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Prescription Opioid Abuse and Dependence
Usoa E. Busto, Pharm.D.
Beth Sproule, Pharm. D.
Bruna Brands, Ph.D.
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
October 18, 2004
Prescription Opioids
• Prescription opioids are widely used for pain management and bring important improvements in quality of life
• However most opioid medications have a potential to be abused and cause dependence
• e.g. morphine, hydromorphone, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and codeine
Prescription Opioids
The challenge is to balance the need to make psychotropic medications readily available for therapeutic use while minimizing the risk of their abuse.
Annual Numbers of New Nonmedical Users of
Psychotherapeutics: 1965-2000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Th
ou
san
ds
of
New
Use
rs
Pain Relievers
Tranquilizers
Stimulants
Sedatives
Source: National Survey on Drug Abuse, 2001
Narcotic Painkiller Admissions, by Age:
1997 and 2002
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Age of Admission
No
. o
f A
dm
issi
on
s (0
00s) 1997
2002
Source: The DASIS Report, Treatment Admissions Involving
Narcotic Painkillers: 2002 Update
Current Use of Prescription Drugs for Nonmedical
Purposes in 1999
1
1.4
2.7
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Stimulants Sedatives andTranquilizers
Pain Relievers
Mil
lio
ns
of
Am
eric
ans
Source: Office of Applied Studies, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1999
Promotional Spending for Three Opioid Analgesics
in First 6 Years of Sales
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
Ab
solu
te D
olla
rs in
Mill
ion
s, 2
002
Adj
uste
d MS Contin: 1984-1989OxyContin: 1996-2001Duragesic: 1991-1996
Source: United States GAO-04-110 Report to Congressional Requesters, Oxytocin
Abuse and Diversion and Efforts to Address the Problem
Estimated numbers (in thousands) and percentages of persons reporting past year use of, past year abuse
of, or dependence on opioids and tranquilizers
Number Percent (pop)
Percent (pop)
Percent (users)
Percent (pop)
Percent (users)
Opioids 8353 3.7 0.4 11.8 0.3 7.9
Tranquilizers 3673 1.6 0.1 6.6 0.1 3.2
Past year users Past year abuse
or dependence
Past year dependence
Source: J. Zacny et al, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 69, (2003) 215-232
Terminology
“Substance Abuse” used broadly
Any use Substance use disorders
DSM-IV DependenceAny 3 of:• tolerance• withdrawal• uses more or longer than intended• unable to cut down • use consumes a great deal of time • important social/work activities
given up• continued use despite
psychological or physical problems known to be caused by substance
DSM-IV AbuseAny 1 of:• recurrent use causing failure to
fulfill major role obligations at work/home/school
• recurrent use when physically hazardous
• recurrent substance-related legal problems
• continued use despite persistent social/interpersonal problems due to substance use
Prescription Opioid Abuse/Dependence
• we do not know the prevalence of prescription opioid use disorders
• nor the characteristics or life circumstances of the individuals that develop these disorders
• we know very little about how regular opioid use evolves into problematic use and substance use disorders
Study 1. Interviews with Oral Opioid Dependent Inpatients
Objectives: To determine the characteristics, patterns of drug use, treatment and outcome of patients severely dependent on oral opioids
Subjects: 58 patients (60% male, mean age 35.4 9.5 years) admitted to the inpatient Medical Unit of the Addiction Research Foundation
Methods: Data collected prospectively by structured interview using the psychoactive substance use module of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID).
Busto UE, Sproule BA, Knight K, Romach MK, Sellers EM. Severe dependence on oral opiates. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1998;5(1):23-28.
Demographic characteristics of severely opioid-dependent patients (N=58)
number %
Sex Male
Female
35
23
60
40
Admission age (yrs)
20-29
30-39
40-69
Mean age ( SD)
15
31
11
35.4 9.5
28
53
19
Education Public school or lower
Some secondary school
Secondary school completed
Post secondary school incomplete
Post secondary school completed
4
18
19
10
6
7
32
33
17
10
Source: U. Busto et al, Can J Clin Pharmacol Vol 5 No 1 (1998) 23-28
Percentage of Patients with a Current Substance Use Disorder
other than Opioid Substance Use Disorder
0
10
20
30
40
Alcohol Sedative-Hypnotic Cannabis Stimulant
Per
cen
tag
e o
f P
atie
nts
Abuse
Dependence
Percentage of Patients with a Past Substance Use Disorder
other than Opioid Substance Use Disorder
0
10
20
30
40
Alcohol Sedative-Hypnotic Cannabis Stimulant
Per
cen
tag
e o
f P
atie
nts
Source: U. Busto et al, Can J Clin Pharmacol Vol 5 No 1 (1998) 23-28
Combinations of Current Psychoactive Substance Use Disorders
Opioid only (34%)
Opioid and one other (2%)
Opioid and Alcohol (9%)
Opioid and Sedative- Hypnotics (19%)
Alcohol, Sedative-Hypnotics, Cannabis, Cocaine, Polydrug Hallucinogens, Stimulants
Opioid and at least 2 others (36%):
Source: U. Busto et al, Can J Clin Pharmacol Vol 5 No 1 (1998) 23-28
Proportion of Opioid-Dependent Patients Meeting DSM-III-R Criteria for Current Opioid Dependence
All 9 Criteria
7 Criteria
6 Criteria
3-5 Criteria
Withdrawal Symptoms, Marked Tolerance, Inability to Stop, Persistent Use, Use in Spite of Problems, Withdrawal Relief, Hazardous Use, Much Time Spent Getting Substance, Use Interferes with Activities
8 Criteria
Source: U. Busto et al, Can J Clin Pharmacol Vol 5 No 1 (1998) 23-28
Study 1 cont’dResults:
• mean daily dose of codeine: 554 343 mg (range 120mg to 1500mg)
• mean daily oxycodone dose (in codeine equivalents): 1265 1377 mg, range 333 to 6670 mg, p<0.01)
• 36% also met criteria for abuse or dependence on at least 2 other substances
• mean duration of opioid use at the current dose: 7 years• majority obtained opioids by going to different physicians (39%),
although 26% got their opioids primarily from one physician• 26% purchased oral opioids off the street
Busto UE, Sproule BA, Knight K, Romach MK, Sellers EM. Severe dependence on oral opiates. The Canadian Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1998;5(1):23-28.
