.

The ports of Sydney are the focii of a vast network of road, rail and sea links

servicing domestic and international markets. Although 85% of containerised

products are delivered within 40 kilometres of the ports (Sydney Ports

Corporation, 2004b), people from all parts of NSW rely on the ports for the

delivery of goods and the export of products to overseas markets.



35

Figure 4.3. Location of Port of Sydney.

(Map developed from Australian Salaried Medical Officers’ Federation, 2003;

Sydney Ports Corporation, 2004a)

The Port of Sydney is owned and managed by the Sydney Ports Corporation. As

shown in Figure 4.3 (areas in red), the port consists of three geographically

separate facilities: Sydney Harbour, Botany Bay, and Glebe Island and White Bay.

Sydney’s ports are a major infrastructure asset for New South Wales, handling

around $45.5 billion worth of international and domestic trade (Sydney Ports

Corporation, 2003b). During the 2004/2005 financial year, the ports handled 25.9

million tonnes of cargo (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005), including over one

million containers. This is about 30%of the total containerised trade in Australia

(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003b).

4.2 Transport network

4.2.1 Network connection

New South Wales is connected to the neighbouring states by an integrated

transport network which also provides direct inland links to other capital cities

(Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide) from Sydney. The major connections are

listed below (Bureau of Transport and Regional Services, 2005).

Port of SydneySYDNEY



36

Figure 4.4 shows these transport connections extending across New South Wales,

supporting the state’s development by linking its freight zones, with especially

strong connections to Sydney.

Figure 4.4. Major connections in Transport network of New South Wales.

(Map based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)

Connecting Queensland: Pacific Highway, New England Highway, Mitchell Highway and rail lines.

Connecting Victoria: Princess Highway, Hume Highway, Sturt

Highway, Newell Highway and rail lines.

Connecting South Australia: Sturt Highway and rail lines.



37

Regional inter-modal terminals, an important part of the freight transport network,

are located around freight centres to improve the transport system. There are 20 of

these state-wide inter-modal terminals in New South Wales (Figure 4.5) providing

local industry with more transport options for freight movement.

Figure 4.5.Main inter-modal terminal sites in New South Wales.

(Based on Developing Freight Hubs, 2005)

4.2.2 Freight transport mode share

In 2000/01, a total of 301.3 million tonnes and 52,942.6 million tonnes kilometres

freight was moved to points all over Australia from New South Wales (ABS,

2001).

Figure 4.6 shows that Road and Rail networks shared the highest proportion of

total tonnage handled, up to 98.25% together (183.8 and 112.3 million tonnes



38

respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic shipping, sea freight

accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-kilometres travelled than of

total tonnage moved. The four main transport modes were, in descending order,

road transport at 56.21% (26,440.3 million of total tonne-kilometres travelled),

followed by rail (37.1%) and sea (12.85%). By contrast, air accounted for less

than 1% of the freight carried.

.

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, NSW

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

ROAD RAIL SEA AIRMODE

TONNESTONNE-KILOM ETRES

Figure 4.6. Percentage of Total State Freight Movements Carried by Mode, NSW.

(Rearranged Data sourced from ABS, 2001)

A high proportion (96.4%) of tonnes goods transported by the rail network was

for the movement of freight intrastate (Figure 4.7). About 75% of tonne-

kilometres of rail freight were for intrastate movements.

Similarly, a high percentage (89%) of the total tonnes moved by road was within

the same state. However, in contrast to rail, only 47% of the total tonne-kilometres

transported by road was intrastate freight. Road and rail were the two major

transport modes in intrastate freight movement.

A minority of freight movements by sea were intrastate in nature (0.86% of the

total tonne-kilometres travelled and 21.4% of the total tonnes carried).



39

INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, NSW

0%10%20%30%40%50%

60%70%80%90%

100%


TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETERS


NSW


4.2.3 Terminal location pattern

Because 85% of containerised products from the Port of Sydney is delivered to

points within 40 kilometres of the port (Sydney Ports Corporation, 2004b), this

section will focus on the freight zones and terminals within this area.

The industrial zones in Figure 4.8 are located within 50 kilometres of the port.

Several large zones are within 10 km of the port, with the remainder located along

the major transport arteries such as the Great Western Highway, Pennant Hills

Road, Cumberland Highway and rail lines.

The map also shows seven inter-modal terminals, namely Botany, Camellia,

Chullora, Enfield, Marrickville, Villawood and Yennora; four of these are located

within industrial areas and three along dedicated rail freight lines belonging to the

port. To meet the need for port development with a dedicated rail freight line

directly linked to port facilities, it is proposed that the terminal on the Enfield site

be used as an Inland-Port4 of Port of Sydney. Four of the terminals, sited within

4 An inland port is a location where the processing of trade can be shifted from the national borders and where multiple modes of transportation and a wide variety of services are offered at a common location. Inland ports that provide value-added services in addition to trade processing will support industry efforts to create more efficient supply chains. (Leitner, S.J. and R. Harrison, 2001)



40

10-20 kilometres of the port, act as buffers transferring freight onto rail, thus

reducing the heavy freight load on roads within 10 kilometres of the Sydney CBD.

Figure 4.8. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network near Sydney

City

(Map based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)



41

Figure 4.9 charts the shortest distance from each freight zone to an inter-modal

terminal (derived from Fig. 4.8), by ascending order of magnitude. The study area

encompasses 123 freight zones and eight inter-modal terminals. Considered in

terms of terminal catchments, a high percentage (70%) of freight zones is found to

be within 10 kilometres of the closest terminal. For these freight zones, the

terminal access route will not greatly affect the whole trip performance, but for

the remaining 30% of zones improved accessibility of access routes would

facilitate freight movement.

Distances from Freight Zones to Terminals

05

101520253035

1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 121Freight Zone Numbers

Dis

tanc

e (K

M)

Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Range

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%

10 15 20 25 30 35Distance Range (KM)

Figure 4.9 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location

4.2.4 Terminal Access Routes



42

As seen in Figure 4.8, three major roads provide the main access routes

connecting terminals in inter-modal movement towards Port of Sydney. Table 4.1

sets out the road conditions of these routes, namely the M4, the Great Western

Highway and the Hume Highway.

Roads Road Grades Lanes

M4

Motorway

From 4 to 6 lanes, and in some stretches 8 lanes (SWR, 2005)

Great Western

Highway

Highway

4 lanes in urban section (Wikipedia, 2006i)

Hume Highway

National

2 lanes (MG, 2004)

Table 4. 1 Condition of Access Main Roads of Inter-modal Terminal.

(Developed by author)

These main roads connect the origin points of Port of Sydney freight to terminals

in Camellia, Yennora, Villawood, Chullora and Enfield, where goods transported

in road freight mode are shifted to rail mode.

4.3 Port Accessibility

One of the important factors impacting on a port’s development, its productivity,

greatly depends on its accessibility. The following discussion is about the Port of

Sydney’s accessibility.

Figure 4.10 shows two main roads, namely the Gore Hill Freeway (motorway)

and the Pacific Highway, which traverse the two main facilities areas of the Port

of Sydney. These corridors provide access to and between the port’s facilities and

its linked industrial zones and freeways, railways and terminals. While road and

rail networks provide access to Sydney’s manufacturing and distribution centres,

two existing inter-modal terminals are located in Botany and Marrickville and it is

proposed that an inter-modal terminal be built in Enfield as an Inland-Port to



43

support the Port of Sydney’s increasingly heavy load. To support the port’s rapid

development, a dedicated rail freight network runs through four existing inter-

modal terminals (see map), they are Botany, Chullora, Enfield and Marrickville,

linking the port’s two main facilities areas and the proposed Inland port site.

Figure 4.10. Proposed port access routes

(Map reproduced from Sydney Ports Corporation, 2005)

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44

4.4 Environmental issues

Air quality

The Port of Sydney supports the NSW Government’s target of moving 50% of

containers from the port by rail by 2015, to minimise air emissions through

encouraging increased containerised cargo movements by rail (Sydney Ports

Corporation, 2003a).

Figure 4.11 presents the trend relating to the transport of containerised cargo to

and from Port Botany by rail (instead of road) from 1999 to 2003. It demonstrates

that there was an increase in the number of containers moved to and from Port

Botany throughout the period shown.

Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

TEU

Figure 4.11. Cargo moved to/from Port Botany by rail in TEUs.

(Based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a)

Noise pollution

Noise mainly arises from the loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships

as well as from movement of cargo within terminals.

In the 2002/2003 financial year, the port handled a total of 111 complaints.

(Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a) The charts in Figure 4.12 show the areas

complaints were received from.



45

The number of noise complaints received regarding port operations at White Bay

is largely due to the proximity of residences to the cargo handling facility.

Noise Complaints by Location

White Bay69%, 69%

Darling Harbour13%, 13%

Botany10%, 10%

Other Berths8%, 8%

White Bay 69%

Darling Harbour 13%

Botany 10%

Other Berths 8%

Figure 4.12. Noise complaints on port by location

(Based on Sydney Ports Corporation, 2003a)

Noise reduction measures at Port facilities

Figure 4.13 shows the Port of Sydney’s facilities (areas in yellow shapes). White

Bay and Darling Harbour, two of the major facilities, are located to the north of

the Sydney CBD, extremely close to residential areas due to Sydney’s

development history. However, some measures have been taken to reduce noise.

