hilitarization in the philippines 1972...

HILITARIZATION I N THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86

The Land and t h e P e o p l e

The P h i l i p p i n e s is a r i c h c o u n t r y b l e s s e d w i t h n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s . The c o u n t r y c o m p r i s e s o f 7107 i s l a n d s and i s l e t s

t h a t a r e s p r e a d o v e r more t h a n a t h o u s a n d miles f rom n o r t h

t o s o u t h , n e a r l y s e v e n hundred m i l e s f rom e a s t t o w e s t

a c r o s s some 500,000 s q u a r e miles o f t h e f a r w e s t e r n c o r n e r

o f t h e P a c i f i c Ocean . S i t u a t e d s o u t h - e a s t o f t h e As ian

m a i n l a n d , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s is bounded on t h e n o r t h by Taiwan

and J a p a n , on t h e e a s t by t h e American P a c i f i c T r u s t

t e r r i t o r i e s , on t h e s o u t h by Borneo and t h e C e l e b e s i s l a n d s ,

and on t h e w e s t by C h i n a , Hongkong and Vie tnam. The t o t a l

l a n d a r e a of t h e c o u n t r y is 115 .800 s q u a r e m i l e s . S i x t y

s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d a r e a is o c c u p i e d by t h e two

l a r g e s t i s l a n d s Luzon and Hindanao . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e s e two

i s l a n d s have been i m p o r t a n t s i n c e t h e t i m e o f S p a n i s h

c o l o n i z a t i o n . Out of t h e 7 , 1 0 7 i s l a n d s and i s l e t s , o n l y

s i x t y f i v e have i n h a b i t a n t s .

The p e o p l e ' s r e l i g i o n was s u b s t a n t i a l l y an imism; I s l a m

had r e a c h e d o n l y t h e s o u t h e r n i s l a n d s - S u l u and Mindanao.

P h i l i p p i n e s is t h e o n l y n a t i o n i n s o u t h e a s t A s i a t o have

been i n a t r i b a l s t a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t when i t came u n d e r

w e s t e r n c o l o n i a l i s m . T h i s a r c h i p e l a g o had n e i t h e r a c e n t r a l

government s t r u c t u r e r u l i n g o v e r a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y n o r a

t r a d i t i o n a l e l i t e c e n t e r e d round a r o y a l c o u r t . I t had

evaded t h e c u l t u r a l i m p a c t o f b o t h C h i n a and 1 n d i a . l Coming

u n d e r w e s t e r n dominance a t an e a r l y s t a g e o f c u l t u r a l and

p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s unde rwen t a l a r g e r

s c a l e o f c o n v e r s i o n t o w e s t e r n ways t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y

i n A s i a . Today n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n is

C h r i s t i a n s . H u s l i m s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n l y i n t h e s o u t h e r n -

most p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y .

S e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s i n t h e r u r a l

areas. The b a s i c u n i t o f F i l i p i n o s o c i e t y is t h e f a r m e r , t h e

t i l l e r o f t h e l a n d , t h e h~. The p r i m a r y u n i t is t h e

e x c e p t i n t h e Hus l im a r e a s o f H indanao , t h e r e

were no p o l i t i c a l u n i t s l a r g e r t h a n t h e hmxmgc~

For c e n t u r i e s , t h i s " p e a r l o f t h e o r i e n t s e a s "

a t t r a c t e d many f o r e i g n t r a d e r s , m a i n l y b e c a u s e of i t s

a b u n d a n t n a t u r a l w e a l t h .

- B.N.Pande , m t h and Sou-5 - 1979): . . Problemsand (London: Mac M i l l a n , 1980), p . 9 .

From C o l o n i a l i s m t o I n d e p e n d e n c e .

The h i s t o r y of c o l o n i s a t i o n of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s g o e s

b a c k t o t h e S i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t c a u g h t European e y e s on

March 1 0 , 1521 t h r o u g h F e r d i n a n d H e g a l l a n . The i s l a n d was

u n d e r S p a n i s h r u l e f rom 1565 t o 1898. The c o u n t r y was named

' t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ' a f t e r P h i l i p I1 o f S p a i n . When t h e

S p a n i a r d s came t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h e y b r o u g h t t h e c r o s s and

t h e sword . They c o l o n i s e d t h e c o u n t r y i n t h e g u i s e of

C h r i s t i a n i s a t i o n , by sowing f e a r t h r o u g h r e l i g i o n and u s i n g

t h e sword t o e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e . B u t h i s t o r y p r o v e d t h a t t h e

i n t e r e s t o f t h e S p a n i a r d s was more economic t h a n r e l i g i o u s . 2

Under t h e S p a n i s h r u l e t h e p e o p l e embraced c h r i s t i a n i t y , 3

and a l s o t h e m i d d l e c l a s s g r e w . The S p a n i s h r e g i m e p r o v i d e d

them e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s . I n 1898, t h e S p a n i a r d s ceded

t h e i s l a n d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r $20 m i l l i o n and

t h e r e a f t e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s r ema ined u n d e r t h e U.S c o n t r o l

t i l l 1941. J a p a n i n v a d e d t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1941 and r u l e d

t h e c o u n t r y t i l l 1945.

Mar ia Reyes , "The P h i l i p p i n e s - A n o v e r v i e w " , P r o f it a t Gun P o i n t , ( S i n g a p o r e : CCA YOUTH, 1984), p . 29.

B e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f S p a n i s h c o l o n a l i s m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e p e o p l e ' s r e l i g i o n was m a i n l y an imism. Islam had r e a c h e d o n l y t h e s o u t h e r n i s l a n d - Hindanao .

The American p e r i o d (1898-1941) d i d l i t t l e t o change

t h e b a s i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e new r u l e s f rom t h a t o f S p a i n . The

economic i n t e r e s t s were a g a i n f o r e m o s t i n t h e U.S agenda f o r

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . I n t h i s p e r i o d , E n g l i s h became t h e common

l a n g u a g e . A f r e e economy i n a c a p i t a l i s t f ramework

emerged . The F i l i p i n o r u l i n g c l a s s e s were a b l e t o s t r e n g t h e n

t h e i r p o s i t i o n and w e a l t h . T h e s e g r o u p s a c q u i r e d t r a c t s o f

e s t a t e s i n r u r a l a r e a s . The o w n e r s h i p of l a n d remained

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n a f e n h a n d s . 4 I t was t o t h e s e F i l i p i n o

e l i t e s t h a t t h e U.S f i r s t t r a n s f e r r e d power . Under t h e t e r m s

o f t h e T y d i n g s - Mc D u f f i e Act 1934, t h e P h i l i p p i n e

commonwealth was s c h e d u l e d t o o b t a i n i ts i n d e p e n d e n c e i n

1 9 4 6 . But i n December 1941 , J a p a n a t t a c k e d P e a r l Harbour and

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s t r u c k a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a U.S c o l o n y and

m i l i t a r y b a s e . By A p r i l 1942 , t h e l a s t U.S and F i l i p i n o

f o r c e s h o l d i n g o u t a g a i n s t t h e J a p a n e s e o n s l a u g h t

s u r r e n d e r e d a t B a t t a n .

J u s t as t h e U.S had d o n e a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y ,

Japan was a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e m a j o r i t y of

t h e e l i t e . Even f o u r months b e f o r e t h e f a l l o f B a t t a n ,

N e a r l y f i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h e c u l t i v a t o r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s e x i s t e d a s L a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s a t t h e t i m e of U.S c o l o n i a l i s m . ( f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s ; s e e PandAy, Q p . C l t , , p . 10.

l e a d i n g P l ~ i l i p p l n e p o l i t i c i a n s were o r g a n i a e d by t h e

J a p a n e s e i n t o a p r o v i s i o n a l c o u n c i l o f s t a t e . I n O c t o b e r

1943 , t h e J a p a n e s e e s t a b l i s h e d a t o t a l l y s u b s e r v i e n t b u t

n o m i n a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t P h i l i p p i n e R e p u b l i c w i t h t h e co-

o p e r a t i o n of much of t h e e l i t e .

T h e r e were many m o t i v e s f o r t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n of t h e

F i l i p i n o s . C o e r c i o n was a c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n o n l y a small

m i n o r i t y o f c a s e s . Some o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t o r s were a t t r a c t e d

by J a p a n ' s s l o g a n " A s i a f o r t h e A s i a n s , " a n a p p e a l i n g

c o n c e p t f o r c o l o n i a l p e o p l e t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e i t meant

" A s i a f o r t h e J a p a n e s e . " 5 Some c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y

c o l l a b o r a t e d i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s f rom t h e

d e p r e d a t i o n s o f d i r e c t J a p a n e s e r u l e , b u t a t t h e same t i m e

t h e y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e J a p a n e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and

p a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y . F o r most o f t h e e l i t e s ,

c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e new c o n q u e r o r s p r o v i d e d - a s i t had

w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s c o n q u e r o r s f o u r d e c a d e s e a r l i e r -- way of

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and economic power .

S e v e r a l mass u p r i s i n g s had p u n c t u a t e d t h e l o n g e r a of

S p a n i s h s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , b u t none p o s s e s s e d

D a n i e l B. S c h i r m e r & S .R . Shalom ( e d s . ), The Reader : A H i s t o r y of C o l m . Neo . . -

D i c t a t o r s h i r , , (Quezon C i t y : Ken I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1 9 8 7 ) , p . 69.

n u l f 1cior1L oo . o r d i n a l i o t ~ Lo o u o t t l la E u r o p e a r ~ a . D u r i n g t he

1 9 t h c e n t u r y , an e d u c a t e d F i l i p i n o m i d d l e c l a s s emerged w i t h

s t r o n g n a t i o n a l i s t f e e l i n g s and a d e s i r e f o r P h i l i p p i n e

i n d e p e n d e n c e . The n a t i o n a l i s t movement a g a i n s t S p a n i s h

c o l o n i a l i s m was o r g a n i s e d m a i n l y by t h r e e l e a d e r s , Dr. J o s e

R i z a l , F r . J o s e Burgos and Mr. Andres B o n i f a c i o . They formed

t h e " K a t i p u n a n " s e c r e t s o c i e t y t o f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e

S p a n i a r d s . The war be tween t h e U.S and F i l i p i n o

r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , and a l s o t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t J a p a n e s e

i m p e r i a l i s m , were a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t r u g g l e

a g a i n s t S p a n i s h c o l o n i a l i s m .

Though t h e P h i l i p p i n e s became an i n d e p e n d e n t S t a t e i n

1946 , t h e r e was no s u b s t a n t i a l change i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of

t h e gove rnmen t . What t h e F i l i p i n o s a c h i e v e d i n 1946 was

i n d e p e n d e n c e f rom U.S w i t h o u t d e c o l o n i s a t i o n . As n o t e d by

J o s e Ma S i s o n ,

. . . t h e U.S g r a n t e d o n l y n o m i n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e c o u n t r y i n 1946 b u t c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r c i s e i n d i r e c t c o l o n i a l r u l e t h r o gh u n e q u a l t r e a t i e s , a g r e e m e n t s and a r r a n g e m e n t s . 1

J o s e Ma S i s o n , " P h i l i p p i n e C u r r e n t s and P r o s p e c t s " , (Bombay), Vo l . 22 , No. 8 ,

F e b r u a r y 1987 , p . 3 1 3 .

It, wnn !.haao a r l l ~ l ~ g l i r l g t r a a l l a n l l l n t l~aonma a maJur

f a c t o r o f d i s c o n t e n t s i n c e 1946 . The s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n s

o f government t h a t P h i l i p p i n e s a d o p t e d was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r

t h e American mode l . A l l t h e e x e c u t i v e powers were v e s t e d i n

t h e P r e s i d e n t and t h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t e l e c t e d f o r a f o u r y e a r

term w i t h e l i g i b i l i t y f o r r e - e l e c t i o n , and l e g i s l a t i v e

powers were v e s t e d i n C o n g r e s s composed o f t h e S e n a t e and

t h e House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I n t o t a l c o n f o r m i t y w i t h i n

t h e f ramework o f t h i s k i n d o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n P r e s i d e n t s

Manuel Roxas, E l i p i d o Q u i r i n o , Ramon Magsaysay, C a r l o s . P .

