jp4a5d73db27982

JahangirnagarPlanningReview ISSN17284198Vol.6,June2008,pp.4956,JahangirnagarUniversity

FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity

AdilMohammedKhan

Md.AkterMahmud

AbstractGrowthmanagemntintheformofdevelopmentcontrolmeasureswereintroducedtolimitthedensityofanareaandregulatetheuseof landaspertheplan.Withtheinrceaseofpopulationagglomerationthesizeofcitygrows,marketofproductexpands,eonomicactivitiesincreasesbutthis process have to make a tradeoff with the environmental quality, pollution and othernegativeexternalities.Itisalwaysverycrucialforplannerstoscrutinizetheplanningpermissionapplicationscarefullywhileaccomodatingnewdevelopment.Aslandisascarcenaturalresource,cityplannersintroducedanumberofdevelopmentcontrolmechanismsforoptimumuseoflandwithout compromising with the citys environment, beauty, comfort and safety though thesemechanismsaredifferentincitiesasthecontextdemands.ThispaperinvestigatesandassesseshowfartheFloorAreaRatio(FAR),anewlyintroduceddevelopmentcontrolmeasuresinDhaka,willcontributeasatechniqueofgrowthmanagementandhowmuchitwillbeeffectiveinsolvingthe problems of Dhaka City andenhance the environmental, social andaesthetic value of aneighbourhood. The FAR technique has been enacted with a hope that its successfulimplementationwill bringbenefits to thecitydwellers. It wouldbeagreat challengefor thedevelopmentauthorityofDhakaCitytoimplementtherulesofFARastheyhaveconstraintsofskilledmanpowertomonitorthosedevelopmentactivities.

Introduction

Executionofplanningrulesbytheconcernedauthoritiesandexertionofresponsibilitiesof the plot owners in various levels of DhakaCity has frustrated the city dwellers.Mahmud(2007)haspointedoutthatabout94%ofthebuildingsofthiscityinsomewayhaveviolatedtheBuildingConstructionRules(BCR),1996ordeviatedfromtheirapprovedplan.Plansofthecitywereviolatedbothinlocallevelandcitylevelwhichresultedininsufficientopenspaces.PrivatebuildingsinindividuallevelaregrosslyresponsibleforillegallymaximizingthefloorspaceoftheirbuildingandviolationofsetbackrulesofBCR1996.Asaresult,sunlightandventilationinthebuildingsarelargelyobstructedandthatalsonarrowedtheadjacentlocalroadsandalleys,creatingcongestion.Throughthisprocess, it grabbed the necessary urban spaces which could give us comfort andbreathingspace.The MohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala(MINB)2007 (GoB,2007)replacestheconstraintsofthepreviousrules,whichencourageditsevasionandabuse,andbringssignificant incentives and benefits to all. Provisions of mandatory open space (or,maximumlandutilizationof40to60%oftotallotareaforaresidentialplot),setback,ground coverage, Floor Area Ratio (FAR) etc. can provide significant social andenvironmental benefits to theresidents. It eliminates mandatoryheight limitationsofbuildingsandenablesdesignofmorelivableandopenspacesthroughdesignflexibilityandprovisionoflightingandventilationofbuiltspaces.Thequalityofbuildinganditsmonetaryvalueareenhanced,besidesprovidingflexibilitytothearchitectsforspaceand

Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Savar,Dhaka1342,Bangladesh.Email:adilmdkhan@yahoo.com

Associate Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, JahangirnagarUniversity,Savar,Dhaka1342,Bangladesh.Email:aktermahmud@yahoo.com

JahangirnagarPlanningReview,Vol.6,June2008 50

formanipulation.ThemajorobjectivesofthispaperistoreviewtherulesinMINB2007,makeanassessmentofsocial,environmentalandaestheticvalueofFARofMINB2007applicationandalsoevaluatetheimpactofFARatcommunityandcityscale.RelevantplanningtheoriesandplanningregulationswereexaminedtoassessthepossibilitiesandpotentialsofFARofMINB2007indevelopmentcontrolaswellasgrowthmanagementofDhakaCity.ItalsofocusesprobablecontributionsofFARinacitywherelandissoscarce,communityspacesaresolimitedandinfrastructureissoinsufficient.