Figure 4.13 also shows a small forest park (within the green shape) which acts as

a buffer against noise from the port when goods are being loaded. The other

noise-reduction measure is having the port at a lower level than the residential

area (indicated in red).



46

.Figure 4.13. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s northern

facilities

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006a)

The port facility in Botany Bay (Figure 4.14) is further from the CBD. It chooses

a more active method to block noise. The areas in the green curves are freight

terminal warehouses, which serve as excellent buffers to noise pollution from the

port.

Darling

Harbour White Bay

Sydney City



47

Figure 4.14. Measures to reduce noise pollution from Port of Sydney’s southern

facilities

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006b)

4.5 Summary

New South Wales has a population of 6.7 million, with 2.3 million in full-time

employment. During the 2004/2005 financial year, The Port of Sydney handled

25.9 million tonnes of cargo: around $45.5 billion worth of international and

domestic trade, or about 30%of the total containerised trade in Australia. Eighty-

five per cent of containerised products from the port are delivered within a radius

of 40 kilometres of the port. In this state, road and rail mode freight movement

made up a combined 98.25% of total tonnage handled in 2001.

Over 80% of the 123 freight zones are located within 10km of the eight inter-

modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Sydney. There are

three main road access routes to these terminals, namely the Great Western

Highway, the Hume Highway and the M4.

Botany Bay

Botany Bay



48

The Port of Sydney has two road access points and one rail access point in its two

main facilities. The port is surrounded by residential areas, but a buffer zone of

warehouses and parks helps to contain noise pollution from its facilities.

These data will contribute to the data analysis in Chapter 8, examining the

location of inter-modal terminals.


Chapter 5 Port of Melbourne

49

Chapter 5

Port of Melbourne

5.1 Introduction

Chapter 5 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of

Melbourne-related transport system by analysing the elements included in the

Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in

Chapter 2. It investigates detailed information and descriptions of the Port of

Melbourne and the performance of the port’s inter-modal network in relation to

terminal location, taking into account factors such as population and employment,

freight movement, mode share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones,

available routes, access to ports and noise pollution

5.1.1 Victoria

The second oldest and second most populous state of Australia, Victoria is located

in the south-east of the country, south of New South Wales and east of South

Australia (Figure 5.1). It occupies 7,693.6 km2 (ABS, 2005a), and has a

population of 5 million (ABS, 2006a) with 2.4 million in full-time employment

(ABS, 2005b).

Figure 5.1 Location of Victoria

(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006c)

It can be seen from Figure 5.2 that Victoria has grown soundly, with Gross State

Product (GSP) increasing 207% in the 15 years between 1989/90 and 2004/05

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50

from AUS$107.1 billion to AUS$222 billion. The state makes a significant

contribution to the Australian economy, accounting for one-quarter of Australia’s

total GDP in the period in question.

GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, Vic.

100000.0

120000.0

140000.0

160000.0

180000.0

200000.0

220000.0

240000.0

89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05

$mill

ion

Figure 5.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Victoria.


5.1.2 Port of Melbourne

Melbourne, which is less than 200 years old, is the second-largest city (after

Sydney) in Australia. It is the capital city of the state of Victoria, and was also the

capital city of Australia from 1901 until 1927. It is the site of the largest container

port in Australia (Figure 5.3).

As the city with the largest and busiest container port in Australia, Melbourne is

the natural transport hub for south-eastern Australia. It is located at the junction of

Victoria’s major road and rail networks, providing excellent access to South

Australia, Western Australia, regional New South Wales and the east coast of the

Australian mainland.

The Port of Melbourne handles 37% of Australia’s container trade and is also one

of the largest general cargo ports in Australia. Forty-two container shipping lines,

as well as a number of other general cargo carriers, make around 3,200 ship calls a

year to Melbourne, providing services to ports of call in all major parts of the

world (Melbourne Port Corporation, 2003). The Port of Melbourne is also one of



51

Victoria’s major assets, handling some $70 billion in trade each year and

supporting around 80,000 Victorian jobs (Port of Melbourne Corporation, 2005).

Figure 5.3. Location of Port of Melbourne.

(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006b; Port Melbourne

Corporation, 2005)


5.2.1 Network connections

Victoria is linked to neighbouring states by a huge and complicated transport

network, which includes strong land links from Melbourne. The major

connections are listed below (BTRE, 2005).

New South Wales : Calder Highway, Murray Valley Highway, Princess

Highway, Cann Valley Highway, Hume Highway,

Goulburn Valley Highway, Northern Highway and railway

lines across the northern state boundary.

South Australia: Princess Highway, Western Highway, Sturt Highway,

Newell Highway, Barrier Highway and railway lines

Port of Melbourne

Melbourne



52

These transport networks extend throughout Victoria. The main routes are shown

in blue in Figure 5.4. Sixteen regional inter-modal terminals (gray spots in the

figure) are located around freight centres, and are important providers of mode

choice for local freight movement towards the port.

Figure 5.4. Major connections in the Victorian transport network

(Map developed from Victorian Resources Online, 2006a; Victorian Resources

Online, 2006b)


In 2000/01, 138.1 million tonnes and 33,348.9 million tonnes-kilometres of

freight were moved to points all over Australia from Victoria (ABS, 2001).

Figure 5.5 shows that the road network carried a very high proportion (87.74% or

121.1 million tonnes) of the tonnage handled. Rail and sea accounted for almost

all the rest.

Road transport handled nearly half (49.91%) or 18,745.5 million of the total

tonne-kilometres moved, while rail and sea accounted for 18.56% (6,188.3 million)

and 25.01% (8341.5 million) respectively.

crossing the western state boundary.

National Roads

State Roads

Rail Lines

Inter-modal

Freight Network



53

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, Vic.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

ROAD RAIL SEA AIR

MODE

TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETRES

Figure 5.5 Percentage of total State freight movements carried, by mode, Victoria


Figure 5.6 illustrates that a very high proportion (87.49%) of goods moved by

road was interstate freight, while approximately 42% of tonne-kilometres by rail

was intrastate freight.

INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, Vic.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

ROAD RAIL SEA AIRM ODE

TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETERS

Figure 5.6. Intrastate freight movements as a percentage of total carried, by

mode, Victoria




54


Figure 5.7 demonstrates that apart from an extremely concentrated industrial zone

near the Melbourne metropolitan district, other industrial zones are widely located

in the rest of the state, clustered along the key transport arteries such as the Calder

Highway, the Goulburn Valley Highway, the Hume Highway, the Western

Highway and railway lines. The map also shows sixteen inter-modal terminals.

Figure 5.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Victoria

(Map developed from Victorian Resources Online, 2006a; Victorian Resources

Online, 2006b; Department of Infrastructure, 2003)


terminal (derived from Figure 5.7), by ascending order of magnitude. The study

area encompasses 116 freight zones and 25 inter-modal terminals. Considered in

terms of terminal catchments, 30% of freight zones are within 10 kilometres of a

terminal and 35% within 20 kilometres. For freight zones within 20 kilometres of

a terminal, the access route to the terminal does not greatly affect the whole trip

Main Roads

Motorways

Rail Lines

Industrial

Areas

Freight Network National Roads

State Roads

Rail Lines

Industrial Areas

Inter-modal Freight Terminals

Charlton



55

performance, but for the 33% of zones that are more than 20 kilometres from a

terminal, improved access routes facilitate freight movement.

Distances from Freight Zones to Terminals

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111Freight Zone Numbers

Dist

ance

(KM

)

Percentage of Terminal Catchments in Distance Rrange

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90Distance Ranges (KM)

Figure 5.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location.

5.2.4 Terminal access routes

As seen in Figure 5.7, four main roads and rail lines are the principal access routes

between terminals in inter-modal movement towards the Port of Melbourne. The

main roads are the Sunraysia Highway, the Western Highway, the Calder

Highway and the Princes Highway. Their road conditions are as listed in Table

5.1.



56

Roads Road Grades Lanes

Sunraysia Highway Highway 2 lanes (Answers Corporation, 2006)

Western Highway National 2 lanes (KG, 2002) Calder Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006j) Princes Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006k)

Table 5. 1 Conditions of access: main roads to inter-modal terminals


These main roads connect the origin points of Port of Melbourne freight to

terminals in Birchip, Ballarat, Horsham, Charlton, Warragul and the Melbourne

metropolitan environs, where goods transported in road freight mode are shifted to

rail.

5.3 Port accessibility

The Melbourne metropolitan area transport network is more complex than the

state-wide network. For example, of the sixteen freight terminals in the state, nine

are located within the metropolitan area, as shown in Figure 5.9.

Figure 5.9. Metropolitan inter-modal freight terminal hubs

(Based on Freight Intermodal Efficiency Group, 2004)

Facilities



57

Furthermore, five of the nine freight terminals within Metropolitan Melbourne are

located outside the Melbourne Port facilities, and function as a huge freight buffer

for the Port. Buffering all goods to the container yards and freight yards, they

transfer freight onto the dedicated rail lines travelling through the port’s facilities.