G a r c i a and Diodado Macapagal r u l e d t h e c o u n t r y f rom 1946 t o

1965 . Marcos was f i r s t been e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t i n 1965 and

r e - e l e c t e d f o r a s e c o n d t e r m i n 1969 . T h e r e a f t e r , he was i n

power t i l l 1986 F e b r u a r y , t h r o u g h u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l me thods .

H i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s f o r I i i l i t a r i z a t i o n

When t h e U.S e s t a b l i s h e d its supremacy i n 1899 , s e v e r a l

o f t h e F i l i p i n o s c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h them and many o t h e r s

r e s i s t e d U.S e f f o r t s f o r c o l o n i s a t i o n , j u s t a s a good number

o f F i l i p i n o p a t r i o t s had opposed J a p a n e s e c o l o n i a l i s m .

A l a r g e number of F i l i p i n o s became g u e r i l l a s and many

g u e r i l l a g r o u p s were formed i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s t o oppose t h e

J a p a n e s e . These g r o u p s were s u p p o r t e d and r e c o g n i s e d by t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s Armed F o r c e s i n t h e F a r E a s t and became known

as USAFFE g u e r i l l a s . They were l e d by U.S o f f i c e r s who had

evaded c a p t u r e o r by members o f t h e F i l i p i n o e l i t e . The most

s i g n i f i c a n t au tonomous g u e r i l l a war movement d e v e l o p e d i n

C e n t r a l Luzon, and a r e a of p e a s a n t r a d i c a l i s m . L e f t wing

l a b o u r and p e a s a n t l e a d e r s , and i n t e l l e c t u a l s e s t a b l i s h e d a

P e o p l e ' s A n t i - J a p a n e s e Army, t h e

Many of i t s l e a d e r s had a l s o been l e a d e r s i n t h e communist

p a r t y 8 and i n t h e communi s t d o m i n a t e d p e a s a n t g r o u p s . T h e Huk

g u e r i l l a s i n c r e a s e d t h e i r c o n t i n u e d r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e

J a p a n e s e and t h e i r e m p h a s i s was on a programme o f w e l f a r e

" f o r t h e common p e o p l e " . I n t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , t h e Huks

u n i t e d F i l i p i n o s w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s o r

s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The communist s y m p a t h i s e r s o f t h e Huks

were c a r e f u l t o d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s a l o n g l i n e s t h a t would

a p p e a l t o t h e m a s s e s and a t t r ac t a l a r g e number o f

f o l l o w e r s . I n o p p o s i n g t h e J a p a n e s e , t h e Huks were a b l e t o

evoke s e n t i m e n t s o f n a t i o n a l i s m and p a t r i o t i s m among t h e

m a s s e s .

T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n c o n c e i v e d i n December 1941, w a s f o r m a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d on March 2 9 , 1942 . I t ' s o f f i c i a l name was W means p e o p l e ' s army t o f i g h t a g a i n s t J a p a n e s e i m p e r i a l i s m .

The Communist P a r t y of P h i l i p p i n e s (CPP) was formed i n i n 1930.

The Hukbalahap i n i t i a l l y was m e r e l y a m i l i t a r y f o r c e

b u t a c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t - t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Movement

(UFM), was soon formed a s t h e p o l i t i c a l arm o f t h e Huks.

T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n was a j o i n t v e n t u r e of m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l

and mass g r o u p s . The m i l i t a r y a s s u r e d t h e f o r c e , t h e

p o l i t i c a l g r o u p p r o v i d e d p r o p a g a n d a and t h e mass g r o u p s

" s u p p l i e d t h e men a s w e l l a s food and money" .' The Huks

were i n c o n t i n u a l c o n f l i c t w i t h o t h e r g u e r i l l a f o r c e s

s u p p o r t e d by t h e U.S F o r c e s , (USAFFE g u e r i l l a s ) . Dur ing t h e

J a p a n e s e o c c u p a t i o n , b a t t l e s t o o k p l a c e i n which t h e Huks

and t h e USAFFE u n i t s met. The USAFFE g u e r i l l a s f a v o u r e d a

" l i e - l o w " p o l i c y and c o n c e n t r a t e d on g e t t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e

i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e Amer icans u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s t h e y would

be a i d e d by t h e r e t u r n of t h e American f o r c e s . The Huks f e l t

t h a t t h e USAFFE g u e r i l l a s d i d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f a c t u a l l y

f i g h t i n g t h e J a p a n e s e . D i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e " l i e - l o w "

p o l i c y was n o t o n l y t h e c a u s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g between

t h e two g r o u p s . USAFFE u n i t s r e s e n t e d t h e enc roachmen t of

Huks i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y : t h e Huks c l a i m e d t h a t m i l i t a r y

w a r f a r e was i n s e p a r a b l e f rom p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e and was, i n

"The Hukba lahaps" , ( O I R R e p o r t No. 5209, 1950), i n D a n i e l B . S c h i r m e r & S . R. Shalom ( e d s . ) , np.ci t , , p . 7 4 .

f a c t , s u b o r d i n a t e t o it and t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e i r e x p a n s i o n

and p e n e t r a t i o n t o be o f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e . 10

While Huks, who were a w e l l t r a i n e d m i l i t a r y , were

f i g h t i n g t h e J a p a n e s e , t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Movement was a l s o

a c t i v e . The Huks had p l a c e d g r e a t e m p h a s i s on t h e i r s o c i o -

economic programmes. Under t h e g u i d a n c e and p r o t e c t i o n of

t h e Huks, p e a s a n t s began t o a c t a g a i n s t t h e r i c h l a n d l o r d s

who had been e x p l o i t i n g t h e p e a s a n t s . I g n o r i n g p re -war

s h a r e c r o p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , t h e p e a s a n t s k e p t t h e e n t i r e

h a r v e s t o f t h e r i c e f i e l d s , a f t e r s u p p l y i n g t h e J a p a n e s e as

o r d e r e d by t h e l a n d l o r d s . ' ' The Huks i n s t i t u t e d r i g i d p r i c e

- c o n t r o l r e g u l a t i o n s i n t h e towns and barrios t h r o u g h o u t

C e n t r a l Luzon and were t h u s a b l e t o r e d u c e p r o f i t e e r i n g t o 'a

minimum. I n a l l t h e s e r e s p e c t s , t h e war t i m e a c t i v i t i e s o f

t h e Huks d i d much t o c r e a t e a p o l i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s i n t h e

p e a s a n t s . l2 P r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s were s e t up i n s e v e r a l

m u n i c i p a l i t i e s u n d e r t h e Huk-UFM c o n t r o l . The UFM had g o t

t h e Huks t o e s t a b l i s h law and o r d e r u n t i l t h e UFM l o s t i t s

p o p u l a r i t y i n 1945 .

Wltl~ l l ie r e l u r r ~ o r 1l1a Amat l ca r~ Army Lo t l ~ e lluk

p r o v i n c e s i n 1945 , many Huks o f f e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s a s

g u i d e s , i n f o r m a n t s , and b e h i n d - t h e - l i n e g u e r i l l a s . While

some Huks were f i g h t i n g s i d e by s i d e w i t h American f o r c e s ,

o t h e r s were engaged i n mopping up o p e r a t i o n s , c l e a n i n g o u t

s m a l l J a p a n e s e p o c k e t s b y p a s s e d i n t h e main d r i v e . 1 3 I n some

a r e a s t h e J a p a n e s e p u p p e t s o l d i e r s had l e f t i n f a v o u r o f t h e

Huk g u e r i l l a s . The Huk g u e r i l l a s were p r e p a r e d t o t a k e o v e r

t h e government o f t h e newly l i b e r a t e d a r e a s . I n f a c t , i n

most o f them t h e Amer icans found t h a t t h e armed p e a s a n t s had

c l e a n e d o u t t h e o p p o s i t i o n and Huks were a l r e a d y i n c o n t r o l

o f t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s , c l a i m i n g t o have been e l e c t e d .

The Huks o b v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d t h a t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Huk c o n t r o l

a s a f a i t a c c o m p l i migh t f o r c e American r e c o g n i t i o n , and

a c c e p t a n c e by t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d Commonwealth gove rnmen t . 14

B u t , i n f a c t , t h e Army's P h i l i p p i n e C i v i l A f f a i r s U n i t

r e p l a c e d most o f t h e Huk men. T h i s p o l i c y c a u s e d

d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e Huks. They r e a l i s e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

AFP d i d n o t r e c o g n i s e t h e i r l o y a l t y and f i g h t i n g p o t e n t i a l .

Later t h e h o s t i l i t y of U.S army a u t h o r i t i e s t o w a r d s t h e i r

o r g a n i s a t i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s l e f t i s t and M a r x i s t l e a n i n g s

became c lear . The d e a l i n g s of t h e U.S - AFP a u t h o r i t i e s

a n t a g o n i s e d t h e Huks and t h e i r a n t a g o n i s m c o n t i n u e d t o

become s h a r p e r .

With t h e d e f e a t o f J a p a n , t h e a s c e n d a n t American power

saw no o t h e r p o t e n t i a l o r open e x t e r n a l t h r e a t t o A s i a

e x c e p t f rom communis t - led n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements.

G e n e r a l Doughlas Mac A r t h u r , t h e n i n c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s and American armed f o r c e s , o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d h i s

f e a r s a b o u t t h e Hukbalahar, Movement.

( I t i s ) a d i s t i n c t p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o t h e Commonwealth gove rnmen t and t h e f u t u r e p e a c e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . ( h e n c e it is) . . . n e c e s s a r y t o k e t h e wing o u t o f t h e sai ls o f t h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n . 18

The P h i l i p p i n e gove rnmen t and l a n d l o r d s c o n d u c t e d a

r e i g n o f t e r r o r a g a i n s t t h e p e a s a n t r y o f C e n t r a l Luzoh i n an

a t t e m p t t o r e s t o r e t h e pre-war c l a s s r e l a t i o n s i n t h e

c o u n t r y s i d e . The Huks and t h e i r a f f i l i a t e d p e a s a n t u n i o n

PKM, had no i n t e n t i o n s o f t r y i n g t o o v e r t h r o w t h e

gove rnmen t , b u t t h e y were i n c r e a s i n g l y f o r c e d t o t a k e u p

weapons t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s . P r e s i d e n t Manuel Roxas '

gove rnmen t had p a s s e d a l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t c l a i m e d from

. . . l5 Rena to C o n s t a n t i n o , The Ph-:~Contin.Li&

m, (Quezon C i t y : T a l a p u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 164-165.

g u n r a n t e e d t e n a n t Pnrmors s e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e r i c e c r o p .

I n r e a l i t y , however , t h e law a l l o w e d l a n d l o r d s t o t a k e h a l f

o f t h e c r o p , which of c o u r s e , t h e y d i d . 16

The r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e s u l t a n t p e a s a n t d i s c o n t e n t was

t h a t t h e gove rnmen t o r g a n i s e d " a n t i - d i s s i d e n t " o p e r a t i o n s ,

l e d by p e o p l e who had e a r l i e r l e d armed men w i t h s k u l l and

c r o s s bones on t h e i r s h i r t s l e e v e s a g a i n s t p e a s a n t s . I n 1948

March, Roxas d e c l a r e d t h e Huks and t h e PRM t o b e i l l e g a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n s . l7 T h i s was u s e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r

f u r t h e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s and t e r r o r a g a i n s t t h e r u r a l

p o p u l a t i o n . Manuel Roxas d i e d t h e n e x t month and was

s u c c e e d e d by t h e Vice - P r e s i d e n t E l p i d i o Q u i r i n o . Q u i r i n o

t r i e d t o n e g o t i a t e a n amnes ty w i t h t h e Huks b u t t h e e f f o r t s

were d e l i b e r a t e l y s a b o t a g e d by t h e l a n d l o r d s who were

p o w e r f u l i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

A s a P h i l i p p i n e c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y s p e c i a l i s t h a s

r emarked , " t h e amnes ty o f f e r f a i l e d b e c a u s e it was n o t

accompanied by t a n g i b l e e f f o r t s o f t h e government t o r i d

i t s e l f o f g r a f t and c o r r u p t i o n , n o r was it accompanied by

l6 S t e p h e n R . Shalom, " C o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , o f ConLenporarv A s i a , No. 2 , 1977 , p . 153.

