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JahangirnagarPlanningReview ISSN17284198Vol.6,June2008,pp.4956,JahangirnagarUniversity
FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity
AdilMohammedKhan
Md.AkterMahmud
AbstractGrowthmanagemntintheformofdevelopmentcontrolmeasureswereintroducedtolimitthedensityofanareaandregulatetheuseof landaspertheplan.Withtheinrceaseofpopulationagglomerationthesizeofcitygrows,marketofproductexpands,eonomicactivitiesincreasesbutthis process have to make a tradeoff with the environmental quality, pollution and othernegativeexternalities.Itisalwaysverycrucialforplannerstoscrutinizetheplanningpermissionapplicationscarefullywhileaccomodatingnewdevelopment.Aslandisascarcenaturalresource,cityplannersintroducedanumberofdevelopmentcontrolmechanismsforoptimumuseoflandwithout compromising with the citys environment, beauty, comfort and safety though thesemechanismsaredifferentincitiesasthecontextdemands.ThispaperinvestigatesandassesseshowfartheFloorAreaRatio(FAR),anewlyintroduceddevelopmentcontrolmeasuresinDhaka,willcontributeasatechniqueofgrowthmanagementandhowmuchitwillbeeffectiveinsolvingthe problems of Dhaka City andenhance the environmental, social andaesthetic value of aneighbourhood. The FAR technique has been enacted with a hope that its successfulimplementationwill bringbenefits to thecitydwellers. It wouldbeagreat challengefor thedevelopmentauthorityofDhakaCitytoimplementtherulesofFARastheyhaveconstraintsofskilledmanpowertomonitorthosedevelopmentactivities.
Introduction
Executionofplanningrulesbytheconcernedauthoritiesandexertionofresponsibilitiesof the plot owners in various levels of DhakaCity has frustrated the city dwellers.Mahmud(2007)haspointedoutthatabout94%ofthebuildingsofthiscityinsomewayhaveviolatedtheBuildingConstructionRules(BCR),1996ordeviatedfromtheirapprovedplan.Plansofthecitywereviolatedbothinlocallevelandcitylevelwhichresultedininsufficientopenspaces.PrivatebuildingsinindividuallevelaregrosslyresponsibleforillegallymaximizingthefloorspaceoftheirbuildingandviolationofsetbackrulesofBCR1996.Asaresult,sunlightandventilationinthebuildingsarelargelyobstructedandthatalsonarrowedtheadjacentlocalroadsandalleys,creatingcongestion.Throughthisprocess, it grabbed the necessary urban spaces which could give us comfort andbreathingspace.The MohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala(MINB)2007 (GoB,2007)replacestheconstraintsofthepreviousrules,whichencourageditsevasionandabuse,andbringssignificant incentives and benefits to all. Provisions of mandatory open space (or,maximumlandutilizationof40to60%oftotallotareaforaresidentialplot),setback,ground coverage, Floor Area Ratio (FAR) etc. can provide significant social andenvironmental benefits to theresidents. It eliminates mandatoryheight limitationsofbuildingsandenablesdesignofmorelivableandopenspacesthroughdesignflexibilityandprovisionoflightingandventilationofbuiltspaces.Thequalityofbuildinganditsmonetaryvalueareenhanced,besidesprovidingflexibilitytothearchitectsforspaceand
Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Jahangirnagar University, Savar,Dhaka1342,Bangladesh.Email:[email protected]
Associate Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, JahangirnagarUniversity,Savar,Dhaka1342,Bangladesh.Email:[email protected]
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formanipulation.ThemajorobjectivesofthispaperistoreviewtherulesinMINB2007,makeanassessmentofsocial,environmentalandaestheticvalueofFARofMINB2007applicationandalsoevaluatetheimpactofFARatcommunityandcityscale.RelevantplanningtheoriesandplanningregulationswereexaminedtoassessthepossibilitiesandpotentialsofFARofMINB2007indevelopmentcontrolaswellasgrowthmanagementofDhakaCity.ItalsofocusesprobablecontributionsofFARinacitywherelandissoscarce,communityspacesaresolimitedandinfrastructureissoinsufficient.