Clustered inside the Port are nine main entry points for freight movements (Figure

5.10) some of which go through the Freight Victoria Dynon Container Terminal

and the National Rail Freight Corporation Melbourne Freight Terminal (area in

pink).

Figure 5.10. Access points and routes, Port of Melbourne.

(Figure reproduced from Department of Infrastructure, 2003)

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58

The terminals shown in Figure 5.10 are listed in Table 5.2 below.

Terminal number

Entry site

1 On the West Gate Freeway and connecting port facilities in the west and the south.

2 On Francis Street and connecting port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.

3 On Williamstown Road and connecting port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.

4 On Whitehall Street and connecting the port facilities in the west and the north; these lead through to the terminal yards.

5 On Footscray Road and connecting to the inner port facilities.

6 On Footscray Road and connecting to the inner port facilities via a dedicated rail freight line.

7 At the intersection of City Link and Footscray Road; both dedicated rail lines and roads are available.

8 On the West Gate Freeway and connecting the port facilities in the north and the south.

9 On Williamstown Road; this is the entry point for freight entering the southern port facility.

Table 5. 2 Entry sites to terminals listed in Figure 5.10

Access points 1 to 4 are to the port’s western facility. According to the size of

traffic flow arrows, points 1 and 2 are the main entries for this facility. Access

points 5 to 7 mainly serve the central port facility. Dedicated rail freight lines

connect all entries, providing direct freight transferral. Access points 8 and 9 are

located in the southern facility, which has a freeway traversing it with a rail mode

connection only.

Figure 5.10 showed that the Port of Melbourne has a variety of accesses to its

facilities, with both road and rail mode access to the main entry points. Of

particular note is access point 7 at the main port, which is a multi-modal transport

junction handling both road and rail freight from the inter-modal terminal next to

the port, from the inner port (by the dedicated rail lines) and from other places of

origin.


Noise mainly arises from the loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships

as well as from the movement of cargo within terminals.



59

The Port of Melbourne has developed extremely close to Melbourne city (Figure

5.11) due to its fundamental role in Melbourne’s early development. The areas in

the green shape are the freight terminal and container terminal sites which handle

freight from and to the port. Their huge yards act as noise buffers between

residential areas and port facilities. The port facility is shown yellow in the figure.

Figure 5.11. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s northern facilities.

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006c)

In Figure 5.12, office buildings, warehouses and parks (in the green shape) are

located between houses and the port’s southern facilities (in the yellow shape).

With a buffer of this magnitude, noise pollution from the port is minimized.

Melbourne Ports

Melbourne City

Phillip Bay



60

Figure 5.12. Features reducing noise pollution from port’s southern facilities.

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006d)

5.5 Summary

Victoria has a population of 5 million, with 2.4 million in full-time employment.

Handling around $70 billion worth of international and domestic trade during the

2004/2005 financial year, the Port of Melbourne hosts around 3,200 ship calls a

year, comprising 37% of Australia’s container trade. In this state, road and rail

mode freight movement shared over 95% of total tonnage handled in 2001.

Over 67% of the state’s 116 freight zones are located within 10km of the 25 inter-

modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Melbourne. There

are four main road access routes to these terminals, namely the Calder Highway,

the Princes Highway, the Sunraysia Highway and the Western Highway. The Port

of Melbourne has nine access points for both road and rail freight movement in its

facilities. The port is surrounded by warehouses and parks which help to buffer

nearby residents from noise pollution from the port’s facilities.

These data will contribute to the analysis in Chapter 8 examining the location of inter-modal terminals.

Melbourne Ports

Melbourne City

Phillip Bay

Processes for evaluating the optimum inter-modal terminal location

Chapter 6 Port of Brisbane

61

Chapter 6

Port of Brisbane

6.1 Introduction

Chapter 6 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Brisbane-

related transport system by analysing the elements listed in the Inter-modal

Freight Transport and Regional Development Model developed in Chapter 2. It

reviews detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Brisbane and the

performance of its inter-modal network in relation to terminal location, taking into

account population and employment, freight movement, mode share, transport

networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to ports, and noise

pollution.

6.1.1 Queensland

Queensland (Qld), the third most populous and in recent years the fastest-growing

state of Australia, is located in the north-east of the country, north of New South

Wales, east of the Northern Territory and north-east of South Australia (Figure

6.1). It occupies 1,734,156.8 km2 (ABS, 2005a), and has a population of 3.9

million (ABS, 2006), of whom 2 million are full-time employed (ABS, 2005b).

Figure 6.1 Location of Queensland

(Accessed from Wikipedia, 2006d)

Queensland has experienced an impressive 267% increase in Gross State Product

(GSP) in the last 15 years, as shown in Figure 6.2, from AUS$59.5 billion in

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1989/90 to AUS$158.5 billion in 2004/05, accounting for 18% of Australia’s total

GDP in the period mentioned.

GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, Qld

50000.0

70000.0

90000.0

110000.0

130000.0

150000.0

170000.0

89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05

$mill

ion

Figure 6.2. Gross State product (current prices) – Queensland.


6.1.2 Port of Brisbane

Brisbane, the capital and most populous city in Queensland, is situated at the heart

of south east Queensland, Australia's fastest growing region. It is the third most

populous urban area in Australia, behind Sydney and Melbourne. It hosts the third

largest container port in Australia.

Port of Brisbane

Brisbane



63

Figure 6. 3. Location of Port of Brisbane.

(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006c; Port of Brisbane

Corporation, 2002)

The Port of Brisbane, Australia’s fastest-growing container port, is situated on the

southern side of the mouth of the Brisbane River, just 23 kilometres from the

city’s Central Business District, as shown in Figure 6.3. Other port land and

facilities are located at various sites upriver, including Clunies Flats, Hemmant,

Colmslie, Pinkenba, Eagle Farm and Hamilton. The port provides world-class

cargo-handling and warehousing facilities, and an interface between rail, road and

sea transport at the Brisbane Multimodal Terminal (BMT). Over the past 20 years,

over $1.1 billion has been invested in infrastructure and assets (Port of Brisbane

Corporation, 2005a).

The Port of Brisbane handles 12% of Australia’s container trade and is also one of

the largest general cargo ports in Australia. It is also one of Queensland’s major

assets, handling some 726,145 TEUs and 26 million tonnes in trade during the

2004/2005 financial year (Port of Brisbane Corporation, 2005a).

6.2 Transport Network

6.2.1 Network Connections

Queensland is linked to neighbouring states by a complex transport network,

including direct inland links to its main neighbouring capital city, Sydney (BTRE,

2005). The major connections with New South Wales are the Bruce Highway, the

Flinders Highway, the Landsborough Highway, the Warrego Highway and rail

lines.

This transport network, shown in Figure 6.4, covers the entire state. The state’s

development is supported by connections between major cities within Queensland,

with especially strong links to Brisbane.



64

Figure 6.4. Major Connections in the Queensland transport network

(Map developed from The Queensland Dive Tourism Association Inc, 2005)



65


In 2000/01, 315 million tonnes (93,416.2 million tonne–kilometres) of freight

were moved form Brisbane to all parts of Australia (ABS, 2001). Respective

mode usage is shown in Figure 6.5.

From Figure 6.5, it is evident that in 2001 road and rail networks shared the

overwhelming bulk of total tonnage handled, up to 94.85% together (126.8 and

172 million tonnes respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic

shipping, sea freight accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-

kilometres travelled than for total tonnage moved.

Rail transport handled nearly half of total tonne-kilometres travelled at 45.45%

(42,458.2 million), with road and sea accounting for 20.53% (19,174.1 million)

and 33.97% (31,735.8 million) respectively. It is interesting to note that sea

freight accounts for much higher percentages of both tonnage and tonne-

kilometres in Brisbane’s than in Sydney’s case, and that it is comparable with

road transport. By contrast, air accounted for less than 1% of freight carried.

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, Qld

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

ROAD RAIL SEA AIR

MODE

TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETRES

Figure 6.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode,

Queensland

(Rearranged data sourced from ABS, 2001)



66

From Figure 6.6 it can be seen that almost all (99.35%) of the tonnage transported

by the rail network was for the movement of freight intrastate. Similarly, 95.73%

of tonne-kilometres of rail freight were for intrastate movements.

Rail followed the same pattern with over ninety percent (93.99%) of the total

tonnes moved by road being within the same state. However, in contrast to rail, a

much lower 58.71% of the total tonne-kilometres transported by road was

intrastate freight.

Interestingly, a high proportion of freight movements by sea were intrastate in

nature (78.67% of the total tonne-kilometres travelled and 79.44% of the total

tonnes carried). Unlike other states, road, rail and sea were the major forms of

intrastate freight transport. However, road transport’s percentage of total tonne-

kilometres was much lower.

Compared to other states, Queensland has higher percentages in intrastate

movement of each freight mode;. this also applies to air freight, with 38.05% of

the total tonne-kilometres travelled and 38.1% total tonnes carried on the air

network being intrastate freight.

INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, Qld

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETERS


Queensland.




67


South East Queensland (SEQ), where the Port of Brisbane is located, is the fastest

growing region in Queensland. As the largest and busiest port in SEQ, the Port of

Brisbane plays a significant role in the region’s distribution network. This section

will focus on accessibility within this area.