1 7

p o s i t i v e s t e p s t o w a r d s removing d i s c o n t e n t m e n t among t h e

m a s s e s . " I8 Ano the r c a u s e , n o t e d , was t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e

government t o c o u n t e r t h e Huk a c c u s a t i o n of bad f a i t h on t h e

pa r t o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T e r r o r and c o r r u p t i o n by t h e

P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y m e r e l y i n c r e a s e d a n d , a t t h e same

t i m e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e e l i t e s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r a g e o l d p r a c t i c e

o f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l power f o r p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . The

l a s t straw on t h e c a m e l ' s b a c k came i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e

P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1949 . . . which was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as

" a l a n d mark o f d i s h o n e s t y " . O f f i c i a l r e c o r d s e s t i m a t e d more

t h a n a f i f t h o f t h e b a l l o t s t o b e s p u r i o u s . Eve ry d e v i c e

known t o f r a u d u l e n t e l e c t i o n s was u s e d . . . F i l i p i n o s s a d l y

w i s e c r a c k e d t h a t e v e n t h e b i r d s and b e e s v o t e d i n some

p r e c i n c t s " . 1 9

The Huks, f i n d i n g p a r a m i l i t a r y s t r u g g l e u s e l e s s , c a l l e d

f o r t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e Government . Huks g a i n e d m a s s i v e

s u p p o r t f rom t h e d i s s a t i s f i e d p e a s a n t community, and t h e i r

s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e d w i t h armed s u p p o r t e r s . The v e r y

c o n t i n u i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t a t e w a s i n q u e s t i o n a t o n e

s t a g e .

1 8

q u o t e d i n Lhib,

The U n i t e d S t a t e s was w a t c h i n g a l l t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s

i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and s t e p p e d i n and a d v i s e d t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s P r e s i d e n t t h a t "no f u r t h e r American a i d c o u l d be

c o n s i d e r e d u n l e s s and u n t i l t h e r e is t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s t a k e n s t e p s t o p u t i t s house i n o r d e r

and t h a t it would t h e n n e e d , and b e i n p o s i t i o n t o

e f f e c t i v e l y u s e , a d d i t i o n a l a i d " . 20 A r e p o r t t o t h e

P r e s i d e n t by t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on t h e p o s i t i o n

of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s a i d t h a t " t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e an

e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e A s i a n o f f - s h o r e i s l a n d c h a i n of b a s e s

on which t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e

F a r East d e p e n d s " . The r e p o r t f u r t h e r s a i d " t h e t h r e a t o f

f u r t h e r communist ench roachmen t i n Formosa and S o u t h e a s t

Asia r e n d e r s i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s b e a s s u r e d . The U n i t e d S t a t e s is commit ted t o

t h e e x t e r n a l d e f e n c e o f t h e I s l a n d s and c a n n o t p e r m i t them

t o b e t a k e n by a g g r e s s i o n o r i n t e r n a l s u b v e r s i o n . The

s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

is s u c h a s t o j u s t i f y t h e commitment o f U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r c e s

f o r i t s p r o t e c t i o n , s h o u l d c i r c u m s t a n c e s r e q u i r e s u c h

a c t i o n . - 2 1

The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l ' s s u g g e s t i o n on method o f

a c t i o n s s t a t e d t h a t :

The S e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s become and r ema in s t a b l e , a n t i - c o m m u n i s t , pro-American and an example f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e wor ld o f t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e 9 3 o f p r o g r e s s i v e and r e s p o n s i b l e Government .

J o i n t U.S M i l i t a r y A d v i s o r y Group (JUSMAG) c o n s i d e r e d

i t s own p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e t o be one o f i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s f o l l o w e d t h i s i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y o r i e n t a t i o n .

A c c o r d i n g l y , JUSMAG d r e w up recommendat ions t h a t were

a c c e p t e d by P h i l i p p i n e o f f i c i a l s f o r a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g

r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e a n t i d i s s i d e n t campa ign . On t h e a d v i s e

o f JUSMAG, t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y , combined w i t h t h e

AFP u n d e r t h e o f f i c e of t h e S e c r e t a r y of N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e ,

was g i v e n t h e t a s k o f f i g h t i n g Huks. S p e c i a l a n t i - H u k s u n i t s

c a l l e d B a t t a l i o n Combat Teams (BCT) were o r g a n i s e d w i t h

21 " A R e p o r t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t by t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on t h e P o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h R e s p e c t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , November 9 , 1950 , i n F o r e i m

s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . , (Wash ing ton D . C : U.S Government p r i n t i n g o f f i c e , 1 9 7 6 ) , pp .1514-1515 .

a r t i l l e r y ~ a p a b i l i t y . ' ~ To h e l p t h e newly formed B a t t a l i o n

Combat Teams, U.S m i l i t a r y a i d was s p e e d e d up and t h e i r

a c t i v i t i e s c o n t i n u e d i n f u l l - s w i n g f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .

On t h e s t r o n g u r g i n g o f U.S o f f i c i a l s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s , Ramon Magsaysay was a p p o i n t e d as t h e S e c r e t a r y

o f N a t i o n a l Defence by P r e s i d e n t Q u i r i n o . A s S e c r e t a r y o f

N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , Magsaysay was a b l e t o o b t a i n f o r h i m s e l f a

f r e e hand i n r u n n i n g t h e armed f o r c e s and t o r e v i t a l i s e i t .

N e w methods were i n t r o d u c e d t o combat Huks. An o f f i c e f o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e o p e r a t i o n s was s e t up d i r e c t l y u n d e r

Magsaysay. I t was soon renamed t h e C i v i l A f f a i r s O f f i c e

(CAO). The CAO u n d e r t o o k a m a s s i v e p r o p a g a n d a e f f o r t a g a i n s t

t h e Huks. I t o r g a n i s e d a n t i - c o m m u n i s t f o r m s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s .

P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s were o r g a n i s e d t o g e t t h e Huks t o

l e a v e a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , and it became a n i m p o r t a n t

component of c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s . An example of

t h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t a q t i c was t h e " e y e o f God" p l o y

u s e d a g a i n s t H u k - i n f l u e n c e d areas. " teams would

c r e e p i n t o t h e n i g h t and p a i n t an e y e on t h e house o f

s u s p e c t e d Huk s y m p a t h i s e r s . The community would wake up t o

f i n d p e e r i n g e y e s , enough t o i n d u c e f e a r . Ano the r was t h e

23 S t e p h e n R . Shalom, ~ o . c i t .

"aswang" t a c t i c , w h e r e i n c a p t u r e d Huks were k i l l e d by

p u n c t u r i n g two h o l e s i n t h e n e c k , d r a i n i n g t h e i r b l o o d and

t h e i r c o r p s e s were l e f t i n p l a c e s where many p e o p l e p a s s e d .

T h i s was aimed a t p r e v e n t i n g p e o p l e f rom g o i n g o u t a t n i g h t ,

t h u s m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h Huks p a t r o l l i n g a t n i g h t .

The most s u c c e s s f u l p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t e c h n i q u e was

t h e Economic Development C o r p s o r EDCOR. E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e

Army t o o k a s i ts own t h e Huk s l o g a n "Land f o r t h e l a n d l e s s "

and p romised t o r e s e t t l e a n y r e c a n t i n g Huks on t h e i r p l o t s

of l a n d . But t h o u g h t h e l a n d s e t t l e m e n t were " s u p p o s e d l y f o r

Huk s u r r e n d e r e e s . "

I n O c t o b e r 1950, t h e a n t i - H u k campaign made a ma jo r

b r e a k t h r o u g h when, i n what a U.S Army h i s t o r i a n c a l l e d "a

g r e a t s t r o k e o f l u c k . " a n i n f o r m e r p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n

l e a d i n g t o t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e e n t i r e communist p o l i t b u r o

( t o p - l e a d e r s h i p ) i n M a n i l a . JUSMAG a s s i s t e d P h i l i p p i n e

o f f i c i a l s i n p r e p a r i n g e v i d e n c e f o r u s e i n t h e t r i a l and

s u b s e q u e n t c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e p o l i t b u r o members. Magsaysay

and JUSMAG u s e d t h e M a n i l a round-ups a s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

g e t Q u i r i n o t o s u s p e n d t h e w r i t o f h a b e a s CQUXEL When t h e

w r i t was r e s t o r e d two y e a r s l a t e r , more t h a n a t h o u s a n d

p e o p l e were b e i n g h e l d i n p r i s o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g been c h a r g e d

w i t h a c r i m e o r h a v i n g r e c e i v e d p u b l i c h e a r i n g s . 24

The m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s were c o n t i n u e d . JUSMAG had

recommended t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " i n c r e a s e g round f o r c e s as

r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e . " I n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1950 , t h e Army

was i n c r e a s e d f rom t e n t o s i x t e e n B a t t a l i o n Combat Teams

"upon d i r e c t JUSMAG A d v i c e . " And i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1951 ,

t e n new t eams were a d d e d . The t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e

P h i l i p p i n e Armed F o r c e s r o s e f rom t h i r t y two t h o u s a n d a t t h e

s t a r t o f 1851 t o f i f t y s i x t h o u s a n d i n l a t e 1952 . I n mid

1951 , Washington approved an a d d i t i o n a l g r a n t o f 10 m i l l i o n

i n m i l i t a r y a i d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o f i n a n c e t h e g r o w t h of

t h e A F P . ~ ~

With c o n s i d e r a b l e American a s s i s t a n c e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y r e o r i e n t e d i t s e l f f rom a p u r e l y e x t e r n a l d e f e n c e

f o r c e t o a n army whose p o l i c y p l a c e d e q u a l s t r e s s on

i n t e r n a l d e f e n c e . The C I A p l a y e d a v i t a l r o l e i n t h i s and

t h e armed f o r c e s unde rwen t a s t r e a m l i n i n g .

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) w a s r e v i v e d

and d e p u t e d t o a c t a s a s e c u r i t y f o r c e and w a t c h d o g i n 1 9 5 1

e l e c t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y . A t t h i s e l e c t i o n , Magsaysay became

t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Even b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n ,

p e o p l e had e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d o u b t a b o u t a f r e e and ' f a i r

e l e c t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s a t t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l . But AFP - C I A campaign e f f e c t i v e l y

c r e a t e d an image t h a t c l e a n and f a i r e l e c t i o n s were p o s s i b l e

i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s e v e n a t a t i m e when c o r r u p t i o n w i t h i n t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r a m p a n t . T h i s was a t a c t i c a l move of t h e

CIA i n o r d e r t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e Huk movement and c r e a t e an

a v e r s i o n among t h e p e o p l e a g a i n s t t h e Huks. A f t e r Magsaysay,

t h e AFP c o n t i n u e d t o p e r f o r m r o l e s o u t s i d e o f i ts m i l i t a r y

f u n c t i o n , r a n g i n g f rom typhoon a s s i s t a n c e t o r a i n making. To

c o n s o l i d a t e t h e n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e

AFP e s t a b l i s h e d i ts own "Socio-Economic M i l i t a r y Programme-

SEMP i n 1958 , t h o u g h i t was o n l y a f t e r 1966 t h a t t h e

v i g o r o u s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of s u c h a programme was

u n d e r t a k e n . 2 6

I t was u n d e r t h e r u l e of F e r d i n a n d H a r c o s t h a t m i l i t a r y

i n v o l v e m e n t i n n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s was t o expand

q u a l i t a t i v e l y and t u r n t h e m i l i t a r y f rom a mere i n f l u e n c e t o

26 C a r o l i n a G. Hernandez , "The e x t e n t o f d i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e P h i l i o o i n e s 1946-1970". - - ( U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. t h e s i s , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , New ~ o r k j 1976) , p . 207 .

an a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n P h i l i p p i n e p o l i t i c s . 2 7 I n h i s f i r s t

N a t i o n a l a d d r e s s i n 1966 Marcos s t a t e d q u i t e e x p l i c i t l y .

He s a i d :

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s w i t h i ts man power, m a t e r i a l and e q u i p m e n t r e s o u r c e s p l u s its o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c o h e s i v e n e s s and d i s c i p l i n e p o s s e s s e s a t r emendous p o t e n t i a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n economic d e v e l o p m e n t , wh ich s h o u l d b e e x p l o i t e d t o t h e maximum. Such p a r t i c i p a t i o n becomes i m p e r a t i v e c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e p rob lem b e s e t t i n g t h e c o u n t r y is s o c i o - e c o n o m i c r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y , and t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l t o s o l v e t h i s p rob lem are s c a r c e and l i m i t e d . 5 8

The m i l i t a r y had s t a r t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e and be i n v o l v e d

i n c i v i l i a n - c o n t r o l l e d d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s e k i n d s

of i n v o l v e m e n t p r o v i d e d t h e g r o u n d r e a s o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u i n g

i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s .