GrowthManagementIt is traditionally been assumed that continuous growth is essential for economicprosperity but continuous growthwith less planning interventions (i.e. developmentcontrol)allowedsomecitiesoftheworldtogoinsuchapositionthatenvironmentalqualityhasdegradedandtheybecamealmostunhabitable.OSullivan(1996)thinks,thelargecitiescanexploitscaleofeconomiesinproduction,retailingandpublicgoods.Onthecostside, thelargercityhashigherhousingprices, longercommutingdistancess,more pollution, congestion and crime. Recognizing the land as a precious and rarenaturalresourceandconsideringthecitysbeauty,safety,comfortandenvironmentalquality,cityplannersintroduceddifferentdevelopmentcontrolmechanism.Asplanningis temporal and contextual, these mechanisms are different in different cities as itdemands. Growthmanagement is not an issue of debate for property right versuespublicinterestorviolationoftheconstitutionalrightstofreedomofmovement,ratheritisameansofenhancingthequalityoflife.Traditionalplansareoftenunabletoprovideprecisegrowthmanagementtechniquesforacity.So,theseplansareformulatedasnecessarykeepingconsistencywiththestrategiesandobjectivesofthegeneralplans.Keeble(1969)viewed
developmentcontrolinvolvesregulationsofthedetailedaspectsofdevelopment,aboutwhichpreciseguidancecannot begivenbythe development plan, soastoensureconvenientandslightresults.
Intherealsense,thedesireistoallowfororderlyenvironmentgrowththatwillmeettherequirementsforidealliving.PerhapsthisisthepositiveopinionheldbyKeeble,
thatalocalplanningauthorityshould,clearlyunderstandthatthesoleobjectiveofplanningandplanningcontrolistosecuretherightuseoflandandthatplanningpowersmustnotbemadetoserveotherends.
CommonlyUsedGrowthManagementToolsHistoryofgrowthmanagementinthisworldisnotmucholdanditwasintroducedonly40to50yearsbacktorestrictthecitysspatialgrowthandregulateitsdevelopment. Ithasbecomeincreasinglypopularinthe last fewdecadesasawayto incorporatethecommunitys growthmanagement goals into the comprehensive context of planning.Dependinguponthecontext,variousgrowthmanagementtechniqueswereimposedindifferentcitiesoftheworld.Oneverysuccessfulgrowthmanagementtechniquemaynotworkinothercityasitscontextisdifferent.Fewpopulargrowthmanagementtechniquesarebrieflydiscussedinthefollowing:RestrictiononNumber: Withinthiscategoryafixednumberofresidentialbuildings,commercial buildings or the industrial units are permitted for a given time period.Managementofcommercialbuildingsandindustrialunitscomeintwoshapes:oneisrestrictingtheamountofsquarefootageofcommercialorindustrialstructuresthatcanbe built withina given time frameand, another measure is to restrict the height of
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51 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity
commercialbuildingsandthusthefloorareawillbelimitedaspertheplan.Thesetypesofmeasuresrestrictthebuiltspaceavailableforemploymentandretailtransactions,justaslimitinghousingconstructionrestrictspopulation.FixingFloorAreaRatio(FAR): FARwasdevelopedasamorerefinedandadaptablemeasureofintensitythanbuildingcoverage.Previouslyplotratiowasalsopracticedforthispurpose.Itexpressesinonemeasure,insteadofseveral,themathematicalrelationbetween volume of building and unit of land. FAR, however, cannot replace moretraditionalbulkcontrolsentirely.Oftenitisnotasufficientheightcontrolnordoesitregulatetheplacementofthebuildingonthesite. Sothis techniquemainlyusedforregulatingabuildingwithinasite.Urban Growth Boundaries: Delineating boundaries to restrict growth comes in twomajortypes;oneistopermitandlimitresidential,commercialorindustrialdevelopmentwithinagivenjurisdictionboundary.Theseboundariesseektolimiturbangrowthtospecific