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68

Figure 6.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in South East

Queensland.

(Map reproduced from Queensland Transport, 2006)

Figure 6.7 shows an extremely concentrated industrial zone surrounding the

Brisbane metropolitan district with industrial zones distributed throughout the

region but clearly sited along the major arteries of the transport network, the

Bruce Highway, the Warrego Highway, the Pacific Highway, the Cunningham

Highway and rail lines.

There are two major inter-modal terminals within SEQ, the Acacia Ridge Freight

(ACR) Terminal and the Brisbane Multi-Modal Terminal (BMT), at Fisherman

Island (Queensland Transport, 2005). As Queensland provides such a well-

connected freight transport network, different areas have different route and mode

options to move freight from industrial enterprises to the port. At the same time,

because SEQ is one of the fastest growing regions in Australia, its transport

network and freight movement needs to be organized directly and efficiently.


terminal (derived from Figure 6.7), by ascending order of magnitude. The study

area encompasses 153 freight zones and 2 inter-modal terminals. Considered in

terms of terminal catchments, 30% of freight zones are within 10 and 20

kilometres of a terminal. For freight zones within 20 kilometres of a terminal, the

access route to the terminal does not greatly affect the whole trip performance, but

for the 40% of zones that are more than 20 kilometres from a terminal, improved

access routes facilitate freight movement.

Distances from Freight Zones

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141Freight Zone Numbers

Dis

tanc

e (K

M)



69


0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Distance Range (KM)

Figure 6.8 Pattern of inter-modal terminal location South East Queensland

6.2.4 Terminal Access Routes

Figure 6.7 shows the main road access routes connecting terminals in inter-modal

movement towards Port of Brisbane, together with their road conditions.

Roads Road Grades

Lanes

Bruce Highway Highway 2 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006l)

Warrego Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006n)

Cunningham Highway National 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006o)

Pacific Motorway Motorway 4 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006p)

Table 6.1 Condition of main access roads of inter-modal terminal


These main roads enable movement of freight for Port of Brisbane from its source

to the Acacia Ridge terminal, where it is shifted from road freight mode to rail

mode.



70


Brisbane’s CBD is more distant from the port than either Sydney or Melbourne

CBD is from theirs. As a result, there is more flexibility in the task of transport

network organization.

Figure 6.9. Proposed access routes of port

(Map reproduced from Queensland Transport, 2005)

Figure 6.9 depicts the Gateway Motorway (route in green), located between

Brisbane’s CBD and the port. A Corridor branching from this motorway provides

access to the port’s facilities, connecting other main freight producing and

industrial zones. Freight transported by rail from the north, west and south is

concentrated by the Acacia Ridge inter-modal terminal. This terminal, located

outside the Brisbane CBD, improves the inter-modal ability of freight zones

surrounding the Brisbane metropolitan area, as well as the Port of Brisbane.

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71


Noise mainly arises from: loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships

movement of cargo within terminals.

This section considers the mouth of the Brisbane River, right behind Fisherman

Island. The port’s facility area is within the yellow shape on the figure.

Figure 6.10. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities at river mouth

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006e)

As Brisbane has a shorter development history than either Sydney or Melbourne,

more advanced modern land use planning has been applied. As shown on the map

(Figure 6.10), the areas in green are parklands or warehouses. Given these huge

green areas, residential areas are distant from the port’s facilities. Consequently,

noise pollution from the port can be buffered.

Port’s facilities

CBD

Port Facilities

CBD



72

Figure 6.11. Noise reduction features: Port of Brisbane facilities closer to CBD

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006f)

The yellow areas in Figure 6.11 are port facilities close to Brisbane city. Noise

pollution is a potentially critical issue in the city’s development. However, the

areas in green, which are parklands and warehouses, fully shield the port facilities,

reducing the impact of noise pollution on residences. For the facilities close to city,

the environmental impacts of rail access include noise, visual intrusive of

potentially social dislocation through alignments cutting communities off.

6.5 Summary

Queensland has a population of 3.9 million population and 2 million full-time

employed persons. Handling 12% of Australia’s container trade, Port of Brisbane

is also one of the largest general cargo ports in Australia and is one of

Queensland’s major assets, handling some 726,145 TEUs and 26 million tonnes in

trade during the 2004/2005 financial year. In Queensland, road and rail networks

share the overwhelming bulk of total tonnage handled, up to 94.85% together

(126.8 and 172 million tonnes respectively) in 2001.

Over 60% of the state’s 153 freight zones are located within 20km of the two

inter-modal terminal catchments in the mainly service area of Port of Brisbane.

There are four main access routes to these terminals, namely the Bruce Highway,

the Cunningham Highway, the Pacific Highway and the Warrego Highway.

Port of Brisbane has one road and one rail access point for its core facility on

Fisherman Island. The port’s other facilities are surrounded by warehouses and

parks which help to buffer noise pollution from the facilities to the residents.

These data will contribute to the analysis in Chapter 8 of the location of inter-

modal terminals.



73

6.6 Deeper study of Port of Brisbane

As there are more available data resources for Port of Brisbane, deeper studies

were undertaken on inland port and accessibility.

6.6.1 Inland port study in Brisbane

Acacia Ridge is the most important Inter-modal terminal in SEQ and indeed in the

whole of Queensland. Located in SEQ's key industrial western corridor, it is

977km from Sydney and 14km from Brisbane (Queensland Transport, 2005).

The terminal at Acacia Ridge plays a key role in interstate business, both on the

North-South and East-West corridors (Pacific National, 2003). The Acacia Ridge

terminal started operations some 30 years ago and has gradually replaced the

South Brisbane and Clapham interstate terminals (Queensland Transport, 2005).

In the new SEQ Regional Plan, initiatives in the Infrastructure Plan include

expanding the capacity of the Acacia Ridge rail terminal (Department of Local

Government, Planning, Sport and Recreation, 2005).

Acacia Ridge has all the characters of an inland port as discussed in the previous

section, e.g. road freight buffer, direct connection to the Port of Brisbane.

However, the Port of Brisbane is now searching for a suitable site to develop its

own inland port to manage its booming growth. What has caused this to happen?

Essentially it is because Acacia Ridge is the only rail terminal in Queensland

connected to the national standard-gauge rail network. The rest of the Queensland

system is narrow gauge. Just to quantify how serious that is, Queensland's

revenues make up about 25 per cent of GSP. Effectively, every cent is earned

through Acacia Ridge (The Australian, 2006). Due to its significant role in the

whole state, the demands upon Acacia Ridge are too great for it to service the Port

of Brisbane on its own. Clearly, the capacity of Acacia Ridge needs to be

extended. However, it will be hard to fully meet the Port’s rocketing demands

even after extensions.



74

INTERMODAL TOTAL DEMAND FOR IMPORTS/EXPORTS 2005/2020, Port of Brisbane

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

450,000

500,000

2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

TEU

s

Brisbane

Max Capacity

Min Capacity

Figure 6.12 Intermodal total demand for imports/exports of Port of Brisbane,

2005-2020

(Queensland Transport, 2005; Meyrick and Associates, 2006)

,Inter-modal demand of the Port of Brisbane is predicted to reach 430,000 TEUs

by 2020, based on the 70,000 TEUs in 2005 with a 12.86% increase each year.

Also, the total capacity of BMT and ACR are decreaseing a maximum from

313,500 TEUs to 183,000 and a minimum from 190,700 to 60,200 TEUs from

2004 to 2026. As a result, Port of Brisbane inter-modal demand (Figure 6.12) will

reach the minimum capacity of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal in 2012 and its

maximum capacity in 2016. This period is the time range for increasing inter-

modal capacity for the Port of Brisbane. Thus, based on current estimates, an

additional inter-modal terminal or inland port is required for Port of Brisbane

between 2012 and 2016.

Two potential inland port sites have been identified:

Bromelton (Colliers International, 2006)

The potential site at Bromelton is located on the interstate rail line, to the west of

Beaudesert and the Mt Lindsay Highway. Its development is dependent on the

provision of the necessary infrastructure to support any such operation as well as

any resulting industries and their needs, i.e. water, roads, electricity. This site may

offer an alternative with little rail infrastructure required, but it does require



75

further upgrading works to the Mt Lindsay Highway to cater for additional road

traffic movements (Queensland Transport, 2005).

Ebenezer/Purga (Department of Local Government, Planning, Sport and

Recreation, 2005)

Ebenezer is located in West Ipswich. The area around Ebenezer has the potential

to provide the best solution for a future inter-modal terminal as it is the only site

in SEQ capable of accommodating larger scale major industry. Significant

industrial development is expected in this area in the longer term. This site’s

potential is highly dependent on provision of a standard gauge rail line to the area

as well as improved narrow gauge rail operations and infrastructure (Queensland

Transport, 2005)

These two sites are the proposed inland ports of Brisbane Port. They have

advantages and disadvantages if they are to fulfil this role. Further research is

needed to evaluate which would provide the better solution, or if they might work

together.

6.6.2 Accessibility of Fisherman Island

Figure 6.13 Access of Fisherman Island.