S p r e a d o f Military i d e o l o g y

The i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r i m e r a t e and t h e g r o w i n g r a d i c a l

movements l e d by s t u d e n t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s p r o v i d e d

j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s t o c a l l f o r m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n

i n t h e AFP. A s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n smugg l ing

27 P . N . A b i n a l e s , Monograph ( P h i l i p p i n e s : N a t i o n a l i s t R e s o u r c e C e n t r e ) , p . 1 .

28 C a r o l i n a G . He rnandez , n o . c i t . , p . 207 .

a c t i v i t i e s i n . 1087 and the g r o w i n g " u r b a n u n r e s t " , t h e

M e t r o p o l i t a n Command (METROCOH), which became an a f f i l i a t e

u n i t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y (PC) , was formed. T h i s

p a r t i c u l a r u n i t which expanded f rom a mere 300 t o 1 , 7 0 0 a s

a f o r c e e q u i v a l e n t t o o n e P .C.Zone , p l a y e d a c r u c i a l p a r t i n

imp lemen t ing martial law. 2g New m i l i t a r y e d u c a t i o n a l

t r a i n i n g was i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y

o f f i c i a l s . The N a t i o n a l Defence C o l l e g e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

i n s t i t u t e d r e g u l a r c o u r s e s i n 1966 w i t h an a im t o

. . . p r e p a r e and d e v e l o p n a t i o n a l d e f e n c e l e a d e r s , c i v i l i a n o f f i c i a l s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s o f t h e gove rnmen t , and s e l e c t e d e x e c u t i v e s f rom t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r f o r more e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of n a t J 8 n a l p o l i c y , and f o r h i g h command and s t a f f d u t y . . .

S i m i l a r m i l i t a r y e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r m i d d l e

l e v e l o f f i c e r s , l i k e t h e Command and G e n e r a l S t a f f C o l l e g e .

s t a r t e d o f f e r i n g t o p l e v e l c o u r s e s d e s i g n e d n o t o n l y t o

t r a i n s e l e c t e d o f f i c e r s f o r t h e h i g h command b u t a l s o " t o

enhance t h e o f f i c e r 's m a n a g e r i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l

30 J o s e G . S y j u c e , "The N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e C o l l e g e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , The D m s e Rev& ( S p e c i a l i s s u e on t h e A n n i v e r s a r y o f P r e s i d e n t i a l P r o c l a m a t i o n 1081, 1978) a q c i t e d C a r o l i n a G . He rnandez , w.ci t . , p . 158.

s k i l l s . . . ( So as) t o i n c r e a s e h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( s i c ) f o c u s i n g on b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y

and c i v i l i a n r o l e s a s a m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r . ,831

Thus , Marcos b roadened and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d t h e p l a n s

which Magsaysay i n i t i a t e d . By i n t e g r a t i n g m i l i t a r y r e s o u r c e s

w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n , he went beyond t h e

o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e e n v i s i o n e d by Hagsaysay and p l a c e d t h e

m i l i t a r y i n a p o s i t i o n where it n o t o n l y had t h e c a p a b i l i t y

o f i n t e r n a l d e f e n c e b u t a l s o t h e c a p a c i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r

i t s e l f and s e t u p p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e s which c a n t a k e o v e r

and c o n t r o l c r u c i a l s e c t o r s o u t s i d e o f t h e m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t . 32 Through t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law,

m i l i t a r y became a d o m i n a n t f o r c e i n P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y . The

m i l i t a r y was a u t h o r i s e d t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e

c r e a t i o n o f t h e "New S o c i e t y " . Marcos o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d h i s

s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h h i s s i t u a t i o n where t h e m i l i t a r y ' s

c a p a c i t y t o g o v e r n , r u l e and e x a c t o b e d i e n c e . . . was s e e n as

t h e f i r s t new p r i n c i p l e o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n t h e new s o c i e t y ,

and which w a s t o b e implemented by "a b r e e d o f men c a p a b l e

31 A s c i t e d , pp.cit,, p . 155

32 A b i n a l e s , w . c i t . , P . 5 .

n o t o n l y of r u l i n g o t h e r s b u t o f g o v e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s " . 3 3

Thus , d i s c i p l i n e , r e s t r a i n t , c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f power and

o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l m i l i t a r y i d e o l o g y were t o be

t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s of t h e p o l i c y f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e " N e w

S o c i e t y " . By and l a r g e , t h e p e o p l e , s i c k and t i r e d o f

u n e n d i n g bombings, r i o t s , ambushes , g r a f t s , i n e f f i c i e n c y ,

and o f f i c i a l m i s d e e d s , f e l t s o m e t h i n g had t o b e d o n e . They

q u i e t l y a c c e p t e d t h e a s s u r a n c e s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t t h a t i n

r e s o r t i n g t o t h e e x t r e m e remedy, he was m o t i v a t e d o n l y by

h i s d e s i r e t o " s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and ~ e f o r m s o c i e t y " . The

o l d s o c i e t y was d i s c r e d i t e d and r e p u d i a t e d . The s o c a l l e d

"New S o c i e t y " was b o r n w i t h a s e t o f brand-new s l o g a n s and

it w a s supposed t o r e p r e s e n t e v e r y t h i n g good - a new s e n s e

o f d i s c i p l i n e , u p r i g h t n e s s , and l o v e of c o u n t r y .

Mount ing T e n s i o n s and U n r e s t

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s was e l e c t e d as P r e s i d e n t f o r t h e

f i r s t time i n 1965. He was w i d e l y viewed a s a r e f o r m e r . He

i n s t i t u t e d a programme o f l a n d r e f o r m , i n i t i a t e d e f f o r t s t o

b u i l d s c h o o l s and r o a d s , and l a u n c h e d a campaign t o c u r b t h e

33 Razon F e l i x and Hensman R i c h a r d , The ODD-

LIE indinenous ~ e o ~ l e of t h e . .

-, Monograph, (Denmark: IWGIA P u b l i c a t i o n , 1976) . p . 27.

power of l o c a l l a n d l o r d s , p o l i t i c i a n s , e t c . H i s p r e s i d e n c y

t u r n e d o u t t o b e a t y p i c a l one i n many r e s p e c t s : g r e a t

p r o m i s e s and few r e s u l t s . D u r i n g t h e campaign , Harcos had

d e c l a r e d t h a t he was opposed t o s e n d i n g any P h i l i p p i n e army

u n i t s t o Vietnam b u t n o s o o n e r had he been e l e c t e d , t h a n he

u r g e d t h e d i s p a t c h o f a P h i l i p p i n e C i v i l A c t i o n Group t o

Vie tnam. S o c i a l r e f o r m , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a n d r e f o r m s , made no

p r o g r e s s u n d e r H a r c o s , b u t H a r c o s h i m s e l f had done v e r y

well: "on a r a t h e r modes t p r e s i d e n t i a l s a l a r y , he became one

o f t h e l a r g e s t t a x p a y e r s i n t h e c o u n t r y . ..34

M a r c o s ' s g r e a t p o l i t i c a l s k i l l s and a b i l i t y t o u s e t h e

p u b l i c t r e a s u r y t o h i s a d v a n t a g e e n a b l e d him t o become t h e

f i r s t P r e s i d e n t i n t h e R e p u b l i c of P h i l i p p i n e s t o be re-

e l e c t e d f o r a s e c o n d t e r m i n 1969 . T h i s e l e c t i o n was a l s o

c h a r a c t e r i s e d by u n p r e c e d e n t e d v i o l e n c e and w i d e s p r e a d pay-

o f f s and m o s t l y i n f a v o u r o f H a r c o s ' s p a r t y . The p o l i t i c a l

t r e n d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o o k a new t u r n a t t h i s time.

Marcos o r i g i n a l l y f u n c t i o n e d w i t h i n t h e f ramework o f t h e

"Old S o c i e t y " . M i c h a e l S z a z n o t e s t h a t i n t h i s s y s t e m t h e

c h e c k s and b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h r e e c o - e q u a l b r a n c h e s o f

gove rnmen t , v i z . , t h e e x e c u t i v e , l e g i s l a t u r e and t h e

34 " M a r t i a l Law", D a n i e l B . S c h i r m e r & S . R . Shalom, ne &, p . 1 6 3 .

j u d i c i a r y were o b s e r v e d and t h e l e a d e r s were a c c o u n t a b l e t o

t h e p e o p l e i n e l e c t i o n s h e l d e v e r y f o u r y e a r s . 35 T h i s is

n o t c o m p l e t e l y t r u e of t h e work ing o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m and t h i s d i d n o t mean t h a t t h e p e o p l e ' s

v o i c e was h e a r d r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e helm o f power i n a r e a l

d e m o c r a t i c s e n s e . P r e s i d e n t Marcos t r i e d t o overcome t h e

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s e t up by r e s o r t i n g t o

u n d e s i r a b l e m a n i p u l a t i o n s i n e l e c t i o n s and o t h e r p o l i t i c a l

p r o c e s s e s . T h i s was more e v i d e n t i n t h e 1969 P r e s i d e n t i a l

e l e c t i o n s . Accord ing t o P e t e r Khan,

. . . t h e 1969 P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i s h o n e s t even f o r a c o u n t r y i n which b l a t a n t v o t e b u y i n g and p o l i t i c a l s h o o t o u t s were f a i r l y common p l a c e . I t l e f t t h e c o u n t r y p o l i t i c a l l y e x h a u s t e d , t h e economy i n c h a o s , t h e p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n d e e p l y e m b i t t 5ged and t h e p u b l i c more c y n i c a l t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .

The r e p o r t s o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p of c i t i z e n s d e v o t e d t o

t h e c a u s e of t r u t h , j u s t i c e and f r eedom o b s e r v e d :

. . . t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c o n t e s t o f 1969 , g o i n g f a r beyond a l l p r e v i o u s e l e c t i o n s i n t e r m s of what was

35 Michae l Z. S z a z , "The P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r Marcos" , The 1 of S o c i a l . P o l i t i c a l and E c o n o n i c S t u d i e s ,

. . (Washington D. C.j, Vol . 1 0 , No. 3 , F a l l 1985 , p . 308 .

36 P e t e r R. Khan, "The P h i l i p p i n e s w i t h o u t Democracy", F o r e i e n A f f a i r s (New York ) , Vo l . 5 3 , No. 2 , A p r i l 1974 , p . 6 1 6 .

d e s c r i b e d by r e s p o n s i b l e newsmen a s t h e " t h r e e g ' s " - - g u n s , g o o n s and g o l d - b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e s y s t e m was s o v i c 4 9 u s and h o p e l e s s t h a t i t s h o u l d b e c a s t o v e r b o a r d .

L a t e s i x t e e s and e a r l y s e v e n t e e s saw a r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f

t h e movement f o r a g e n u i n e democracy i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Growing a w a r e n e s s among t h e p e o p l e o f t h e need t o f i g h t

a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n t e n d e n c i e s o f H a r c o s ' r eg ime a l s o

s p r e a d w i d e l y . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , L e s t e r Edwin Ru iz p o i n t s

o u t t h a t :

. . . i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s , F i l i p i n o s began t o e x p e r i e n c e a g r o w i n g s e n s e of c o l l e c t i v e n a t i o n a l a g i t a t i o n n o t f e l t b e f o r e , a t least i n i ts d e p t h and m a g n i t u d e , i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R e p u b l i c . . . T h i s c o l l e c t i v e n a t i o n a l a g i t a t i o n was d u e , i n l a r g e m e a s u r e , t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y a r i s i n g f rom its 5 t p e r i e n c e of c o l o n i a l and n e o - c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n .