GrowthManagementIt is traditionally been assumed that continuous growth is essential for economicprosperity but continuous growthwith less planning interventions (i.e. developmentcontrol)allowedsomecitiesoftheworldtogoinsuchapositionthatenvironmentalqualityhasdegradedandtheybecamealmostunhabitable.OSullivan(1996)thinks,thelargecitiescanexploitscaleofeconomiesinproduction,retailingandpublicgoods.Onthecostside, thelargercityhashigherhousingprices, longercommutingdistancess,more pollution, congestion and crime. Recognizing the land as a precious and rarenaturalresourceandconsideringthecitysbeauty,safety,comfortandenvironmentalquality,cityplannersintroduceddifferentdevelopmentcontrolmechanism.Asplanningis temporal and contextual, these mechanisms are different in different cities as itdemands. Growthmanagement is not an issue of debate for property right versuespublicinterestorviolationoftheconstitutionalrightstofreedomofmovement,ratheritisameansofenhancingthequalityoflife.Traditionalplansareoftenunabletoprovideprecisegrowthmanagementtechniquesforacity.So,theseplansareformulatedasnecessarykeepingconsistencywiththestrategiesandobjectivesofthegeneralplans.Keeble(1969)viewed

developmentcontrolinvolvesregulationsofthedetailedaspectsofdevelopment,aboutwhichpreciseguidancecannot begivenbythe development plan, soastoensureconvenientandslightresults.

Intherealsense,thedesireistoallowfororderlyenvironmentgrowththatwillmeettherequirementsforidealliving.PerhapsthisisthepositiveopinionheldbyKeeble,

thatalocalplanningauthorityshould,clearlyunderstandthatthesoleobjectiveofplanningandplanningcontrolistosecuretherightuseoflandandthatplanningpowersmustnotbemadetoserveotherends.

CommonlyUsedGrowthManagementToolsHistoryofgrowthmanagementinthisworldisnotmucholdanditwasintroducedonly40to50yearsbacktorestrictthecitysspatialgrowthandregulateitsdevelopment. Ithasbecomeincreasinglypopularinthe last fewdecadesasawayto incorporatethecommunitys growthmanagement goals into the comprehensive context of planning.Dependinguponthecontext,variousgrowthmanagementtechniqueswereimposedindifferentcitiesoftheworld.Oneverysuccessfulgrowthmanagementtechniquemaynotworkinothercityasitscontextisdifferent.Fewpopulargrowthmanagementtechniquesarebrieflydiscussedinthefollowing:RestrictiononNumber: Withinthiscategoryafixednumberofresidentialbuildings,commercial buildings or the industrial units are permitted for a given time period.Managementofcommercialbuildingsandindustrialunitscomeintwoshapes:oneisrestrictingtheamountofsquarefootageofcommercialorindustrialstructuresthatcanbe built withina given time frameand, another measure is to restrict the height of