Fisherman

Island

Bris

bane

Riv

er

Ocean



76

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006j)

As shown in Figure 6.13, Fisherman Island is located at the mouth of the Brisbane

River. It is the centre of the port’s activities, providing world-class cargo-handling

and warehousing facilities, as well as an interface between rail, road and sea

transport at the Brisbane Multimodal Terminal (BMT) (Port of Brisbane

Corporation, 2003).

This facility was built to relocate associated industry away from residential areas,

achieving navigable channel depths without the need for excessive dredging along

the river and optimising use of the Gateway Port area for trade, transport and

industry purposes. With strong average annual growth expected in containers

(6.9%), motor vehicles (4.7%) and bulk (2.9%), trade projections to the year 2025

show anticipated growth in all cargo types (reaching up to 1.9 million TEUs).

Total trade is projected to reach up to 61.4 million tonnes by the year 2025.. (Port

of Brisbane Corporation, 2005b).

However, as shown in the figure, the main facility of Brisbane Port is connected

to the mainland by a two-lane road bridge and a rail line bridge, indicating

potential problems of access.

As shown in Figure 6.13, the Port of Brisbane (PoB) Motorway (Mwy) is a two

lane road. Due to the Port of Brisbane’s heavy freight load, this motorway may be

a bottleneck for the port’s development.

Road LV %HV Volume V/C Max V/C

Gateway Mwy 40425 12% 47917 0.809 0.90

PoB Mwy 12266 28% 17562 0.297 0.90

Table 6.2 Traffic composition and V/C ratios of Brisbane Multimodal Terminal.

(Based on Queensland Transport, 2005)

Table 6.2 shows the results of a Volume/Capacity (V/C) study of roads connected

to the port in which the Port of Brisbane Motorway achieved 0.297 of V/C. As



77

this is much less than the Max V/C (0.90), the Port’s two lane road is still far from

being a bottleneck. However, the V/C of the Gateway Motorway connected to the

Port of Brisbane Motorway is very considerable, with 0.809 of Max V/C (0.90).

The State Government has addressed this problem in the SEQ Regional Plan. The

government is:

proceeding with the Gateway Upgrade Project which will

provide for a new duplicate bridge over the River (that is, 6

lanes in each direction), upgrading to either 6 (section south

of Wynnum Road) or 8 lanes (Wynnum Road to the Bridge)

on the Southside and a new 4 lane diversion on the Northside

(thus providing an 8 lane capacity from the Bridge to Nudgee

Road). The SEQ infrastructure Plan also provides for

completion of the Port Motorway to 4 lanes for its entire

length to the port within 10 years. (Queensland Transport,

2005)

The infrastructure plan will increase the road capacity and the accessibility of the

port by potentially reducing the congestion issue. However, an associated plan

should be developed to address the additional traffic and potential traffic delays in

the construction phase, so that reliable access to the port is maintained.



78


Chapter 7 Port of Fremantle

79

Chapter 7

Port of Fremantle

7.1 Introduction

Chapter 7 examines the inter-modal freight performance of the Port of Fremantle

related transport system by analysing the elements listed in the Inter-modal

Freight Transport and Regional Development Model in Chapter 2. It investigates

detailed information and descriptions of the Port of Fremantle and the

performance of its inter-modal network with regard to terminal location. The

factors considered include population and employment, freight movement, mode

share, transport networks, locations of industrial zones, available routes, access to

ports and noise pollution.

7.1.1 Western Australia

Western Australia (WA), Australia’s largest state, occupies 2,532,482.5 km2

(Australian Bureau of Statistics - ABS, 2005a), and has a total population of 2

million people (ABS, 2006a) and 1 million employed (ABS, 2005b) (Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1 Location of Western Australia

(Captured from Wikipedia, 2006e)

halla




80

Western Australia’s striking growth of over 250% in Gross State Product (GSP) in

the last 15 years is shown in the Figure 7.2. GSP rose from AUS$39.7 billion in

1989/90 to AUS$100.9 billion in 2004/05. This significant contribution to

Australia’s economy accounted for 11.3% of total Australia GDP in the period

shown.

GROSS STATE PRODUCT, Current prices, WA

35000.0

45000.0

55000.0

65000.0

75000.0

85000.0

95000.0

105000.0

89/90 94/95 99/00 04/05

$mill

ion

Figure 7.2. Gross State Product (current prices) – Western Australia


7.1.2 Port of Fremantle

Perth is the state capital and most populous city of Western Australia (Figure 7.3).

In June 2004, Perth became the fourth largest city in Australia. It hosts the largest

and busiest port of Western Australia.

As the city with the largest and busiest container port in Western Australia, Perth

is the natural transport hub for WA. It is located at the junction of South West

WA’s major road and rail network, providing excellent access to South Australia,

extending to Victoria and even the east coast of the Australian mainland.

For more than 100 years, the Port of Fremantle has played a key role in Western

Australia’s economic growth. As a major general cargo port, it is a trading

gateway to the world for importers and exporters with handling 467,313 TEUs

containerised cargos in 2005. The Port of Fremantle is undoubtedly one of the



81

state’s significant individual sources of jobs and revenue, directly and indirectly

accounting for an estimated 5,792 jobs and $728 million in economic output

annually in 2000 (Port of Fremantle Corporation, 2000).

Figure 7.3. Location of Port of Fremantle.

(Map developed from ASMOF, 2003; Thompson, 2006d; Port of Fremantle

Corporation, 2005)


7.2.1 Network connections

Western Australia (WA) is linked to the neighbouring state by a direct inland link,

the Trans Australia Railway, to Adelaide from Perth. It is also an important

interstate railway line connecting WA to other states.

The major connections to South Australia are the Eyre Highway and the Trans

Australia Railway (BTRE, 2005), which support the state’s development with

connections to other major cities within Western Australia, and especially strong

links to Perth.

Port of Fremantle

Perth



82

Kewdale

Picton

Major Freight Origins

Inter-modal Terminals

Study Area

Figure 7.4. Major resource areas and major connections in transport network of

Western Australia

(Map reproduced from Ozhorizons, 2006; SKM, 2004; Bovis Lend Lease, 2005; Department of Industry and Resources, 2003, 2004, 2005)



83

As an important part of the freight transport chain, regional inter-modal terminals

are located around freight centres to support the transport system. Five regional

inter-modal terminals in the port’s main service area provide more mode choices

for local industries to move freight to the port.

7.5.2 Freight Transport Mode Share

In 2000/01, 138.1 million tonnes and 33,348.9 million tonne-kilometres of freight

were moved from Port of Fremantle all over Australia (ABS, 2001).

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS CARRIED BY MODE, WA.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

ROAD RAIL SEA AIR

MODE

TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETRES

Figure 7.5. Percentage of total state freight movements carried by mode, WA.


From Figure 7.5, it can be ascertained that road and rail networks were

responsible for almost all the tonnage handled, up to 97.69% together (105.4 and

195.8 million tonnes respectively). Due to the long average hauls for domestic

shipping, sea freight accounted for a much higher proportion of total tonne-

kilometres travelled than for total tonnage moved.

Rail transport handled the highest proportion of total tonne-kilometres transported

at 57.31% (60,428.8 million). Sea transport carried 31.95% (33,691.1 million),

while road transport’s share was extremely low, accounting for only 10.7%

(11,280.5 million). It is interesting to note that the proportion of freight by sea is



84

much higher than road, compared with other states. The least important mode, air,

accounted for less than 1% of freight carried.

INTRASTATE FREIGHT MOVEMENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CARRIED BY MODE, WA.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


TONNES

TONNE-KILOMETERS


WA


Virtually all (99.24%) of the tonnage of goods transported by the road network

was for the movement of freight intrastate, as indicated in Figure 7.6. However, a

lower proportion of tonne-kilometres of rail freight (79.61%) was for intrastate

movements.

The pattern for rail was similar, with nearly all (99.54%) of the total tonnes

moved by rail being within the state. Furthermore, 94.47% of the total tonne-

kilometres travelled by rail was for freight that was moved intrastate. As in other

states, road and rail were the two major transport modes in intrastate freight

movement. The only difference is that both road and rail modes were responsible

for a significantly higher proportion of intrastate movement.

A minority of freight movements by sea were intrastate in nature (13.83% of the

total tonne-kilometres travelled and 3.66% of the total tonnes carried).

On the air network, freight movement intrastate accounted for 2.67% of the total

tonne-kilometres travelled and 6.25% of total tonnes.



85


Figure 7.7. Industrial zone sites and inter-modal terminal network in Southwest

Western Australia.

(Map based on figure 7.4)

The industrial zones depicted in Figure 7.7, including the extremely concentrated

industrial zones located near the Perth metropolitan area, are spread throughout

the study area. However, it is important to note that industrial zones are clustered

along the main arteries of the transport network like the Great Northern Highway,

the Brand Highway, the Great Eastern Highway, the Albany Highway, the Eyre

Highway and rail lines.

In addition, there are five road-railway inter-modal terminals on the map, of

which four (namely Kalgoorlie-Boulder, Kewdale, North Fremantle, Picton and

Rottnest Island) are located around the Port of Fremantle and the other sites in

mid-south Western Australia. The remaining site is in Kalgoorlie-Boulder,

adjacent to the highly concentrated cluster of mining zones and the Trans

Australia Railway. Given this location, freight from the area largely abandons rail

Kewdale

Picton

Major Resource areas and Freight Origins

Inter-modal Terminals

Study Area



86

transport, instead using the road network to deliver freight to other industrial areas

or to the port which results in the movement costly (McKimm, 2006).