Workers , p e a s a n t s , s t u d e n t s , r e l i g i o u s men and women,

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , e t c . seem t o have found a common c a u s e d u r i n g

t h i s p e r i o d . When t h e F i l i p i n o s were o r g a n i s i n g t h e m s e l v e s

i n a b i g way a g a i n s t Marcos , he was becoming more power

h o ~ e t 0 e o f who care, (Monograph) , A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p of c i t i z e n s d e v o t e d t o t h e c a u s e of T r u t h , J u s t i c e and L i b e r t y ( P h i l i p p i n e s ) , 1 9 7 7 , p . 7 . [Here a f t e r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p document ]

38 Lester Edwin J . R u i z , " P h i l i p p i n e P o l i t i c s as a P e o p l e ' s Q u e s t f o r A u t h e n t i c P o l i t i c a l S u b j e c t h o o d . " , Alternative ( G u i l d f o r d ) , V o l . 11. No. 4 , O c t o b e r 1986 , p . 506 .

hungry and was t r y i n g t o c l i n g on t o power i n w h i c h e v e r way

p o s s i b l e . The F h i l i p p i n e C o n s t i t u t i o n r e s t r i c t e d t h e

P r e s i d e n t t o two t e r m s i n o f f i c e , and t h u s by 1972 Harcos

c o u l d s e e t h e impend ing t w i l i g h t o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r .

Fo r someone a s commi t t ed t o s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t as H a r c o s ,

t h i s p r e s e n t e d a s e r i o u s c r i s i s . T h r e e s e p e r a t e c r i s e s

conve rged a t t h e end o f 1972; a c r i s i s f o r P h i l i p p i n e

P r e s i d e n t F e r d i n a n d E . Marcos , a c r i s i s f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e

s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e s t a t u s q u o , and a c r i s i s f o r Washington .

The p e r i o d o f t h e Marcos p r e s i d e n c y , which was d u e t o

e x p i r e a t t h e end o f 1973 , saw an i n c r e a s e and

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p r o t e s t . The moun t ing u n r e s t i n d i f f e r e n t

p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y became a s e r i o u s p rob lem. C o r r u p t i o n

was r a m p a n t . Ten p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e e n j o y e d o w n e r s h i p o f

n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e w e a l t h . The l a n d r e f o r m law which was

p a s s e d i n t h e s e n a t e went l a r g e l y un implemented f o r l a c k of

o r g a n i s e d i d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n b e h i n d i t . A l l o t h e r

p r o b l e m s -- t h e c r i m e r a t e , law and o r d e r , v i o l e n t

d i s s i d e n c e -- were u l t i m a t e l y t o be t r a c e d t o s o c i a l

i m b a l a n c e . T h e r e was a l s o a p o l i t i c a l i m b a l a n c e . The two

m a j o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s were p r o t e c t e d e x c l u s i v e l y by

s t a t u t e a t t h e c o u n t i n g o f t h e b a l l o t s and t h e s y s t e m had

d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o a monopoly of one p a r t y w i t h two f a c t i o n s ,

b o t h c o n t r o l l e d by economic power b l o c s

The y e a r 1972 t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e y e a r o f a p ro found

c r i s i s . I n J u n e 1972 Harcos convened a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l

C o n v e n t i o n . P r e s i d e n t Harcos c o n t r o l l e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n w i t h

t h e aim o f s t o p p i n g t h e move f o r key e l e c t o r a l r e f o r m t h a t

would r e v o l u t i o n i z e t h e p a r t y s y s t e m , and a l l o w t h e p e a c e f u l

r i s e o f new i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s which migh t l a t e r p r o v e t o be

h i s a n t a g o n i s t s . D u r i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n , t h e whole n a t i o n was

shocked by t h e r e v e l a t i o n s o f a c o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e , Edvardo

Q u i n t e r o , a f o r m e r Ambassador , who s t o o d on t h e f l o o r and

denouncdd t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of money i n e n v e l o p e s t o a

number of d e l e g a t e s . Raul S . Manglapus , a f o r m e r F o r e i g n

S e c r e t a r y and l e a d e r o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e s i n t h e t h e n

C o n s i t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n p o i n t e d o u t :

The f i r s t e v i d e n t o b j e c t i v e o f P r e s i d e n t Marcos i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n wee t o g e t i t t o change t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l t o t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m s o t h a t he m i g h t c o n t i n u e i n power as P r i m e M i n i s t e r , s i n c e h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r r u n f o r P r e s i d e n t . The second was t o d e f e a t a r e s o l u t i o n f i l e d by members o f o u r g r o u p t h a t would ban p a s t and incumbent P r e s i d e n t s and t h e i r s p o u s e s f rom u n n i n g f o r any o f f i c e u n d e r t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n . 3 5

39 Raul S. Manglapus , " P h i l i p p i n e M a r t i a l Law: t h e T r u t h and F i c t i o n " , Preedorn-Issue No. 20 , J u l y - August 1973 , i n A-for (Wash ing ton : Movement f o r a F r e e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 9 .

A s e r i e s of m y s t e r i o u s bombings t o o k p l a c e i n t h e

g r e a t e r M a n i l a area d u r i n g Augus t and t h e f i r s t t h r e e weeks

o f Sep tember , 1972. Raul S . Manglapus d e s c r i b e d it a s

f o l l o w s :

. . . a k i n d of c r i s i s , s u s p i c i o u s l y 1

a r t i f i c i a l , had begun t o i r k t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e M a n i l a a r e a . I t was a s o r t o f ready-made, i n s t a n t "mess" . Bombs were b e i n g e x p l o d e d i n t h e o d d e s t p l a c e s . Only o n e p e r s o n was k i l l e d - a s h o p p e r i n a d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e . Some o f t h e bombs were p l a n t e d i n t o i l e t s i n c l u d i n g t h e l a v a t o r y o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n on t h e e i g h t e e n t h f l o o r o f t h e Quezon C i t y Hall . T h i s l e d a d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e t i r e d J u s t i c e o f t h e Supreme C o u r t t o r emark i n a s p e e c h on Law Day t h a t he c o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h e o f f i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n t t t h i s was a l l p a r t o f communist c o n s p i r a c y . . . ti3

As F e l i x Roxano and R i c h a r d Hensman p u t i t : " t o s a t i s f y

o u r f o r e i g n c r e d i t o r s , t o s e e k t o c o n t i n u e i n power and t o

p r e v e n t c r i t ic i sm becoming l e t h a l , o n e h a s t o b e i n c o n t r o l

o f what is s a i d and d o n e . ,941

Y e t , t h e t h r e a t s , h a r a s s m e n t , impr i sonmen t and

a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f d i s s e n t e r s by t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a g e n c i e s

were h e l p i n g t o c r e a t e a u n i t e d o p p o s i t i o n . The p r o t e s t i n g

i n t e l l e c t u a l s g r o u p s were o r g a n i s e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y b e t t e r i n

t h i s p e r i o d . The Communist P a r t y , which had been r e o r g a n i s e d

41 F e l i x Raxon & Hensman R i c h a r d , cD.cit., p . 25

on M a r x i s t L e n i n i s t l i n e s i n 1968 , and i ts armed wing c a l l e d

New P e o p l e ' s Army which had come i n t o b e i n g i n 1969, g a i n e d

momentum and p e o p l e ' s s u p p o r t . Members o f t h e Armed F o r c e s

had p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t what t h e y r e g a r d e d as u n p a t r i o t i c

moves and s t a r t e d g o i n g o v e r t o j o i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y g r o u p s .

I n Mindanao, t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f P h i l i p p i n e s , armed r e v o l t

b r o k e o u t and s p r e a d . The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y s t a r t e d

t h e p r o c e s s o f t e r r o r i s i n g t h e Muslim areas and k i l l i n g

p e o p l e . But t h e y c o u l d n o t s u p p r e s s t h e r e v o l t and Muslim

" s e c e s s i o n i s t " g r o u p s g a i n e d more s t r e n g t h d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e s .

Ano the r c r i s i s which e r u p t e d c o n c e r n e d u n f a v o u r a b l e

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e U.S sup remacy i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . On

1 7 Augus t , 1972 , t h e P h i l i p p i n e Supreme C o u r t g a v e its

d e c i s i o n i n a case which i n v o l v e d t h e r i g h t s o f American

c i t i z e n s . Through t h i s judgement it r u l e d t h a t t h e

p r e f e r e n t i a l r i g h t s e n j o y e d b y U.S c i t i z e n s u n d e r t h e

" P a r i t y " a r r a n g e m e n t were u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . The Amer icans

a c q u i r e d l a n d i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r

t h i s a g r e e m e n t . I t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f , t h e s e

was a b o u t U.S $ 700 m i l l i o n s i n 1972 . The Supreme C o u r t

d e c i s i o n demanded t h e i r c o n f i s c a t i o n o r made them s u b j e c t t o

f o r c e d s a l e by 1 9 7 4 . T h i s a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y a l l l a n d

a c q u i r e d by U.S c i t i z e n s s i n c e 1946 b u t t e r m i n a t e d t i m b e r

l i c e n s e s , p e t r o l e u m l e a s e s , p u b l i c s e r v i c e f r a n c h i s e s and

o t h e r c o n t r a c t s w i t h v a l i d i t y beyond 1 9 7 4 . ~ ' E a r l i e r , t h e r e

had been o t h e r Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n s showing t h e p r a c t i c e s

o f o i l compan ie s t o b e i l l e g a l , and i n e f f e c t c u r t a i l i n g

s p e c i a l U.S p r i v i l e g e s i n o i l e x p l o i t a t i o n and s o o n . Such

j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s , c h a l l e n g i n g t h e i l l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s and

a c q u i s i t i o n s o f U.S c o r p o r a t i o n s , were w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d by

n a t i o n a l i s t and a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t f o r c e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . I t

was a s i g n of t h e c h a n g i n g t i m e s t h a t f rom c o n s e r v a t i v e

q u a r t e r s t h e r e had come a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t a t e

t o r e v e a l i ts t r u e f u n c t i o n s . Even i n t h e n e o - c o l o n i a l

s i t u a t i o n t h e r e was a c h o i c e be tween o b s e r v i n g t h e law o f

t h e l a n d and e n a b l i n g f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s t o d e f y i t .43 Given

t h e mood of t h e c o u n t r y , t h e b i p a r t i s a n s u p p o r t f o r U.S

i n t e r e s t s i n t h e f a c t i o n s o f t h e r u l i n g class c o u l d n o t b e

c o u n t e d upon t o e n s u r e t h a t , whoever was e l e c t e d , t h e

s t a t u s - q u o would be m a i n t a i n e d . T h e r e was no imminent

d a n g e r t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c i v i l -

l i b e r t i e s was a l l o w i n g - p e r h a p s f o r t h e f i r s t time i n

P h i l i p p i n e h i s t o r y - a b r o a d b a s e d c h a l l e n g e t o t h e s t a t u s -

q u o t o grow. The b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h e d e e p l y i n e q u i t a b l e

s o c i a l o r d e r saw a l o n g - t e r m t h r e a t t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and

w e a l t h .

I t w a s i n t h i s s e t t i n g o f a n a r c h y , p u b l i c c o n f u s i o n .

t e r r o r and d e s p a i r , o c c u r i n g j u s t one y e a r b e f o r e t h e end

of h i s u n e x t e n d a b l e s e c o n d t e r m , t h a t P r e s i d e n t F e r d i n a n d

Harcos p r o c l a i m e d m a r t i a l law. The p r o c l a m a t i o n was d a t e d

September 2 1 , 1972 , t h e d a y when C o n g r e s s was s c h e d u l e d t o

a d j o u r n f o r t h e y e a r . But C o n g r e s s d i d n o t f i n i s h its t a s k

on t h a t d a t e , and t h e p u b l i c r e l e a s e o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n had

t o be d e f e r r e d . The immed ia t e c a u s e o f t h e martial law

d e c l a r a t i o n as o f f i c i a l l y announced , was a n a t t e m p t on t h e

l i f e o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f N a t i o n a l Defence on t h e n i g h t o f

September 2 2 , 1972 . A R e p o r t t o t h e Commit tee on F o r e i g n

R e l a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e by two members o f i t s

s t a f f s e n t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n

i n November, 1972 , r e p o r t e d :

The f a c t o f t h e m a t t e r is t h a t t h e a t t e m p t a g a i n s t t h e S e c r e t a r y of Defence o c c u r e d on t h e e v e n i n g o f Sep tember 22 , t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f m a r t i a l l a w was announced b u t , as i t t u r n e d t t h e d a y a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n had been s i g n e d .