geographic areas through regulatory restrictions and/or limitations oninfrastructure expansion. Another type is phasing development areas wheredevelopmentapprovalisdeferreduntilacertaintimeperiodoruntilexistingdevelopedareasaresubstantiallydeveloped.Inthesimplestcase,aphaseddevelopmentsystemprohibits development in areas that lack sewers or some other basic public service.Phased development controls can slow growth to allow municipalities to budgetexpenditures for expansion of municipal services to developing areas over a longerperiod. Slowergrowthcanpreventtheoverburdeningofexistingfacilitieswhile newonesarebeingconstructed.Phasingcanalsoencouragegrowthnearexistingbuiltupareas,helpingtoreducesprawl.Infrastructure Adequacy: These measures typically prohibit the construction of newdevelopmentunlessthepublicinfrastructureisinaplacetosupportit.Inthismethod,prior to or as a condition of residential development approval or of commercial/industrial development approval, it is specifically required to assess the level ofadequacyofservices1 (i.e. roadcapacityortrafficcongestion)orservicecapacity(i.e.waterorsewerservicecapacity)Zoning: Zoningis, ofcourse,themostbasicandcommonlyusedlanduseregulatorytool.Zoningtypicallydictatestheusespermittedoneachparcelofland.Forexample,commerciallandisrezonedtoresidentialuseorresidentialpropertyisdownzoned2sothatitcanaccommodatefewerunitsperacrethanitcouldbefore.Eventhecontrollingmeasurescanbeimposedtoaddressgrowthissueswithinthecontextof GeneralPlan.Stepscanbetakentorestrictthetotalnumberofnewsubdividedlotsthatcanbecreatedinagiventimeframe.
GrowthManagementLegislationinBangladeshDevelopmentcontroltechniquesinthecitiesofBangladeshlargelyfailedduetolackofpropermonitoringoftheconstructionactivities.Mahmud(2006)thinkslackofeffectiveenforcementofplanninglawshaveresultedinahabitofplanviolation/deviationfromtheoriginalplanbytheplotownersandeventuallygivingrisetoanunplannedandhaphazard development of the city. Existing planning regulations are not exercisedproperlyduetocorruption,sociopoliticalinfluenceandlackofinstitutionalcapacityof
1 levels of service is measured on the basis of specific standards for virtually all publicinfrastructure,includingroads(congestionlevels),schools(capacityandcrowding),parks(acresperperson),andpoliceandfireservices(responsetimes).
2 intendedtoreducetheultimateholdingcapacityofanarea,eitherintermsofresidencesorthelandavailableofbusinessexpansion.
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theauthorities.Sogrowthmanagementtechniquesnevercomeupwithitsdesiredresult.Developing countries are struggling with the insufficient and ineffective laws andregulationsfordevelopmentcontrol.Perhaps,theyarestrugglingtomeettheimmediateneedandkeepingbodyandsoultogetherratherthanfindingasolutionofensuringbetterlivingenvironment(Mahmud2007).Presently,wehavefewlegalinstrumentsthatought to be used for controlleddevelopment of the towns andcities of Bangladesh.Density control is generally one of the preferred development management tools asdensitiesdefinetheoverallsizeorbulkofconstructionwhilealsoexpressthedemandthatanareaplaceonitsinfrastructure. DMDPUrbanAreaPlansetforthguidelinesfordevelopmentmanagement(DMDP,
1995,VolII,P6).DMDPreportsuggeststhatcurrentRAJUKpracticeofallowing6storeybuildingsinplanneddevelopedareasshouldcontinue:ifhighdensitiesareto be permitted anywhere, it should be in areas where existing infrastructureprovision is the highest. The practice is also appropriate in the context ofanticipated density increases in existing area. In spontaneous growth areas,developmentupto6storiesshouldonlybepermittedwhereitwouldnotoverburdeninadequateinfrastructurenetworks.
MohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala:MINB2007amendedin2008providedmoreauthoritytoRAJUK,clearcutresponsibilitytomonitorthedevelopmentofthecity,spreadout theresponsibilities tovariousactors, spell out theresponsibilities ofbuildingdesigners,structuralengineers,sitesupervisorsandthepenaltiesiftheyfail.Importantly,itintroducedFARtomanagethegrowthofthecitybyitsrulesofbuildingcoveragearea,allowablefloorspaceandrelationamongbuildingheight,roadwidthandplotsizeetc. Obviously,success ofit will fullydependonhowtheserulesareimplementedbyRAJUKinatransparentway.
Private housing and land development rules 2004 provides a complete legalsupportforlanddevelopmentinprivatesectorhousingwhichpermits350personsperacrethoughthisstandardisquitehighcomparedwithothermegacitiesoftheworld. It provides complete procedures and guidelines for land development,protectingtheenvironment.Italsoprovidespercentagesoflandthatmustbekeptforcommunityfacilities,amountoflandtobesoldout,schoolsites,roadhierarchyand importantly planning standards, for example, allocation of land per 1000population(GoB,2004).
WhatisFloorAreaRatio(FAR)?The FAR is thetotal buildingsquarefootage(buildingarea) dividedbythesite sizesquarefootage(sitearea).Thus,anFARof2.0wouldindicatethatthetotalfloorareaofabuildingistwotimesthegrossareaoftheplotonwhichitisconstructed.Thus,FAR=(Totalcoveredareaonallfloorsofthebuildingonaplot)/(Areaoftheplot)
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53 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity
Fig.1:ThisfigureshowsFARof1.0Source:http://www.carfree.com/far.html
Thissimplymeansthat, if theareaoftheplotis100squaremeters,then100squaremetersofgrossfloorareahas been built on the plot. Theillustration above shows a 4storybuilding covering 1/4 of the site,givingaFARof1.0.Fourfloorsof25squaremeterseacharebuiltonasiteof100squaremeters.
Anotherinstance,anareahastheplanningdecisionofhavingFARof1.5andherearesomewaystogetaFARof1.5:
Builda2storybuildingon75%ofthesite(2x0.75=1.5)
Builda3storybuildingon50%ofthesite(3x0.5=1.5)
Builda4storybuildingon37.5%ofthesite(4x0.375=1.5)
ThisshouldbenotedthataFARof1.5isquitehigh,althoughthisdensityisnotunusualinVeniceorcentralParis,andisconsiderablyexceededinmostareasofManhattan.MostofthecitiesofdevelopedcountriesthosedonthavethescarcityoflandcanaffordtotakethemeasureoflowerFARthan1.0.MostoftheEuropeancitieshaveFARlessthan1.0.FARprovidesthefreedomtoconstructtallerbuildingmaintainingthegivenFARbutitshouldbekeptinmindthathigherbuildingswouldleavemoreroomforstreetsandgardens,butbuildingshigherthan4storiesarenotdesirablebecausetheyareexpensiveto construct and unpleasant to live. By applying of FAR we can ensure moreenvironmentalandsocialbenefitsforgeneratingurbanspacesforoureverydaylife.
Fig.2:TheoreticalexplanationofFAR.
FARinDhakaMohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala2007
MinistryofPublicWorksandHousingpromulgatedDhakaMohanagarImaratNirmanBidhimala (DMINB) in12April2006 underthepowerofTheBuildingConstructionAct,1952butitwasbeingeffectivefrom1January2007.Fromitsfirstpromulgationitwasamendedquitefewtimes.ThisplanninglawintroducedanewtechniqueofFAR
BuildingcoveragewillbehalfoftheplotwhenFARvalueofanareais0.5.Plotcanbeused1floorathalfoftheareaoftheplotor2floorsatonefourthoftheploteither.