7.2.4 Terminal access routes

Since there is only one inter-modal terminal located surrounding the significant

freight zone, while the others are on-dock terminals, the access route condition of

such terminal are not comparable and does not contribute to this research. In this

case, port accessibility becomes more important than in the other case studies.


Figure 7.8. Proposed port access routes

(Map reproduced from MapInfo & GeoScience Australia, 2006)

From Figure 7.8 it can be seen that there is only one main road, the Leach

Highway, which goes through the port facility. This corridor provides access

between port facilities, connected industrial zones and other main roads, railways

and terminals. A rail freight route also connects the port’s facilities and industrial

halla




87

zones. While road and rail networks provide access to Perth’s industrial and

distribution centres, an existing inter-modal terminal is located on the north of the

port’s facilities to support the Port of Fremantle’s heavy daily load. It handles the

freight from port to almost all the industrial zones in the state.


Noise mainly arises from: loading of cargo to and from trains, trucks and ships as

well as the movement of cargo within terminals.

Figure 7.9. Locations of studied areas of the Port of Fremantle.

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006g)

Port of Fremantle Inter-modal Terminal

Indian Ocean

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

Port of Fremantle

Perth



88

Figure 7.10. Operations reducing noise pollution from port’s facility and its Inter-

modal terminal.

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006h)

From Figure 7.10, it is evident that almost all the north facility of the Port (zone in

yellow) is on the ocean. The rest is neighbouring an inter-modal terminal (zone in

blue) and a spare container yard (zone in green) which isolates the port from

residential zones. However, a rail freight line (shown in white) passes between the

inter-modal terminal and the residential zone. Noise pollution from the rail line

can be a considerable issue.

Figure 7.11. Operations of reducing noise pollution from facilities.

(Figure developed from original pictures from Google Earth, 2006i)

The southern facilities of the port, sited in a busy suburb, face the same problem

of a rail line (shown in white in Figure 7.11) on their periphery, but with a huge

Port of Fremantle



89

zone of warehouses and shopping centres located in the area between the

residential area and the port, noise pollution for port is perfectly buffered.

7.5 Summary

Western Australia has a population of 2 million , of whom 1 million are employed.

Handling 467,313 TEUs containerised cargos in 2005, Port of Fremantle also

contributed AU$728 million in economic output annually in 2000. Road and rail

networks were responsible for almost all the tonnage handled of freight movement,

up to 97.69%.

There is only one inter-modal terminal located in a surrounding the freight zone,

at Kalgoorlie-Boulder; others are on-dock terminals. The use of rail is low and

costly, due to such poor locations of the on-dock terminals. The inter-modal

freight transport conditions do not enable optimum performance of Port of

Fremantle’s inter-modal system.

These data will contribute to the data analysis in Chapter 8 examining the location

of inter-modal terminals.



90


Chapter 8 Discussion

91

Chapter 8

Location evaluation: Four case studies

8.1 Introduction Chapter 8 analyses the data obtained in the four selected case studies, using as a

basis the Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development model

presented in Chapter 2. The elements selected are: Freight Generation Indicators

(population, employment and ports product growth); Mode Choice Indicators

(mode share, firms location and terminal location pattern); and Route Choice

Indicators (terminal access route, port accessibility and environmental issues). By

comparing the four cases, the advantages and disadvantages of each are

highlighted here.

8.2 Freight generation analysis 8.2.1 Population and employment growth

Population

Australia’s population experienced a significant increase in the last fifty years,

from 9 million in 1954 to 20 million in 2004 (ABS, 2006). This represents a 200

per cent increase. However, different States have experienced different population

growth rates.

Figure 8.1 shows that population growth has not occurred evenly across the

country as the proportion of Australia’s population resident in each state and

territory has changed over time. From 1954 to 2004 the proportion of the

Australian population living within New South Wales, the most populous state,

increased from 3.4 million to 6.7 million and that of Victoria from 2.5 to 5

million. Other states also show an increase over this time. The proportion of

Australia’s population living in Queensland increased from 1.3 million in 1954 to

3.9 million in 2004. Likewise, during the same period Western Australia

experienced an increase from 0.6 million to 2 million (ABS, 2006).



92

POPULATION GROWTH OF SELECTED STATES

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004

YEAR

POPU

LATI

ON

GR

OW

TH (m

illio

n

NSWVic.QldWA

Figure 8.1 Population of Selected Australia States 1954-2004.

(Data sourced from ABS, 2006)

Employment

Employment also increased during this fifty year period of rapid Australian

population growth, as shown in Figure 8.2.

Employment Percentage of Population, 2001-2004

45.0%

45.5%

46.0%

46.5%

47.0%

47.5%

48.0%

48.5%

49.0%

49.5%

50.0%

2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Perc

enta

ge o

f Pop

ulat

ion NSW

Vic.

Qld

WA

Figure 8.2. Percentage of population in employment 2001-2004

(Data rearranged from ABS, 2006; ABS, 2005b)



93

Western Australia had the greatest proportion of the population employed, with

49.8% in 2004. In contrast to Western Australia, New South Wales had the lowest

percentage of the population in employment at 47.1%. The percentage of people

in employment in Queensland overtook that for Victoria in 2003, and now ranks

second in the country. Queensland and Victoria were 48.6% and 48.2% in

employment respectively in 2004.

Although New South Wales had the largest employable population (3.8 million

between the ages of 16 and 55) in Australia, at 56.2% of the total state population,

this was less than the 57.8% (1.1 million) of total state population employable in

Western Australia. Victoria and Queensland had similar employable populations,

2.8 million (56.9%) and 2.2 million (56.7%) respectively.

8.2.2 Ports product growth

Product Growth of Selected Ports, Total Containerised Cargo

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

000'

TEU

s

SydneyMelbourneBrisbaneFremantle

Figure 8.3 Product growth of selected ports

(Data Resourced from Bureau of Transport and Regional Services, 2006)

Australia’s ports have experienced a significant increase in growth during the last

ten years. Figure 8.3 shows the growth of selected ports investigated in the case

studies. The Port of Melbourne leads in the total number of containerised cargoes,

increasing from a base of 0.81 million TEUs in 1994 to 1.91 million TEUs in

2005. Similar to Melbourne, the Port of Sydney handled 0.59 million TEUs in

1994 and 1.38 million TEUs in 2005. The Port of Brisbane and the Port of

Fremantle have increased the total number of containerised cargoes generally,



94

from 0.23 and 0.17 million TEUs in 1994 to 0.73 and 0.47 million TEUs,

respectively.

The populations of the studied states rank in order New South Wales, Victoria,

Queensland and Western Australia, with employment rates in a narrow range from

46% to 50%. Comparing freight generation indictors (population and employment)

and freight traffic demand indicators (product of port), the Port of Sydney ranks

second after the Port of Melbourne. The main reason for this is that 85% of the

freight demand of Port of Sydney is within a 50 kilometre radius from the port,

while Port of Melbourne demand is from the whole of Victoria. Brisbane has a

higher output than Fremantle because these ports serve the freight centre area of

states with the same relationship between population and employment and product

of port.

8.3 Mode choice analysis 8.3.1 Freight transport mode share

National mode share

Figure 8.4 compares the share of Australian freight-kilometres carried by each

mode of transport in the four states studied.

TONNE-KILOMETRES TRAVELLED BY MODE, Mode Share, 2001

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

NSW Vic. Qld WA

State/Territory of origin

RoadRailSeaAir

Figure 8.4. Tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001.




95

Freight originating in New South Wales accounted for 30% of the total tonne-

kilometres travelled by road (26,440 million). New South Wales has a heavier

road freight duty which requires a better road network condition than other States.

Rail and sea freight originating in Western Australia represented 45% and 35%

respectively of the total tonne-kilometres travelled by those modes of transport.

When combined, rail and sea freight in Queensland and Western Australia

accounted for 77% and 68% of each. Since Queensland is the faster developing

state according to its employment rate shown in Figure 8.2, its higher share rate of

rail and sea freight movement indicates that the rail system and the port facility

are in higher demand and potentially need improvement. Western Australia

developed with the highest domestic rail and sea mode share, resulting from its

offshore mining resource locations and the poor location of its rail terminal, as

discussed in the case study. Air freight originating in New South Wales and

Victoria combined accounted for over half of all tonne-kilometres travelled on the

air network.

Intrastate Movement

Intrastate movement is freight movement with both origin and destinations within

the same state. The following bar graph provides an overview of intrastate freight

movement percentage in each transport modes in each state studied (ABS, 2001).

Tonne-Kilometres, Intrastate Movement, 2001

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

NSW Vic. Qld WA

ROADRAILSEAAIR

Figure 8.5. Intrastate tonne-kilometres travelled by mode in 2001



96


Queensland and Western Australia clearly led in intrastate movement by rail,

accounting for 95.7% and 94.5% respectively. New South Wales followed with

75.9%, ahead of Victoria at 21.3%. Road transport was similar, with the same

ranking in intrastate movement in 2001. Sea freight transport accounted for 79.4%

of Queensland’s intrastate freight movement in contrast to other states which had

no more than 5% intrastate movements by sea. Similarly, 30% of intrastate

movement in Queensland were by air, compared with almost none in other states.