51 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity

commercialbuildingsandthusthefloorareawillbelimitedaspertheplan.Thesetypesofmeasuresrestrictthebuiltspaceavailableforemploymentandretailtransactions,justaslimitinghousingconstructionrestrictspopulation.FixingFloorAreaRatio(FAR): FARwasdevelopedasamorerefinedandadaptablemeasureofintensitythanbuildingcoverage.Previouslyplotratiowasalsopracticedforthispurpose.Itexpressesinonemeasure,insteadofseveral,themathematicalrelationbetween volume of building and unit of land. FAR, however, cannot replace moretraditionalbulkcontrolsentirely.Oftenitisnotasufficientheightcontrolnordoesitregulatetheplacementofthebuildingonthesite. Sothis techniquemainlyusedforregulatingabuildingwithinasite.Urban Growth Boundaries: Delineating boundaries to restrict growth comes in twomajortypes;oneistopermitandlimitresidential,commercialorindustrialdevelopmentwithinagivenjurisdictionboundary.Theseboundariesseektolimiturbangrowthtospecific geographic areas through regulatory restrictions and/or limitations oninfrastructure expansion. Another type is phasing development areas wheredevelopmentapprovalisdeferreduntilacertaintimeperiodoruntilexistingdevelopedareasaresubstantiallydeveloped.Inthesimplestcase,aphaseddevelopmentsystemprohibits development in areas that lack sewers or some other basic public service.Phased development controls can slow growth to allow municipalities to budgetexpenditures for expansion of municipal services to developing areas over a longerperiod. Slowergrowthcanpreventtheoverburdeningofexistingfacilitieswhile newonesarebeingconstructed.Phasingcanalsoencouragegrowthnearexistingbuiltupareas,helpingtoreducesprawl.Infrastructure Adequacy: These measures typically prohibit the construction of newdevelopmentunlessthepublicinfrastructureisinaplacetosupportit.Inthismethod,prior to or as a condition of residential development approval or of commercial/industrial development approval, it is specifically required to assess the level ofadequacyofservices1 (i.e. roadcapacityortrafficcongestion)orservicecapacity(i.e.waterorsewerservicecapacity)Zoning: Zoningis, ofcourse,themostbasicandcommonlyusedlanduseregulatorytool.Zoningtypicallydictatestheusespermittedoneachparcelofland.Forexample,commerciallandisrezonedtoresidentialuseorresidentialpropertyisdownzoned2sothatitcanaccommodatefewerunitsperacrethanitcouldbefore.Eventhecontrollingmeasurescanbeimposedtoaddressgrowthissueswithinthecontextof GeneralPlan.Stepscanbetakentorestrictthetotalnumberofnewsubdividedlotsthatcanbecreatedinagiventimeframe.

GrowthManagementLegislationinBangladeshDevelopmentcontroltechniquesinthecitiesofBangladeshlargelyfailedduetolackofpropermonitoringoftheconstructionactivities.Mahmud(2006)thinkslackofeffectiveenforcementofplanninglawshaveresultedinahabitofplanviolation/deviationfromtheoriginalplanbytheplotownersandeventuallygivingrisetoanunplannedandhaphazard development of the city. Existing planning regulations are not exercisedproperlyduetocorruption,sociopoliticalinfluenceandlackofinstitutionalcapacityof

1 levels of service is measured on the basis of specific standards for virtually all publicinfrastructure,includingroads(congestionlevels),schools(capacityandcrowding),parks(acresperperson),andpoliceandfireservices(responsetimes).

2 intendedtoreducetheultimateholdingcapacityofanarea,eitherintermsofresidencesorthelandavailableofbusinessexpansion.

JahangirnagarPlanningReview,Vol.6,June2008 52

theauthorities.Sogrowthmanagementtechniquesnevercomeupwithitsdesiredresult.Developing countries are struggling with the insufficient and ineffective laws andregulationsfordevelopmentcontrol.Perhaps,theyarestrugglingtomeettheimmediateneedandkeepingbodyandsoultogetherratherthanfindingasolutionofensuringbetterlivingenvironment(Mahmud2007).Presently,wehavefewlegalinstrumentsthatought to be used for controlleddevelopment of the towns andcities of Bangladesh.Density control is generally one of the preferred development management tools asdensitiesdefinetheoverallsizeorbulkofconstructionwhilealsoexpressthedemandthatanareaplaceonitsinfrastructure. DMDPUrbanAreaPlansetforthguidelinesfordevelopmentmanagement(DMDP,

1995,VolII,P6).DMDPreportsuggeststhatcurrentRAJUKpracticeofallowing6storeybuildingsinplanneddevelopedareasshouldcontinue:ifhighdensitiesareto be permitted anywhere, it should be in areas where existing infrastructureprovision is the highest. The practice is also appropriate in the context ofanticipated density increases in existing area. In spontaneous growth areas,developmentupto6storiesshouldonlybepermittedwhereitwouldnotoverburdeninadequateinfrastructurenetworks.

MohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala:MINB2007amendedin2008providedmoreauthoritytoRAJUK,clearcutresponsibilitytomonitorthedevelopmentofthecity,spreadout theresponsibilities tovariousactors, spell out theresponsibilities ofbuildingdesigners,structuralengineers,sitesupervisorsandthepenaltiesiftheyfail.Importantly,itintroducedFARtomanagethegrowthofthecitybyitsrulesofbuildingcoveragearea,allowablefloorspaceandrelationamongbuildingheight,roadwidthandplotsizeetc. Obviously,success ofit will fullydependonhowtheserulesareimplementedbyRAJUKinatransparentway.