44 " S t a f f R e p o r t f o r U . S . S e n a t e Commit tee on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s : Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1972" , 9 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 1st s e s s i o n , F e b r u a r y 18, 1973 (Washington D.C : U.S Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 - 2 . [ h e r e a f t e r , A r e p o r t f o r U . S . S e n a t e Commi t t ee . 19721

On 23 S e p t e m b e r , 1972 , t h e P r e s i d e n t announced t h r o u g h

t h e t e l e v i s i o n t h a t he had s i g n e d p r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081, as

of September 2 1 , 1972 p l a c i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r martial

law a l l e g e d l y " t o s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and r e f o r m s o c i e t y " .

I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f Martial l a w

The d a y f o l l o w i n g t h e s i g n i n g of t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f

m a r t i a l l aw, p r o m i n e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a l l o f whom had been

c r i t i c a l o f t h e H a r c o s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were p u t u n d e r a r r e s t .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y s a s e r i e s o f arrests c o n t i n u e d . S c o r e s

of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e s , s t u d e n t l e a d e r s ,

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , p r i e s t s , p e a s a n t l e a d e r s , e t c . , were t a k e n t o

t h e s t o c k a d e . A f t e r a r r e s t i n g s o many d e l e g a t e s of t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n , P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s a l l o w e d t h e

C o n v e n t i o n t o c o n t i n u e i t s s e s s i o n s . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s

became e v i d e n t i m m e d i a t e l y . Marcos was g o i n g t o u s e t h e

C o n v e n t i o n t o l e g i t i m i s e h i s power-grab and

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e h i s f u t u r e d i c t a t o r s h i p . He p r o m u l g a t e d

t h r o u g h t h e C o n v e n t i o n a t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n p r o v i d i n g f o r

an i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly composed o f t h e members of

C o n g r e s s and t h e C o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e s who v o t e d " y e s " t o t h e

p r o p o s a l . I t a l s o made t h e P r e s i d e n t Marcos t h e i n t e r i m

d i c t a t o r . T h i s was t h e h e a r t o f t h e c o n s p i r a c y . T h i s k i n d

o f a p r o v i s i o n r a t i f i e d a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f P r e s i d e n t

Harcos u n d e r m a r t i a l l aw r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e

acts were l e g i t i m a t e l y w i t h i n h i s r i g h t s u n d e r t h e 1935

C o n s t i t u t i o n . Raul S. Manglapus h a s o b s e r v e d :

I t v e s t s a l l powers o f g o v e r n m e n t s i n him and l e a v e s i t t o him t o d e c i d e when t o c a l l t h e i n t e r i m n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y t o s e s s i o n . S i n c e it is t h i s a s s e m b l y t h a t is empowered t o c a l l t h e f i r s t r e g u l a r e l e c t i o n s u n d e r t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n , he c a n s i m p l y d e s i s t f rom c o n z s n i n g it and s t a y i n a b s o l u t e power i n d e f i n i t e l y .

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n was supposed t o e s t a b l i s h a

p a r l i a m e n t a r y form o f gove rnmen t , and t h e t r a n s i t o r y

p r o v i s i o n , was t o p r o v i d e t h e b r i d g e be tween t h e o l d and t h e

new. On November 3 0 , 1972 t h e e n t i r e p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n ,

w i t h t h e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n was s i g n e d by most o f t h e

d e l e g a t e s , h o p i n g t h e y would d o m i n a t e t h e law-making body

which was s u p p o s e d t o e x i s t " i m m e d i a t e l y " upon t h e

r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e new C h a r t e r .

With r e m a r k a b l e s p e e d , t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c r e e d t h a t a

n a t i o n a l p l e b i s c i t e on t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n would b e h e l d on

J a n u a r y 15, 1973 . T h i s k i n d o f a c a l l i t s e l f was i l l i c i t

s i n c e it was t h e C o n g r e s s o r , a s some a u t h o r s would

c l a i m , C o n v e n t i o n i t s e l f t h a t c a n f i x t h e time f o r a

-

45 Raul S . H a n g l a p a u s , D . c i t . , P . 9 .

p l e b i s c i t e . Under t h e o l d C o n s L l t u L i o n , C o n g r e s s was

supposed t o convene on J a n u a r y 22 , 1973, b u t t h e

r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n would mean t h e o u t r i g h t

a b o l i t i o n o f C o n g r e s s - t h e p o l i t i c a l b r a n c h t h a t c o u l d , i f

i t had t h e w i l l , c h a l l e n g e t h e i n d e f i n i t e i m p o s i t i o n of one-

man r u l e . Most o f t h e Congressmen were c a l l e d t o t h e

p a l a c e . They a g r e e d t o d i s s o l v e t h e m s e l v e s , h o p i n g t h e y

would be r e c o n s t i t u t e d as members o f p a r l i a m e n t . 46

The h o l d i n g o f t h e p l e b i s c i t e was p r o m p t l y q u e s t i o n e d

by v a r i o u s g r o u p s i n t h e Supreme C o u r t , on two g r o u n d s : l a c k

o f f r eedom o f c h o i c e u n d e r m a r t i a l l a w , and l a c k o f

s u f f i c i e n t t i m e f o r d i s c u s s i o n and d e b a t e . 4'1 s e n s i n g

a d v e r s e p u b l i c r e a c t i o n t o t h e i d e a o f a p l e b i s c i t e w i t h o u t

p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n , P r e s i d e n t Marcos i s s u e d a d i r e c t i v e on

December 2 1 , 1972 , o r d e r i n g t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law, t o a l l o w " f r e e and open

d e b a t e s " . He a l s o announced he was s t u d y i n g a p r o p o s a l t o

p o s t p o n e t h e p l e b i s c i t e t o a l a t e r d a t e .

I t was d u r i n g t h e l i m i t e d p e r i o d of f r e e p u b l i c d e b a t e

on t h e new C o n s t i t u i o n t h a t t r emendous o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e 9

46 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p documen t , Q O . C ~ ~ . , p . 12 .

4 7 Ibid.

m a r t i a l law r e g i m e s u r f a c e d . I t was as i f a b e w i l d e r e d ,

c o n f u s e d p e o p l e , i n a b r i e f p e r i o d o f f r e e d o m and r e f l e c t i o n ,

saw t h r o u g h t h e whole c h a r a d e . 48 , P l a c e d u n d e r s c r u t i n y

d u r i n g t h e s e d e b a t e s were t h e c o n v e n i e n t and e a s y

a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t democracy , w e s t e r n s t y l e , d o e s n o t f i t t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s i t u a t i o n , t h a t t h e c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s

g u r a n t e e d by t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n are o f . l i t t l e v a l u e t o p e o p l e

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p rob lem o f d a i l y s u r v i v a l , and t h a t

m a r t i a l law, P h i l i p p i n e s t y l e , would r e f o r m t h e s i c k

s o c i e t y .

Again , t h e S t a f f R e p o r t f o r t h e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s

Commit tee o f t h e U.S S e n a t e s t a t e d :

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s s i g n e d p r o c l a m a t i o n 1081, p l a c i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r m a r t i a l law, on September 2 1 and announced i t on S e p t 23 . I n h i s p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t a t t h e time m a r t i a l law was p r o c l a i m e d , he s a i d t h a t t h e n a t i o n was " i m p e r i l l e d by t h e d a n g e r o f a v i o l e n t o v e r t h r o w , i n s u r r e c t i o n and r e b e l l i o n " j u s t i f y i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f m a r t i a l law u n d e r A r t i c l e VII o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . He went on t o s a y t h a t t h e r e is no d o u b t i n a n y b o d y ' s mind t h a t a " s t a t e of r e b e l l i o n e x i s t s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " and r e f e r r e d t o t h e Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n o f December 11, 1971 i n which s u c h a f i n d i n g had been made.

P r o c l a m a t i o n 1081 began by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t h r e a t f rom " lawless e l e m e n t s who a r e moved by a

common o r s i m i l a r i d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , d e s i g n , s t r a t e g y and g o a l , and e n j o y i n g t h e a c t i v e m o r a l and m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t o f a f o r e i g n power . . . and (who) a r e a c t u a l l y s t a g i n g u n d e r t a k i n g and waging an armed i n s u r r e c t i o n and r e b e l l i o n . . . ( t o ) s u p p l a n t o u r e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic and l e g a l o r d e r w i t h an e n t i r e l y new o n e whose form of government . . . and whose p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic , l e g a l and m o r a l p r e c e p t s are b a s e d on t h e M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t -Mao i s t t e a c h i n g s and b e l i e f s . . .

S i n c e d e c l a r i n g m a r t i a l l aw, P r e s i d e n t Marcos h a s p u t l e s s e m p h a s i s on t h e t h r e a t f rom i n s u r g e n t g r o u p s ( w h i c h he c l a i m e d had l e d t o h i s a c t i o n ) and on t h e m e a s u r e s t o c o n t r o l t h a t t h r e a t and more e m p h a s i s on t h e r e f o r m s n e c e s s a r y t o b u i l d what he c a l l s " t h e New S o c i e t y " , a p h r a s e t h a t is t h r u s t i n t o p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s by t h e government t h r o u g h a l l a v a i l a b l e m e d i a . . .

I t is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h a t t h e few hundred w e a l t h y f a m i l i e s , r e f e r r e d t o as t h e o l i g a r c h s , have d o m i n a t e d t h e economy and p o l i t i c s o f t h e i s l a n d s s i n c e t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d and t h a t h e r e - t o - f o r e and P h i l i p p i n e C o n g r e s s , b u r e a u c r a c y and press have been d o m i n a t e i g b y them and o p e r a t e d p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r b e n e f i t .

The Commit tee came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Marcos , h i s

f a m i l y and h i s f r i e n d s e n r i c h e d t h e m s e l v e s upon t h e

p r o c l a m a t i o n o f mart ial l a w .

T h e r e were s e v e r a l o t h e r f a c t o r s and s e c t o r s which

i n f l u e n c e d t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l d e c i s i o n t o impose mart ia l law.

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e s t u d e n t , l a b o u r .

49 A R e p o r t f o r U . S S e n a t e Commit te , np .c i t ,

u r b a n p o o r and n a t i o n a l i s t s e c t o r s , l o c a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l

b u s i n e s s s e c t o r s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , e t c . , had p l a y e d key

r o l e i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o impose martial law a s

w e l l as i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f i t . The AFP had

p l a y e d a ma jo r r o l e i n t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f m a r t i a l

law. When Marcos t o o k t h e d e c i s i o n as e a r l y as s e v e r a l

months b e f o r e i t was imposed , h e r e a l i s e d t h e need t o g e t

t h e f u l l s u p p o r t and b a c k i n g o f t h e AFP. The P r e s i d e n t

r e v e a l e d h i s p l a n s t o t h e v a r i o u s h e a d s o f s e r v i c e s f i r s t ,

i n d i v i d u a l l y , making e a c h o f them f e e l t h a t t h e y were t h e

o n l y o n e s h e l d i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n f i d e n c e , and t h e n as a

g r o u p , a few weeks b e f o r e it was f i n a l l y implemented . Such

an a p p r o a c h was q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l , a t l e a s t i n g e t t i n g t h e

l o y a l t y o f t h e AFP.

T h e r e is a n o t h e r a rgumen t t h a t t h e i m p o s i t i o n of

m a r t i a l law was l a r g e l y a r e a c t i o n t o t h e F i r s t Q u a r t e r

S to rm (FQS) of 1970 o r what i t r e p r e s e n t e d . 50 T h i s was t h e

s e r i e s of m a s s i v e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , r a l l i e s and s t r i k e s

s p e a r h e a d e d by t h e s t u d e n t movement i n a l l i a n c e w i t h o t h e r

s e c t o r s s u c h as t h e l a b o u r movements, w o r k e r s , p e a s a n t s ,

50 The FQS r e f e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s h e l d i n Met roMani la and o t h e r c i t i e s i n 1970 J a n u a r y 26 , J a n : 30 & 31, F e b r u a r y 1 2 , Feb : 18 and P u b l i c m e e t i n g s and P e o p l e ' s march h e l d on F e b . 26 , March 17, e t c .

e t c . Some o f t h o s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and r a l l i e s r e s u l t e d i n

d e a t h and v i o l e n c e .

G e n e r a l Romeo E s p i n o , t h e n C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP

s a i d , a month a f t e r martial law was imposed:

P r o t e s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , s p e a r h e a d e d m a i n l y by s t u d e n t and l a b o u r g r o u p s began e r u p t i n g p e r i o d i c a l l y , i n c r e a s i n g i n f r e q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y , a s i s s u e s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y m u l t i p l i e d , and p a s s i o n s h e i g h t e n e d . A b i t t e r round of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s t r i k e s and f u e l p r i c e d i s p u t e s p r e c i p i t a t e d by e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , a l s o d i s r u p t e d l i f e i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e 5 1 c o u n t r y , most e s p e c i a l l y i n M e t r o p o l i t a n M a n i l a .