BuildingcoveragewillbefullwhenFARvalueofanareais1.0.Plotcanbeusedas1floorcoveringthewholelotor2floorsathalfoftheplotor4floorsatonefourthofthelot.
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development control which contributes in growth management for Dhaka City. ByintroducingFARithaseliminatedrestrictionofthebuildingheight,exceptinfewareas,andpermittedtotalfloorspaceaspertheplotsizeanditsadjacentroadwidth.IthasalsoprovidedascheduleforFARIndexwhereFARindexwasdeterminedonthebasisofplotsizeandadjacentroadwidthofthatplotwhichissameforwholecity,whichisnowbeingconsideredasoneoftheweakpointofthislaw.
Dependingonthesizeoftheplotandthewidthoftheadjacentroad,MINB2007hasproposed minimum and maximum FAR ranging from 3.25 to 6.0 for residentialbuildings,2.0to4.5forEducationalbuildings,3.25to4.0forcommercialbuildingsand3.0to10.0forofficebuildingpurposes.AlltheproposedFARinMINB2007arequitehighforacitywhichwill accommodatequiteabigpopulationsize. Consideringtheurbanizationrateandlandscarcitythesehighstandardswereadopted.
PlanningPermissioninDMINB2007
SuccessofFARimplicationwillmostlydependonthestagesofplanningpermissionofMINB2007,especially,thelaststagewhereoccupancycertificatewillbeissuedbasedonthe field inspection. Inspectors will prepare report comparing the approvedplan byRAJUKandthebuildingconstructedinrealground.Tounderstandthetotalprocessandthe4stagesofplanapprovalofabuildingaregiveninveryshortintheFigure3.
LanduseClearance
DevelopmentPermit
BuildingPermit
OccupancyCertificate
Fig.3:Stagesofplanningpermissionanditssalientfeatures.
BenefitsofFARProvisionsofmandatoryopenspace(or,maximumlandutilizationof40to60%oftotalplot area for residential building), setback, ground coverage, FAR etc. can provide
Document to attach:legal ownership
papers of landLand clearance
certificateSoil test reportFAR calculation & useAll the architectural
design and other technical reports
List of responsible technical personnel
NOC of other stakeholders
Few projects need to take development permits:Residential building with more
than 40 unitsCommercial building with more
than 5000 sqm floor spaceAny project more than 2600
sqm site areaProjects directly connected
with highway or major roadRecreational use more than
1 hectre areaAny polluting industryAny construction within 500
meter of an historical siteAny construction within 500
meter of a natural site
All form of
development or
construction need to
have land use
clearance
Beforeobtaining
occupancycertificate,that
buildingcannotbeused
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55 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity
significantsocialandenvironmentalbenefitstotheresidents(MINB,2007).Asitpermitsafixedamountoffloorspace,itindirectlylimitsthenumberofoccupantsofthebuildingwhichinturnwouldrestrictdensityofanareauptoacertainlevel.Fewotherbenefitsareasfollows: Asiteliminatesheightrestrictionofbuildings,itenablesarchitectsmorefreedomto
design more livable and open spaces through design flexibility. The quality ofbuilding andits monetary value is enhanced. It mayproducemorecommunityspaces,ifeffortscanbetakeninthecommunitylevel.
It enablesprovisionofessential parking, fireescapesandmechanical spacesforwhichadditionalfloorareasarepermitted.IntroductionofFARofMINB2007willincreasemandatoryopenspacesaroundthebuildingwhichwill allowsufficientlight and ventilation to the building and reduce the total amount of builtenvironmentanditsimpactstothemacroclimate.About 50% oftheopenspacemustbekeptunpavedsothatitwillallowmorerainwatertorechargethegroundwatertablewhichisverymuchnecessaryforDhakaCity.