Private housing and land development rules 2004 provides a complete legalsupportforlanddevelopmentinprivatesectorhousingwhichpermits350personsperacrethoughthisstandardisquitehighcomparedwithothermegacitiesoftheworld. It provides complete procedures and guidelines for land development,protectingtheenvironment.Italsoprovidespercentagesoflandthatmustbekeptforcommunityfacilities,amountoflandtobesoldout,schoolsites,roadhierarchyand importantly planning standards, for example, allocation of land per 1000population(GoB,2004).

WhatisFloorAreaRatio(FAR)?The FAR is thetotal buildingsquarefootage(buildingarea) dividedbythesite sizesquarefootage(sitearea).Thus,anFARof2.0wouldindicatethatthetotalfloorareaofabuildingistwotimesthegrossareaoftheplotonwhichitisconstructed.Thus,FAR=(Totalcoveredareaonallfloorsofthebuildingonaplot)/(Areaoftheplot)

53 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity

Fig.1:ThisfigureshowsFARof1.0Source:http://www.carfree.com/far.html

Thissimplymeansthat, if theareaoftheplotis100squaremeters,then100squaremetersofgrossfloorareahas been built on the plot. Theillustration above shows a 4storybuilding covering 1/4 of the site,givingaFARof1.0.Fourfloorsof25squaremeterseacharebuiltonasiteof100squaremeters.

Anotherinstance,anareahastheplanningdecisionofhavingFARof1.5andherearesomewaystogetaFARof1.5:

Builda2storybuildingon75%ofthesite(2x0.75=1.5)

Builda3storybuildingon50%ofthesite(3x0.5=1.5)

Builda4storybuildingon37.5%ofthesite(4x0.375=1.5)

ThisshouldbenotedthataFARof1.5isquitehigh,althoughthisdensityisnotunusualinVeniceorcentralParis,andisconsiderablyexceededinmostareasofManhattan.MostofthecitiesofdevelopedcountriesthosedonthavethescarcityoflandcanaffordtotakethemeasureoflowerFARthan1.0.MostoftheEuropeancitieshaveFARlessthan1.0.FARprovidesthefreedomtoconstructtallerbuildingmaintainingthegivenFARbutitshouldbekeptinmindthathigherbuildingswouldleavemoreroomforstreetsandgardens,butbuildingshigherthan4storiesarenotdesirablebecausetheyareexpensiveto construct and unpleasant to live. By applying of FAR we can ensure moreenvironmentalandsocialbenefitsforgeneratingurbanspacesforoureverydaylife.

Fig.2:TheoreticalexplanationofFAR.

FARinDhakaMohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala2007

MinistryofPublicWorksandHousingpromulgatedDhakaMohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala (DMINB) in12April2006 underthepowerofTheBuildingConstructionAct,1952butitwasbeingeffectivefrom1January2007.Fromitsfirstpromulgationitwasamendedquitefewtimes.ThisplanninglawintroducedanewtechniqueofFAR

BuildingcoveragewillbehalfoftheplotwhenFARvalueofanareais0.5.Plotcanbeused1floorathalfoftheareaoftheplotor2floorsatonefourthoftheploteither.

BuildingcoveragewillbefullwhenFARvalueofanareais1.0.Plotcanbeusedas1floorcoveringthewholelotor2floorsathalfoftheplotor4floorsatonefourthofthelot.

JahangirnagarPlanningReview,Vol.6,June2008 54

development control which contributes in growth management for Dhaka City. ByintroducingFARithaseliminatedrestrictionofthebuildingheight,exceptinfewareas,andpermittedtotalfloorspaceaspertheplotsizeanditsadjacentroadwidth.IthasalsoprovidedascheduleforFARIndexwhereFARindexwasdeterminedonthebasisofplotsizeandadjacentroadwidthofthatplotwhichissameforwholecity,whichisnowbeingconsideredasoneoftheweakpointofthislaw.