Marcos o b s e r v e d t h e c a s e s o f v i o l e n c e t h a t e n s u e d f rom

t h e series of m a s s i v e u p r i s i n g t h a t u s h e r e d i n t h e FQS, and

he came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m was " t h e

i n e x p e r i e n c e i n r i o t and mob c o n t r o l o f t h e p o l i c e and

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , and t h e d e s i g n s of t h e l e f t i s t s and

n i h i l i s t r a d i c a l s i n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s " . He a s s e r t e d t h a t

t h e r a n k s of t h e s e s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t o r s were r e p e a t e d l y

i n f i l t r a t e d by r a d i c a l l e f t i s t s who were t o sow v i o l e n c e and

t h u s p r o v o k e v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n f rom t h e p o l i c e and m i l i t a r y

a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r H a r c o s , t h e s e marked t h e " b e g i n n i n g s o f a

51 A s q u o t e d i n A lex Be l low B r i l l i a n t J r . andHartial (Quezon C i t y : Great Books T r a d i n g , 1987), p . 48 .

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n s t a g e - managed by a d e t e r m i n e d

m i n o r i t y . ,052

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s d e c l a r e d t h a t he imposed m a r t i a l law

i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n two f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c t i v e s ; name ly , (1)

s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and ( 2 ) r e f o r m s o c i e t y . I n a P r e s i d e n t i a l

s t a t e m e n t b r o a d c a s t on N a t i o n a l Rad io and T e l e v i s i o n on

September 22 , 1972 he s a i d :

I am u t i l i s i n g t h i s power . . . t o s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and r e f o r m o u r s o c i e t y . . . We w i l l e l i m i n a t e t h e t h r e a t o f a v i o l e n t o v e r t h r o w o f o u r R e p u b l i c . B u t , a t t h e same t i m e , we m u s t now r e f o r m t h e s o c i a l , ecoxgmic and p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n o u r c o u n t r y .

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s s p e c i a l l y i nvoked a r t i c l e V I I , s e c t i o n

10 o f t h e 1935 C o n s t i t u t i o n which p r o v i d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g :

The P r e s i d e n t s h a l l b e Commander-in-Chief of a l l Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and whenever i t h o c n m ~ n nncnnfinry, tin mny c n l l o u t s u c h ~ r m o d f o r c e s t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e , i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n . I n c a s e o f i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n , o r r e b e l l i o n o r imminent d a n g e r t h e r e o f , when t h e p u b l i c s a f e t y r e q u i r e s i t , he may s u s p e n d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e w r i t o f

53 " P r e s i d e n t i a l S p e e c h e s Vo l . IV, 1978 p . 13, a s q u o t e d i n A lex B e l l o B r i l l i a n t a J r . , QP.c i t , . , p . 66 .

h a b e a s c o r p u s , o r p l a c e t h e h i l i p p i n e s o r any p a r t t h e r e of u n d e r m a r t i a l l a w . 5.9

One of t h e f i r s t a c t s o f H a r c o s upon d e c l a r i n g m a r t i a l

law was t o assume d i c t a t o r i a l powers . G e n e r a l O r d e r No. 1,

which Harcos i s s u e d on Sep tember 22 , 1972 c o n f e r r e d upon

h i m s e l f v a s t powers t o " g o v e r n t h e n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e g o v e r n m e n t . " The r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n

o f t h e G e n e r a l O r d e r s t a t e d as f o l l o w s ;

Now, t h e r e f o r e , I F e r d i n a n d E . H a r c o s . . . d o h e r e b y p r o c l a i m t h a t I s h a l l g o v e r n t h e n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e Government , i n c l u d i n g a l l i t s a g e n c i e s and i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s , i n my c a p a c i t y and s h a l l e x e r c i s e a l l t h e powers and p r e r o g a t i v e s a p p u r t e n a n t and i n c i d e n t t o my p o s i t i o n a s Command i n - C h i e f o f a l l armed f o r c e s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 55-

Thus , u n d e r m a r t i a l l aw , H a r c o s w a s t h e u l t i m a t e

a u t h o r i t y . P o l i t i c a l and g o v e r n m e n t a l powers were

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n h i s h a n d s . H e imposed overwhelming c o n t r o l s

on t h e a f f a i r s oP s t a t e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e . I n a s y s t e m he had t e rmed

" c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " , Harcos had t a k e n

s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p s t o p l a c e h i m s e l f , and t h e m i l i t a r y

54 Ibid.

55 G e n e r a l O r d e r No. 1, (Sep tember 22 , 1972)

s t r u c t u r e t h a t s u p p o r t e d I ~ i m , above t h e l aw . The r e s u l t h a s

been a g r a d u a l , and i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r i o u s , e r o s i o n of

r e s p e c t f o r government i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e r u l e of l a w .

The p r o c e s s began i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r m a r t i a l law was

d e c l a r e d , when P r e s i d e n t Marcos suspended C o n g r e s s of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s and v e s t e d a l l o f i t s powers i n t h e

p r e s i d e n c y . The P r e s i d e n t o r d e r e d t h e AFP t o " e n f o r c e

o b e d i e n c e t o a l l t h e l aws and d e c r e e s , o r d e r s and

r e g u l a t i o n s p r o m u l g a t e d by me p e r s o n a l l y o r upon my

d i r e c t i o n . " By an e x e c u t i v e o r d e r i s s u e d t h e n e x t d a y ,

P r e s i d e n t Marcos p r o c l a i m e d t h a t he would " g o v e r n t h e

n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e government

i n c l u d i n g a l l i t s a g e n c i e s and i n s t r u m e n t s . .. 56

Marcos f u r t h e r c o n s o l d i a t e d h i s powers by f o r c i n g a

new C o n s t i t u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n i n

J a n u a r y 1973 u s i n g h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r p r o c e d u r e s i n d o i n g s o .

P u r s u a n t t o t h e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n s o f t h a t C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

a l l d e c r e e s , o r d e r s , i n s t i t u t i o n s and o t h e r a c t s p r o m u l g a t e d

by t h e " incumben t P r e s i d e n t " became t h e law o f t h e l a n d .

A c t i o n s t a k e n u n d e r t h e s e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n s were t o

56 SalvartinI Human R i g h t s i n t k oolnes-, (Washington D . C: The Lawyer ' s Commit tee

f o r Human R i g h t s , 19851, p . 1 9 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t - 1 9 8 5 ) .

r ema in v a l i d and l e g a l l y b i n d i n g even a f t e r t h e l i f t i n g o f

m a r t i a l l aw. To g i v e h i s d i c t a t o r i a l r u l e t h e c o v e r o f

l e g i t i m a c y , Marcos s p o n s o r e d v a r i o u s r e f e r e n d a . I n J a n u a r y

1973 , he convened p e o p 1 e . s a s s e m b l i e s i n e v e r y v i l l a g e t o

v o t e on a new C o n s t i t u t i o n and a p p r o v e m a r t i a l l aw. A s a l l

o b s e r v e r s n o t e d , many of t h e c l a i m e d 35 ,000 a s s e m b l i e s n e v e r

met a t a l l and t h e ' v o t i n g ' was e a s i l y made t o d e c l a r e t h e

p e o p l e ' s overwhelming s u p p o r t f o r h i s r e g i m e . I n J u l y 1973 ,

t h e a s s e m b l i e s were convened a g a i n and t h e y approved

M a r c o s ' s r e m a i n i n g i n o f f i c e u n t i l he c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s

" r e f o r m s " - t h a t i s , i n d e f i n i t e l y . Accord ing t o P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , even 5 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e p r i s i o n e r s i n

57 m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s v o t e d ' y e s .

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n , on which P r e s i d e n t Marcos

a n c h o r e d t h e l e g a l i t y of h i s h o l d i n g on t o t h e P r e s i d e n c y

a f t e r December 30 , 1 9 7 3 ~ ~ , and of h i s o t h e r a c t s , was n o t

v a l i d l y r a t i f i e d by t h e F i l i p i n o p e o p l e . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r

P r e s i d e n t Marcos t o o k a f u r t h e r s t e p t o e x t e n d h i s

57 "Human R i g h t s i n S o u t h Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r U . S P o l i c y " , U. S House Commit tee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , H e a r i n g s o f 94th C o n g r e s s , 1st s e s s i o n 1975, (Washington D . C : U.S G.P .0 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 4 7 4 .

58 The Second P r e s i d e n t i a l t e r m of Marcos would have e x p i r e d on December 3 0 , 1973 , had t h e r e been no d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law.

e x t r a o r d i n a r y powers on t o t h e p o s t - m a r t i a l law e r a . lle

o b t a i n e d a d o p t i o n o f t h e h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l "Amendment

S i x " t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , which p r o v i d e s t h a t , even a f t e r

t h e l i f t i n g o f martial law, "whenever i n t h e judgement o f

t h e P r e s i d e n t . . . t h e r e e x i s t s a g r a v e emergency o r a t h r e a t

o r imminence t h e r e o f , o r whenever t h e ( i n t e r i m o r r e g u a l r )

N a t i o n a l Assembly f a i l s o r is u n a b l e t o a c t a d e q u a t e l y on

any m a t t e r f o r a n y r e a s o n t h a t i n h i s judgement r e q u i r e s

immedia te a c t i o n , he may . . . i s s u e t h e n e c e s s a r y d e c r e e s ,

o r d e r s o r l e t t e r s o f i n t r o d u c t i o n , which s h a l l fo rm p a r t o f

t h e . law of t h e l a n d . - 0 5 9

Between 1976 and 1980 , Marcos t o p p e d o f f t h e

s t r u c t u r e s and m o d i f i e d i t . On t h e t o p he c r e a t e d a N a t i o n a l

L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l t h a t a d v i s e d him t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments he p r o p o s e d , s e c u r e a p p r o v a l o f

t h e amendments i n a r e f e r e n d u m , and c a l l e l e c t i o n s t o s e l e c t

members of t h e new k i n d of i n t e r i m a s s e m b l y t h e amendments

p r o v i d e d f o r . Meanwhile Marcos c r e a t e d a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ,

t h e K i l u s a n g Bagong L ipunan (New S o c i e t y Movement), o r KBL,

t o i d e n t i f y c a n d i d a t e s and c o n d u c t t h e campaign , and

r e o r g a n i s e d m i l i t a r y and p o l i c e s t r u c t u r e s s o as t o para l le l

more c l o s e l y t h e h i e r a r c h y of p o l i t i c a l o n e s .

5g 1976 Amendments, P a r a 6 .

'Amendment S i x ' p r o v i d e d t h e powers f o r P r e s i d e n t

Marcos t o t r a n s f e r i m p o r t a n t j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s t o h i m s e l f ,

t h e r b y r e n d e r i n g t h e c o u r t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Supreme C o u r t o f

t h e R e p u b l i c , weak and o f t e n p o w e r l e s s t o c o n t r o l a b u s e s ,of

power by t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h and t h e AFP. A s e r i e s of

P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s were i n t r o d u c e d and Marcos e x e r c i s e d

h i s own a u t h o r i t y t o o r d e r d e t e n t i o n w i t h o u t t r i a l . These

P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s have b e e n , and c o n t i n u e t o b e , t h e

b a s i s f o r w i d e s p r e a d a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s by P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , o f t e n accompanied by t o r t u r e and o t h e r

p h y s i c a l a b u s e , and i n d e f e n i t e d e t e n t i o n , w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e

t o j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t m e r e l y by l a b e l l i n g t h o g e

a r r e s t e d a s " s u b v e r s i v e s " .

Under t h e 1973 C o n s t i t u t i o n which Marcos pushed

t h r o u g h s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law, t h e

c i v i l i a n j u d i c i a r y l o s t most o f its powers and t r a d i t i o n a l

autonomy. The s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e wr i t of habeRq c o r v w and

t h e s e t t i n g up of m i l i t a r y c o u r t s s i g n a l l e d t h e d e c l i n e of

c i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o f t h e j u d i c i a r y . Almost a l l t h e c a s e s

r e l a t e d t o " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y " i s s u e s were h a n d l e d by

m i l i t a r y c o u r t s and t r i b u n a l s , t h e d e c i s i o n s o f which became

f i n a l o n l y w i t h P r e s i d e n t i a l a p p r o v a l . C o n t r o l o f t h e

c o u r t s , c e n t r a l i s e d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment, a l l o w e d

Marcos t o r e p l a c e j u d g e s t o s u i t h i s i n t e r e s t s . He was

e n a b l e d by t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n t o a r b i t r a r i l y r e p l a c e

members of t h e j u d i c a r y s i m p l y by naming t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s .