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Fig.4:MoreopenspacescanbemanagedbyfollowingFARtechnique.Source:Zaman,2005.
It makes open grounds, balcony and terraces, etc. affordable without loss ofbuildablefloorarea,therebyimprovingtheenvironmentoftheneighborhoodandbuildings.
Awal (2006),claimsthattheFARprovisionsofthenewrulespermitgreaterfloorarea,makingdevelopmentmoreprofitableevenforthesmallestlandowners.
Table1:ComparativestatementbetweenBCR1996andDMINB2007.
DescriptionLand 2.0Katha 2.5Katha 5.0Katha 7.5KathaRoad 20ft 20ft 20ft 20ftFAR 3.0 3.25 3.50 3.75
NumberofFloor
Rules1996 G+5 G+5 G+5 G+5Rules2007 G+5(min) G+6(min) G+6(min) G+7(min)
GroundCoverage
Rules1996 60% 60% 65% 70%Rules2007 65% 60% 60% 60%
TotalFloorSpace
Rules1996 4290sq.ft 5378sq.ft 11619sq.ft 19066sq.ftRules2007 4320sq.ft 6143sq.ft 13125sq.ft 21068sq.ft
Source:Awal,2006.
It encourages greater floor area entitlements, and joint venture development ofadjacent plots by owners without legal restrictions which is profitable due toincreasedFloorAreaentitlements.
RecommendationsandConclusion
TogetthemaximumbenefitsofFARrules,applicationofFARshouldbeinthecommunitylevelwithcommunityeffortthantheindividualplotlevelwhichisagreatchallengeinthesocioeconomiccontextofDhakaCity.Effortsmaybetakenfrom the public authority level with the participation of private developer andcommunityforthedevelopmentofareas.
AgeneralizedFARonlydependingontheadjacent roadwidthwill not ableto
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57 FARasaDevelopmentControlTool:ANewGrowthManagementTechniqueforDhakaCity
achievetheprimarygoalofFARintroductioninDhakaCity.ValueofFARmustberevisedinaccordancetotheplotsize,populationsizeofthatparticularcommunityandavailable utility services provisionsoncommunity. During fixationof FARvalue,itmustbekeptinmindthatitwillnotexceedtheperacrepopulationdensityproposedbytheDetailedAreaPlan(DAP)ofthatareaorcontradictwiththepolicyplanofthecityplan.
PresentMINB2007hasencouragedtounifyingthesmallerplotstobiggerplotandinitiatecondominiumforconstructionpurpose.Ownersofthesmallerplotswillhavetospentmoreconstructioncostthanbefore.SotheywillbesomewayothercompelledtounifytheadjacentplotstogetherandenjoytheadvantageofFARlike;spaceutilizationandconstructioncostwhichwillrequiresharingmindsetofplotowners.
ExecutionofDMINB2007passedoneandhalfyearanditistooearlytopredictonitsachievementbutdefinitelyitwillbringgoodresultsiftherulesareexecutedproperlyandthebuildinginspectorvisitsthesiteasaskedintherule. DMINBhasabuiltinsystemofmonitoringofdevelopmentactivitiesintheplanningapprovalprocess.Beforeissuingtheoccupancycertificate to usethebuildingauthoritywill inspect thesite tochecktheplanandreality.So, itisexpectedthatthisprocesswill reduceviolationofplanningrulesinfutureandthuseasethecongestedcityareasinthelongrun.Withoutenoughskilledmanpowerofthecitydevelopmentauthority,thislawwillnotbringtheresultsasitwasexpectedbeforepromulgatingtheMINB2007.
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Ratcliffe,J.1993. AnIntroductiontoTownandCountryPlanning.UniversityCollegeLondon:UCLPressLimited.
http://www.carfree.com/far.htmlRetrievedon12May2008.
Growth Management Legislation in Bangladesh