Dependingonthesizeoftheplotandthewidthoftheadjacentroad,MINB2007hasproposed minimum and maximum FAR ranging from 3.25 to 6.0 for residentialbuildings,2.0to4.5forEducationalbuildings,3.25to4.0forcommercialbuildingsand3.0to10.0forofficebuildingpurposes.AlltheproposedFARinMINB2007arequitehighforacitywhichwill accommodatequiteabigpopulationsize. Consideringtheurbanizationrateandlandscarcitythesehighstandardswereadopted.

PlanningPermissioninDMINB2007

SuccessofFARimplicationwillmostlydependonthestagesofplanningpermissionofMINB2007,especially,thelaststagewhereoccupancycertificatewillbeissuedbasedonthe field inspection. Inspectors will prepare report comparing the approvedplan byRAJUKandthebuildingconstructedinrealground.Tounderstandthetotalprocessandthe4stagesofplanapprovalofabuildingaregiveninveryshortintheFigure3.

LanduseClearance

DevelopmentPermit

BuildingPermit

OccupancyCertificate

Fig.3:Stagesofplanningpermissionanditssalientfeatures.

BenefitsofFARProvisionsofmandatoryopenspace(or,maximumlandutilizationof40to60%oftotalplot area for residential building), setback, ground coverage, FAR etc. can provide

Document to attach:legal ownership

papers of landLand clearance

certificateSoil test reportFAR calculation & useAll the architectural

design and other technical reports

List of responsible technical personnel

NOC of other stakeholders

Few projects need to take development permits:Residential building with more

than 40 unitsCommercial building with more

than 5000 sqm floor spaceAny project more than 2600

sqm site areaProjects directly connected

with highway or major roadRecreational use more than

1 hectre areaAny polluting industryAny construction within 500

meter of an historical siteAny construction within 500

meter of a natural site

All form of

development or

construction need to

have land use

clearance

Beforeobtaining

occupancycertificate,that

buildingcannotbeused

55 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity

significantsocialandenvironmentalbenefitstotheresidents(MINB,2007).Asitpermitsafixedamountoffloorspace,itindirectlylimitsthenumberofoccupantsofthebuildingwhichinturnwouldrestrictdensityofanareauptoacertainlevel.Fewotherbenefitsareasfollows: Asiteliminatesheightrestrictionofbuildings,itenablesarchitectsmorefreedomto

design more livable and open spaces through design flexibility. The quality ofbuilding andits monetary value is enhanced. It mayproducemorecommunityspaces,ifeffortscanbetakeninthecommunitylevel.

It enablesprovisionofessential parking, fireescapesandmechanical spacesforwhichadditionalfloorareasarepermitted.IntroductionofFARofMINB2007willincreasemandatoryopenspacesaroundthebuildingwhichwill allowsufficientlight and ventilation to the building and reduce the total amount of builtenvironmentanditsimpactstothemacroclimate.About 50% oftheopenspacemustbekeptunpavedsothatitwillallowmorerainwatertorechargethegroundwatertablewhichisverymuchnecessaryforDhakaCity.

JahangirnagarPlanningReview,Vol.6,June2008 56

Fig.4:MoreopenspacescanbemanagedbyfollowingFARtechnique.Source:Zaman,2005.

It makes open grounds, balcony and terraces, etc. affordable without loss ofbuildablefloorarea,therebyimprovingtheenvironmentoftheneighborhoodandbuildings.

Awal (2006),claimsthattheFARprovisionsofthenewrulespermitgreaterfloorarea,makingdevelopmentmoreprofitableevenforthesmallestlandowners.

Table1:ComparativestatementbetweenBCR1996andDMINB2007.

DescriptionLand 2.0Katha 2.5Katha 5.0Katha 7.5KathaRoad 20ft 20ft 20ft 20ftFAR 3.0 3.25 3.50 3.75

NumberofFloor

Rules1996 G+5 G+5 G+5 G+5Rules2007 G+5(min) G+6(min) G+6(min) G+7(min)

GroundCoverage

Rules1996 60% 60% 65% 70%Rules2007 65% 60% 60% 60%

TotalFloorSpace

Rules1996 4290sq.ft 5378sq.ft 11619sq.ft 19066sq.ftRules2007 4320sq.ft 6143sq.ft 13125sq.ft 21068sq.ft

Source:Awal,2006.