Study 2 - Survey of Regular Users of Codeine
Objectives: to determine the characteristics of a broader population of regular opioid users
Subjects: n=339 individuals who were using codeine at least 3 days per week for the past 6 months (excluding cancer pain patients); 49% males, mean age 43 ± 12 years
Methods:• anonymous 27 page questionnaire• assessment of codeine dependence and abuse in the past year
was made on the basis of written short answers to open-ended questions
• two trained investigators evaluated the responses to determine whether the criteria were clearly met, clearly not met, or whether it could not be determined on the basis of the information provided
Study 2 cont’dResults:
• currently using acetaminophen with codeine products (30mg 37%, 8mg 23%)
• mean daily dose of 115mg (range 8-1200mg)• at least 5-6 days per week (70%)• used an average of 12 ± 9 years• 37% (n=124) met DSM-IV criteria for codeine
dependence • 30% identified themselves with problematic codeine
use• most obtained codeine from one physician (66%)• most (81%) reported chronic pain (55% headaches)
Sproule BA, Busto UE, Somer G, Romach MK, Sellers EM. Characteristics of dependent and non-dependent regular users of codeine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1999;19(4):367-372
DSM-IV Criteria in Dependent Group
0
20
40
60
80
100
Tolerance Withdrawal Using More Unable toStop
Problems Time ReplacingActivities
%
Most Common Psychological and Physical Problems Associated with Codeine Use
0
5
10
15
20
25
Depression Anxiety GI Disturbances Constipation Headaches
%
Study 2 cont’d
• dependent subjects currently found codeine less effective for treating pain
• only 42% of the dependent subjects with chronic pain had tried non-opioid medication for their pain
• dependent subjects were more likely to use codeine for pleasurable effects, to relax, or to prevent withdrawal symptoms
• subjects in the dependent group also obtained their codeine from friends (32%), from family (11%), off the street (19%), and through prescriptions from more than one doctor (11%)
Sproule BA, Busto UE, Somer G, Romach MK, Sellers EM. Characteristics of dependent and non-dependent regular users of codeine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1999;19(4):367-372
Dependent vs Non-Dependent Subjects
Dependent Non-DependentMean Daily Dose 176 mg 74mg
Alcohol Problems 57% 26%
Cannabis Problems 23% 5%
Sought help for mental health problem
76% 55%
Psychiatric hospitalization 22% 8%
Study 2 cont’d
Conclusions:
• chronic codeine use is associated with dependence, as well as substantial comorbid pain and psychiatric problems
Sproule BA, Busto UE, Somer G, Romach MK, Sellers EM. Characteristics of dependent and non-dependent regular users of codeine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 1999;19(4):367-372
Study 3. Retrospective Study of Prescription Opioid Use in Methadone
Maintenance Patients
• steep increase in the number of patients dependent on prescription opioids admitted to our methadone maintenance treatment program following an expansion in service in the latter half of the 1990s in Ontario
• detailed retrospective chart review of patients admitted to methadone maintenance treatment after program expansion was conducted
• n=178, mean age=34.5±0.7 years, 65% male
• at admission most patients (82%) had been using prescription opioids (± heroin)
Drug use history for three chronological patient cohorts at the time of admission to MMT
Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 p value
% Currently injecting drugs
81.0 78.9 46.3 0.0001
Hepatitis C seroprevalence: % positive
90.4 78.5 55.8 0.0001
Source: B. Brands et al, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 66, (2002) 11-20
Cumulative 2-Year Retention in the CAMH MMT Program for 3 Chronological Patient Cohorts
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Treatment Duration (months)
Cu
mu
lati
ve P
rog
ram
Re
ten
tio
n Cohort 1 (n=63)
Cohort 2 (n=95)
Cohort 3 (n=82)
Source: B. Brands et al, Drug and Alcohol Dependence 66, (2002) 11-20
Overall Summary Points
• Prescription opioid abuse/dependence has not been well studied.
• There are indicators that this may be an increasing problem.
• Severe dependence on oral opioids is possible, and is likely to be associated with polysubstance abuse and treatment relapse.
• Regular codeine use is associated with substantial dependence, although the exact prevalence is not known. Psychiatric comorbidity is very common. Pain was not optimally treated in these patients.
• Prescription opioid dependent has increased among patients admitted to our methadone maintenance treatment program, again with indications of significant psychiatric comorbidity in this population.
Prescription Opioid Abuse and Dependence
• Acknowledgements
• Dr. M. Romach Ms. J. Blake
• Dr. E. M. Sellers Dr. D. Gourlay
• Ms. K. Knight Ms. G. Somer
• Mr. A. MacDonald Ms. H. Kameh
• Funding: CAMH, OMHF
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