The data indicate that rail freight was in high demand in Australian interstate

freight movement, except in Victoria. Both road and rail freight were in extremely

high demand in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia, while

Queensland had a more even demand for all modes of transport.

In Western Australia, the most important industry is mining because of Western

Australia’s abundant mineral resources (Department of Industry and Resources,

2005). From mine sites to export ports, freight contributes a significant proportion

to intrastate movement (Department of Industry and Resources, 2005). In the case

of Victoria, the low intrastate demand for freight services arises from its highly

developed manufacturing industry, which supplies products to the rest of

Australia. Thus, raw material imports and products sent interstate account for a

considerable proportion of freight movement from Victoria. Queensland, a

booming developing state, has experienced balanced growth, which leads to

balanced freight and transport mode demand. Besides, sea mode was an important

mode in supporting North Queensland’s communication with the Southern

Queensland. Air freight’s contribution should not be ignored either.

Summary

This research focuses on road and rail freight modes. As the state of freight

movement is outlined in this section, the higher demand freight modes are

presented combined with the freight movement demand results. Road transport is

in higher demand in Victoria for its manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs.

On the other hand, rail freight is in higher demand in Western Australia for its

mining industry’s movement between mineral sites and export ports. In these



97

cases, the significant industry in the state affects freight transport, for example,

road/rail mode demand. In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of

industrial zones are important factors in freight movement and choice of transport

mode.

8.3.2 Terminal location pattern In this research, all study zones are potential freight origins for the transport of

goods towards selected ports. The origin location patterns differ from case to case,

as shown in Figure 8.6 and Table 8.1. These are discussed below.

Case Study Areas Zones’ Location Pattern Description Port of

Sydney

In Sydney Metropolitan within 40 km of the port

The industrial zones are highly concentrated within 50 km of the port. A few industrial zones are located between the port’s two facilities ( Figure 4.8).

About 50% of total industrial zones are sited within 20-30 km of the port while a linear zone is sited along the transport artery from Western Sydney.

Port of

Melbourne

Throughout the state of Victoria

A particularly concentrated industrial zone is located near Melbourne. The other zones are spread over all the state along main transport routes (Figure 5.7).

Industrial zones in Victoria develop with good access to the transport network leading to Melbourne.

Port of

Brisbane

Within South East Queensland

An extremely concentrated industrial zone surrounds Brisbane, while industrial zones are spread over the entire SEQ region (Figure 6.7).

Recently the fastest growing region , SEQ’s network access is provided for industrial sites which are developing along networks.

Port of

Fremantle

South West Western Australia

Including the highly focused industrial zones located near Perth; the other zones are spread over all the study area with few transport routes.. (Figure 7.7).

Since mineral resources are spread through Western Australia, freight infrastructure is mainly built for the well developed mining industry.

Table 8.1 Freight origin location patterns in selected inter-modal systems



98


0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

0 20 40 60 80 100

Distance Range (KM)

SydneyMelbourneBrisbane

Figure 8. 6 Percentage of terminal catchments in distance range

Figure 8.6 shows the percentage of terminal catchments in the distance ranges 0 to

100 kilometres. From the available data, within 20 kilometres seems to be a

preferred distance range to access a terminal: approximately 70% of freight zones

were found to be within 20 kilometres of terminals in the Port of Sydney,

Melbourne and Brisbane studies. More distant catchments have a lower

percentage of freight zones located within them. Particularly in the case study of

Sydney, almost all freight zones are located within a 30 kilometre terminal

catchment. Goods from freight zones in Sydney are closer to terminals compared

with the larger catchments in the Melbourne and Brisbane case studies.

8.4 Route choice analysis 8.4.1 Terminal access routes

The discussion of terminal access routes concerns the available freight modes and

infrastructure (especially inter-modal terminals) between points of origin and

terminals (ARA, 2004).



99

Case Study Areas Available Infrastructure Connect to Terminals

Port of Sydney

In Sydney Metropolitan within 40 km of the port

M4, Great Western Highway and Hume Highway

Camellia, Yennora, Villawood, Chullora and Enfield

Port of Melbourne

Throughout Victoria State

Sunraysia Highway, Western Highway, Calder Highway and Princes Highway

Birchip, Ballarat, Horsham, Charlton, Warragul and terminals surrounding Melbourne Metropolitan

Port of Brisbane

Within South East Queensland region

Bruce Highway, Warrego Highway, Cunningham Highway and Pacific Highway

Acacia Ridge

Table 8.2 Terminal access route connections

The inter-modal terminals supporting industrial zones are situated along rail lines

and close to highways or motorways. The highways/motorways are invariably

built along rail lines (for example, the Great Western Highway in Western Sydney,

the Hume Highway in Victoria, the Bruce Highway in SEQ and the Great Eastern

Highway in south-west Western Australia). This infrastructure style gives

industrial corporations many choices for freight movement. The mode chosen will

depend on which is easier to access and more suitable in terms of time and

distance for freight (Rietveld et al., 1998).

Road grades and lanes are the important elements in choosing routes. The higher

grade of roads or/and more lanes provide higher travel speeds because of their

potentially better accessibility and priority. In the case study of Port of Sydney,

the M4 and the Hume Highway are motorway and national highway. They have

higher priority in freight movement which make them the main routes for freight

vehicles accessing terminals. The Great Western Highway has a lower road grade

but its four lanes in the urban section increase its accessibility. In the case study of

Port of Melbourne, in the national road category, the Western Highway is a better

choice than the Sunraysia, although the Sunraysia has the same number of lanes.

In Queensland, the higher road grade Pacific Motorway and Cunningham

Highway are the important routes communicating with northern New South Wales.



100

Case Road Road Grade

Lane numbers

M4 Motorway From 4 to 6 lanes, and in some areas 8 lanes (SWR, 2005)

Great Western Highway

Highway 4 lanes in urban section (Wikipedia, 2006i)

Port of

Sydney Hume Highway National 2 lanes. (MG, 2004)

Sunraysia Highway

Highway 2 lanes (Answers Corporation, 2006)

Western Highway

National 2 lanes (KG, 2002)

Calder Highway Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006j)

Port of

Melbourne

Princes Highway

Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006k)

Bruce Highway Highway 2 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006l)

Warrego Highway

Highway 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006n)

Cunningham Highway

National 2 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006o)

Port of

Brisbane Pacific

Motorway Motorway 4 to 6 lanes (Wikipedia, 2006p)

Table 8.3. The competing roads presented in the case studies, comparing their

road grades and lane numbers

(Based on case studies in previous chapters)

The condition of access roads is important since they connect industrial zones and

terminals at the beginning of the trip. At the end of the trip, access to ports is

another issue of considerable importance for freight movement.

8.4.2 Port accessibility Since the studied ports are located in capital cities, access is a significant problem

when freight goes through crowded metropolitan areas to ports. Sometimes this

can create bottlenecks in the continuing development of ports. The access points

of main port facilities are shown in Table 8.4.



101

Case Annual Port

Product in 2005

Study Areas

No. of Road

AccessPoints

No. of Rail

Access Points

Comments

White Bay & Darling Harbour

2

1

Freight travels through the crowded metropolitan area.

Port of Sydney

1.38 million TEUs

Botany Bay 2

1

Facility is surrounded by industrial zones.

Port Melbourne

3

2

Huge inter-modal terminals isolate port from the metropolitan area.

Port of Melbourne

1.91 million TEUs

Port Phillip 2

0

West Gate Freeway goes through the facility.

Port of

Brisbane

0.73 million

TEUs

Fisherman

Island

1

1

Fisherman Island is isolated from the mainland. The only connection is a bridge with one road and one rail line.

Port of

Fremantle

0.47 million

TEUs

Fremantle

1

1

The port’s main facility is relatively isolated. Freight travels over a bridge connecting two facilities.

Table 8.4. Access points of ports’ main facilities

Sydney and Melbourne have more access routes to their ports than Brisbane and

Fremantle, which have one road access and one rail access only to their main

facilities. The 2005 data shows that the total number of access points is an

indication of a port’s annual product. The Ports of Sydney and Melbourne, with 6

and 7 access points respectively, lead the other ports in annual product (1.38

million TEUs and 1.91 million TEUs respectively), while the Ports of Brisbane

and Fremantle, with two access points each to their main facilities, have lower

annual products (0.73 million TEUs and 0.47 million TEUs).

In conclusion, the number of access points determines the freight destination

accessibility for each of the four case studies presented here. Limited access

points or routes and mode access can be a bottleneck for future port development.



102

On the other hand, more access points enhance the prospects of a port’s

development.

8.4.3 Environmental issues Air pollution

Air pollution is a significant problem in the freight movement process.

Environmentally-unfriendly materials released into the air by vehicles are

damaging the health and environments of plants, animals and human beings. Rail

transport releases less environmentally-damaging materials (Fenger, et al., 1999)

and can be considered an environmental friendly mode of transport. Its level of

usage (rail mode percentage in all modes) is used as an indicator of the air

pollution level of a transport system (Department of Transport, 1998). The higher

the usage of rail transport, the more environmentally friendly the transport system

is. On the other hand, the ability to move freight from road to rail depends on the

nature of the freight tasks.