It encourages greater floor area entitlements, and joint venture development ofadjacent plots by owners without legal restrictions which is profitable due toincreasedFloorAreaentitlements.

RecommendationsandConclusion

TogetthemaximumbenefitsofFARrules,applicationofFARshouldbeinthecommunitylevelwithcommunityeffortthantheindividualplotlevelwhichisagreatchallengeinthesocioeconomiccontextofDhakaCity.Effortsmaybetakenfrom the public authority level with the participation of private developer andcommunityforthedevelopmentofareas.

AgeneralizedFARonlydependingontheadjacent roadwidthwill not ableto

57 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity

achievetheprimarygoalofFARintroductioninDhakaCity.ValueofFARmustberevisedinaccordancetotheplotsize,populationsizeofthatparticularcommunityandavailable utility services provisionsoncommunity. During fixationof FARvalue,itmustbekeptinmindthatitwillnotexceedtheperacrepopulationdensityproposedbytheDetailedAreaPlan(DAP)ofthatareaorcontradictwiththepolicyplanofthecityplan.

PresentMINB2007hasencouragedtounifyingthesmallerplotstobiggerplotandinitiatecondominiumforconstructionpurpose.Ownersofthesmallerplotswillhavetospentmoreconstructioncostthanbefore.SotheywillbesomewayothercompelledtounifytheadjacentplotstogetherandenjoytheadvantageofFARlike;spaceutilizationandconstructioncostwhichwillrequiresharingmindsetofplotowners.

ExecutionofDMINB2007passedoneandhalfyearanditistooearlytopredictonitsachievementbutdefinitelyitwillbringgoodresultsiftherulesareexecutedproperlyandthebuildinginspectorvisitsthesiteasaskedintherule. DMINBhasabuiltinsystemofmonitoringofdevelopmentactivitiesintheplanningapprovalprocess.Beforeissuingtheoccupancycertificate to usethebuildingauthoritywill inspect thesite tochecktheplanandreality.So, itisexpectedthatthisprocesswill reduceviolationofplanningrulesinfutureandthuseasethecongestedcityareasinthelongrun.Withoutenoughskilledmanpowerofthecitydevelopmentauthority,thislawwillnotbringtheresultsasitwasexpectedbeforepromulgatingtheMINB2007.

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DMDP.1995.DhakaMetropolitanDevelopmentPlan,vol.2,pp.6,RAJUK,Dhaka.

Fulton, W. 2006. Ballot Box Planning and Growth Management. California: Local GovernmentCommission.

GoB, 2007. Mohanagar Imarat Nirman Bidhimala 2007, Ministry of Housing and Public Works,GovernmentofBangladesh,Dhaka.

GoB.2006.BuildingConstruction(Amendment)Act2006,GovernmentofBangladesh,Dhaka.

GoB.2004.PrivateHousingandLandDevelopmentAct2004,GovernmentofBangladesh,Dhaka

Keeble,L.1969. PrinciplesandPracticeofTownandCountryPlanning.London:TheEstateGazetteLimited,pp.115.

Mahmud, M. A. 2007. Sound Planning Permission Process as Prerequisite for DevelopmentControlintheUrbanAreas:ACaseStudyonDhakaCity, JahangirnagarPlanningReview,vol.5,pp.1526.

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Zaman,Q.M.M.;Mallick,F.H.;Abdullah,A.Q.M.andAhmad,J.2005.InSearchforaHabitableUrbanSpaceBuiltRatio:ACaseStudyofBuildingandPlanningRegulationinDhakaCity,inJ.H.BayandB.L.Ong(ed.), TropicalSustainableArchitecture:SocialandEnvironmental Dimensions.UK:ArchitecturalPressElsevier.

OSullivan,A.1996.UrbanEconomics.Boston:Irwin/McGrawHill.

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Ratcliffe,J.1993. AnIntroductiontoTownandCountryPlanning.UniversityCollegeLondon:UCLPressLimited.

http://www.carfree.com/far.htmlRetrievedon12May2008.

Growth Management Legislation in Bangladesh