Rail Freight Usage in Selected States, 2001

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

NSW Vic. Qld WA

Mill

ion

Tonn

es-K

ilom

etre

s

Figure 8.7. Rail Mode Usage of States in 2001.


Figure 8.7 compares rail freight usage in various states in 2001. The ranking of

tonne-kilometres was: first Western Australia (60.4 million tonnes-kilometres),

then Queensland (42.5 million tonnes-kilometres), New South Wales (19.7



103

million tonnes-kilometres) and Victoria (6.2 million tonnes-kilometres). As a

result, Queensland and Western Australia’s freight movement caused

proportionally less air pollution impact, since they achieved about 80% of total

rail usage. In Victoria, with the less than 5% rail usage, air pollution impact was

relatively higher. For environmental reasons, it is recommended that rail mode

share in Victoria be increased.

Noise pollution

Noise pollution is also a problem in the freight movement process, especially

when goods are being loaded at port facilities. Noise from transport and port

machines harms residents’ hearing, sleep and working health. Many strict rules

have been introduced to ensure ports’ co-operation, such as noise control by time,

noisy section relocation and so on. However, natural noise-buffering operations

are preferred in Australia, with examples as discussed in the four port studies.

Shown in Figure 8.8 are the noise-buffering operations of the case studies. The

areas in yellow are the port facilities. Between residential areas and the port there

is a series of forest parks, container terminal sites, parklands and warehouses

which block noise pollution from the port’s main operations section.



104

Figure 8.8. Reduction of noise pollution from port facilities

Melbourne Ports

Melbourne City

Phillip Bay

Port of Brisbane

CBD

Port of Fremantle

Inter-modal Terminal

Darling Harbour

White Bay

Port of Sydney



105

Where there is not enough space to put in any buffers, such as at the facility in

Sydney, another measure is the location of the port at a lower level than adjoining

residential areas, which helps to reduce noise pollution in limited spaces. When a

port’s facilities are developed extremely close to the CBD, for example

Melbourne, its huge freight terminal yards and container terminal sites act as

noise buffers between residential areas and port facilities. In Port of Fremantle an

inter-modal terminal is sited next to the port and transfers freight between modes

for the port’s daily freight movement. This terminal and a warehouse zone

separate the port from residential areas. However, the rail line which gives access

to the port and terminal runs through the gap between the terminal and the

residential area and noise pollution from this rail line is a considerable problem

impacting the continued development of the port (Fremantle Ports, 2007).

8.5 Summary The states discussed in this study rank in order of population size, New South

Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia. Their employment rates are

similar, 46% to 50%. In a comparison of freight generation (population and

employment) and freight traffic demand indicators (product of port), product of

Port of Sydney ranked second after the Port of Melbourne, mainly for the reason

that 85% of Port of Sydney freight demand is within a 50 kilometres radius of the

port, whereas Port of Melbourne is utilised by the whole of Victoria. Brisbane has

a higher output than Fremantle because these ports serve the freight centre area of

states having the same relationship between population and employment and

product of port of the state.

The analysis of mode choice involved the presentation of higher demand freight

modes combined with freight movement demand results to assess the state of

freight movement. Road transport was seen to be in higher demand in Victoria for

its manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs. On the other hand, rail freight

was in higher demand in Western Australia for mining industry movement

between mineral sites and processing factories. In these cases, the significant

industry in the state affects freight transport, for example, road/rail mode demand.

In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of industrial zones are

important factors in freight movement and choice of transport mode.



106

The available data indicate that within 20 kilometres seems to be a preferred

terminal access range: about 70% of freight zones are within 20 kilometres of

terminals in Port of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane studies. As over 95% of

freight zones in Sydney are within 30 kilometres of a terminal, goods from freight

zones in Sydney are handier to access terminals compared with the more distant

catchments in the Melbourne and Brisbane cases.

Terminal access routes depend on the available freight modes and infrastructure

(especially inter-modal terminals) between origins and the terminals. In the case

study of Port of Sydney, the M4 and Hume Highway are motorway and national

highway. Their higher priority in freight movement make them the main freight

vehicle access routes to terminals. The Great Western Highway has a lower road

grade but the four lanes in its urban section increase its accessibility. In the case

study of Port of Melbourne, the Western highway is a better choice than the

Sunraysia in the national road category, even though the Sunraysia Highway has

the same number of lanes. In Queensland, the Pacific Motorway and the

Cunningham Highway, with higher road grades, are the important routes

connecting Queensland with northern New South Wales.

As a considerable problem of freight transport, four case studies indicate that the

number of access points determines freight accessibility to destinations. Limited

access points or routes and limited mode access can be a bottleneck for future port

development; on the other hand, more access points facilitate a port’s

development.

Air pollution levels in freight transport can be indicated by rail mode usage.

Freight movement in Queensland (42.5 million tonnes-kilometres) and Western

Australia (60.4 million tonnes-kilometres) caused less air pollution impact, since

they achieved about 80% rail usage. In Victoria (6.2 million tonnes-kilometres),

with less than 5% rail usage, air pollution impact was relatively higher. For

environmental reasons, rail mode share in Victoria is recommended to be

increased. Noise pollution between residential areas and port is ameliorated by a

series of forest parks, container terminal sites, parklands and warehouses which

block noise pollution from the port’s main operations section.


Chapter 9 Conclusions and further research

107

Chapter 9

Conclusions and further research

9.1 Conclusions

Inter-modal terminals, necessary for the transhipment of unit loads from one mode

to another, are very important in the transport chain (Macharis en Verbeke, 1999).

This research has studied the key elements in both four steps strategic modelling

and the Transport and Regional Development Model and aggregated these key

elements into a new Inter-modal Freight Transport and Regional Development

Model. It undertook a study of the principal Australian sea ports and their inter-

modal systems as a starting point for an evaluation of terminal location in

Australia. The Ports of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Fremantle are the

product/attraction centres of their inter-modal systems which contain road-rail

inter-modal terminals that serve the ports.

The case-studies started with the state and port’s freight generation as indicated by

population and employment factors. This was followed by a study of the major

transport connection to the port and intra-state and national freight transport mode

share. Terminal location pattern studied the distance from freight zone centroid to

the closest inter-modal terminal in order to examine the radius of the inter-modal

terminal catchment level of each inter-modal system. Terminal access routes

presented available modes and inter-modal routes heading from freight zones to

port. Since the route from terminal to the port is fixed by the railway, the inter-

modal terminal access route becomes important in the performance of the whole

trip. Seaport accessibility and its environmental impacts are potentially the bottle-

neck of the port’s development.

The results of the case-studies showed that the differential performance of ports

can be explained by the studied elements. Starting from freight generation, the

population of studied states ranked as New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland

and Western Australia while product of Port of Sydney ranked behind that of Port

of Melbourne and ahead of Brisbane and Fremantle. The main reason for this was

seen to be that 85% of the freight demand of Port of Sydney is within a 50

kilometres radius of the port whereas Port of Melbourne serves the whole of



108

Victoria. The case of Brisbane has a higher output than Fremantle was explained

by the fact that these ports serve the freight centre area of states with the same

relationship between population and employment and product of port of the state.

In mode choice analysis, road transport was in higher demand in Victoria for its

manufacturing industry’s inputs and outputs. On the other hand, rail freight was in

higher demand in Western Australia for its mining industry’s movement between

mineral sites and processing factories. In these cases, the significant industry in

the state affects freight transport, for example, road/rail mode demand.

In addition, the origins of freight and the locations of industrial zones are

significant factors in freight movement and choice of transport mode. From the

available data, within 20 kilometres seems to be the preferred distance range to

access the terminals. It was seen in the Port of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane

studies that about 70% of freight zones are within 20 kilometres of a terminal.

Furthermore, investigation of terminal access route showed the terminal

connection condition in each study area.

Limited access points, routes or mode access can be a bottleneck for future port

development; on the other hand, more access points remove this bottle-neck and

can be an indicator of a port’s performance. In considering environmental issues,

it was seen that the air pollution level in freight transport can be indicated by rail

mode usage. Queensland and Western Australia’s freight movement showed a

higher total rail usage (80%) than other states, compared with less than 5% in

Victoria. Rail mode share in Victoria is therefore recommending to be increased.

For noise pollution, a series of noise buffers such as forest parks, container

terminal sites, parklands and warehouses have been used to minimise the noise

impact on residential areas. This is helping in blocking noise pollution from the

port’s main operations section

9.2 Further Research

1. Modelling the impact of extensions of port infrastructure to accommodate

future demand. For example, should new “inland ports” be built and if so

where should they be located? To arrive at an answer, the future freight

demand of a port with optional inland ports must be predicted. Transport



109

network improvement and environmental impacts should be involved in the

later modelling.

2. Location of “inland ports” in the major urban areas of Sydney, Melbourne

and Brisbane. Traffic, environment and vision impacts will be involved in

this study and the significant traffic demand increases caused by new inland

ports in urban transport network must be predicted. Modelling of

interchanges will also be necessary.



110

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