These powers encompass a l l a r e a s o f gove rnmen t u n d e r a r t i c l e

X V I I , s e c t i o n 9 o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n which s t a t e s :

A l l o f f i c i a l s and employees i n t h e e x i s t i n g Government o f t h e R e p u b l i c of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s s h a l l c o n t i n u e i n o f f i c e u n t i l o t h e r w i s e p r o v i d e d by l a w o r d e c r e e d by t h e incumbent P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , b u t a l l o f f i c i a l s whose a p p o i n t m e n t s a r e by t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n v e s t e d i n t h e P r ime M i n i s t e r s h a l l v a c a t e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f f i c e s upon t h e a p p o i n t m e n t

60 and q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r

s u c c e s s o r s .

The d e c l a r a t i o n o f martial l a w t h u s , g a v e u n p r e c e d e n t e d

powers t o t h e P r e s i d e n t o v e r t h e e n t i r e g o v e r n m e n t a l

s t r u c t u r e . He d e s c r i b e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l change a s t h e

" i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " . H e a l s o w r o t e

t h a t t h e r e w a s an i n s e p a r a b l e l i n k be tween martial law and

t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n . M a r t i a l law e n a b l e d t h e c o n s t i t u e n t

body t o d r a f t a c h a r t e r a t t u n e d t o t h e demands f o r

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e . 6 1

60 " C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s - . . 1973" , i n t b L e s W k & h x & w d F e r d i n a n d E . H a r c o s , ( M a n i l a : Marcos F o u n d a t i o n I n c . , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 185 - 227.

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n g a v e t h e P r e s i d e n t a l l powers ,

b o t h a s P r e s i d e n t and P r i m e M i n i s t e r , t o e n f o r c e t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n s e l e c t i v e l y u n t i l t h e end o f m a r t i a l law o v e r

a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e gove rnmen t . S e c t i o n 3 , number 2 o f t h e

same a r t i c l e p r o v i d e s f o r t h e c o n t i n u t i o n o f " a l l C p r o c l a m a t i o n s , o r d e r s , d e c r e e s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , and a c t s

p r o m u l g a t e d , i s s u e d o r d o n e by incumbant P r e s i d e n t " a s p a r t

o f t h e " l aw of t h e l a n d " u n l e s s n u l l i f i e d by Harcos h i m s e l f

o r by t h e r e g u l a r N a t i o n a l Assembly. 62 I n o t h e r words a l l

p r o c l a m a t i o n s , o r d e r s , d e c r e e s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , and ac ts

p r o m u l g a t e d by Harcos u n d e r martial law w i l l r ema in i n

f o r c e u n t i l e i t h e r h e , o r t h e N a t i o n a l Assembly t a k e s

a c t i o n t o remove them. S i n c e Marcos h a s t h e power t o

d i s b a n d t h e i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly, t h e r e is l i t t l e

c h a n c e t h a t any c i v i l i a n c h e c k on h i s and t h e m i l i t a r y ' s

power w i l l b e p o s s i b l e u n t i l m a r t i a l law is l i f t e d . 6 3 The

r e f e rendum i n 1976 c o n c e r n i n g t o t h e ' S i x t h Amendment' g f

t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n v e s t e d w i t h more powers f o r Marcos t o

u s e i t o v e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e by a l l o w i n g him t o

63 J i m Zwick, i o n i n t h e . . . PhlllpDlnes, Working P a p e r s e r i e s 31 , ( M o n t r e a l : Mc G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 28 .

declare an "undefined emergency" and to legislate by decree

even after martial law is lifted.

Jim Zwick has observed that constitutional change in

the Philippines has led to the militarization of traditional

autonomous civilian governmental structures "through the

centralisation and heirarchization of control". There is no

allowance for civilian opposition to Marcos, or the

military's actions and policies, since these could lead

either to charges of subversion or prompt removal from

office through the naming of a successor. By allowing the

continuation of Marcos' decrees and orders beyond the

ending of martial law, the 1973 Constitution ensures that

any moves to reorder the government along more democratic

and less repressive lines will involve a long and arduous

legal process in the National Assembly. The

"institutionalisation of the revolution" that Marcos wrote

of represents, in fact, the institutionalisation of

militarization in the country. 64

Authoritarianism and Politico-economic Crisis

When constitutional authoritarianism replaced democracy

as the effective governmental form from 1972, President

Harcos c o n t i n u e d t o e n j o y t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e m i l i t a r y , and

t h e m i l i t a r y became a c h i e f p a r t n e r i n t h e management of t h e

c o u n t r y . A s C l a r k Nehur d e s c r i b e s i t , p o l i t i c s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s became " c l i e n t a l i s t " , i n which p o l i t i c a l l i f e

c e n t r e s on r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t are l a r g e l y p e r s o n t o p e r s o n ;

i n f o r m a l , h i e r a r a c h i c a l and r e c i p r o c a l . 65 T h i s c l i e n t a l i s t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s u p p l a n t e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , l e g i s l a t u r e and

o t h e r f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e government u n d e r t h e l o n g

a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e o f H a r c o s . 66 With t h e i m p o s i t i o n of

m a r t i a l l aw, H a r c o s c l a i m e d he had l a u n c h e d t h e "New S o c i e t y

P a r t y " , which was i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t t h e o l d e l i t e and

c i v i l i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h army o f f i c e r s a s t h e key

d e c i s i o n make r s . With t h e l a u n c h i n g o f t h e "New S o c i e t y

P a r t y " , b u t i n f a c t , H a r c o s was t r y i n g t o p u t up a f a c a d e o f

a new s o c i a l o r d e r i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , s o t h a t he c o u l d

make p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t he was a " b e n e v o l e n t d i c t a t o r " .

I n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f m a r t i a l law, t h e mass media

announced t h a t t r emendous g a i n s have been a c h i e v e d by t h e

New S o c i e t y . The P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f was q u o t e d as s a y i n g :

6 5 C l a r k D . Neher , " P o l i t i c a l c l i e n t a l i s m and i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , BSFan A f f a i r s (London) , V o l . 1 2 , No. 3 , F a l l , 1985 , p . 1 .

66 Ibid., p . 2 .

r e tttis bean a b i g l e u p 1 1 1 t h e ecot~on~y; s p e c u l a t i v e and g r o w t h i n v e s t m e n t s were r e c o r d e d a t new l e v e l s , t o u r i s t t r a f f i c and e x p o r t r o s e , d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d , f o r e i g n l o a n s and economic a s s i s t a n c e became e a s i e r t o n e g o t i a t e , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s s t o o d a t a new p e a k , and f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , we saw o u r peop c o n v i n c e d of t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r e a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . AS-

Land r e f o r m e s c o n s i d e r e d an o u t s t a n d i n g s u c c e s s a s b i g

l a n d e d e s t a t e s , i n e x c e s s of hundred h e c t r e s , were b roken up

and d i s t r i b u t e d t o some 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 t e n a n t s and l a n d t r a n s f e r

c e r t i f i c a t e s were i s s u e d t o them. But i n 1974 t h e World

Bank n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f l a n d r e f o r m programme

was becoming " e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t " and t h a t t h e p l a n s of t h e

government t o i s s u e l a n d c e r t i f i c a t e s down t o t h e 24 h e c t r e

l a n d "have f a l t e r e d " . 68 A t o p American e x p e r t on l a n d

r e f o r m , a n a l y s i n g t h e f i g u r e s p u b l i s h e d by t h e gove rnmen t ,

and c o n d u c t i n g s t u d i e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s , o b s e r v e d t h a t

" l a n d r e f o r m is less t h a n one p e r c e n t c o m p l e t e " . 69 I n t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n it is i l l u m i n a t i n g t o q u o t e William O v e r h o l t ' s

comments :

P h i l i p p i n e [ a g r a r i a n ] r e f o r m p rog rams [were ] t i e d n e i t h e r t o any i n t e g r a t e d v i ew o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy and its p r i n c i p a l t r e n d s (ee.

67 -t in T-, ( M a n i l a ) , Hay 2 1 , 1973

68 World Bank, " C u r r e n t economic p o s i t i o n and p r o s p e c t s . . o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , c i t e d i n P h l l l D o i n e Times, ( C h i c a g o ) A p r i l 1-15, 1 9 7 5 .

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , u r b a n i z a t i o n , r i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n ) , n o r t o a n y 7 E x p l i c i t v i s i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l f u t u r e .

Ano the r team o f e x p e r t s began d o u b t i n g t h e g e n u i n e n e s s

and d e p t h of t h e commitment o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p t o l a n d

r e f o r m , and wondered w h e t h e r t h e whole programme was m e r e l y

a c o n v e n i e n t p l a n d i s g u i s e d t o p u t o f f a g r a r i a n u n r e s t and

p r o v i d e window-dres s ing f o r one-man r u l e . 71 SO it was

p r o v e d t h a t t h e ' N e w S o c i e t y ' s c l a i m s a b o u t l a n d r e f o r m

were a d i s m a l f a i l u r e .

I n t h e economic s c e n e , crisis was d e e p e n i n g . The boom

i n t h e wor ld m a r k e t f o r P h i l i p p i n e e x p o r t s was g o n e , o i l

p r i c e s were s h o o t i n g u p , i m p o r t s were e a t i n g up t h e d o l l a r

r e s e r v e s , unemployment was moun t ing e v e r y d a y , and t h e l o c a l

s t o c k m a r k e t was s l i p p i n g i n t o a l o n g and d e e p s lump . The

f r i g h t e n i n g r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n - between 40% t o 44% i n mid

1974, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s o f t h e C e n t r a l Bank

69 Roy P r o s t e r m a n , c i t e d by J a c k Raughty , Seattle P o s t -, March 3, 1975 .

70 William O v e r h a u l t , "Land r e f o r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , S u r v e y , ( C a l i f o r n i a ) , n a y 1976 , p . 4 2 8 .

71 Denn i s S h o e s m i t h , "Land Reform i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ; E m a n c i p a t i n g o r E m a c i a t i n g T e n a n t s " , q u o t e d i n A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p document . . . , wA, p . 2 3 .

- was b r i n g i n g enormous s u f f e r i n g t o t h e F i l i p i n o masses.

The IMF r e p o r t f o r 1974 showed t h a t among t h e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s i n A s i a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s had t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t

r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n - m a i n l y t h e r e s u l t o f a deve lopmen t

s t r a t e g y which p u t undue e m p h a s i s on e x p o r t s o f raw

m a t e r i a l s , r e n d e r i n g t h e c o u n t r y v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e

f l u c t a t i o n s i n t h e wor ld n a r k e t , and on t h e i n c r e a s i n g

c o n t r o l o f P h i l i p p i n e economy by f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e g i a n t m u l t i n a t i o n q l s . 7 2

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e mos t d i s t u r b i n g a s p e c t o f t h e

'New S o c i e t y ' was t h e p r e v a l a n c e o f e x t r a v a g a n c e and

c o r r u p t i o n i n h i g h p l a c e s . T h i s is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e p r i m e

f a c t o r t h a t e r o d e d t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e martial law

r e g i m e . Key p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s were

u n b l u s h i n g l y d i s p l a y i n g t h e i r w e a l t h i n a c o u n t r y where o v e r

one m i l l i o n p e o p l e were t o t a l l y w i t h o u t work and h a l f o f t h e

c h i ldrnrt wnrn B I I ~ feriria from m a l r l u t r i t i o r l . I'oople begar1 Lo

r e a l i s e t h a t w h i l e t h e b u s i n e s s e n t e r p i s e s o f t h e

" o l i g a r c h s " o f t h e o l d s o c i e t y had been t a k e n away f rom

them, t h e s e same f i r m s a r e now c o n t r o l l e d by a n o l i g a r c h y

c l o s e t o t h e v e r y c e n t e r o f power . 7 3

72 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p documen t , o D . c i t . , P . 23.

73 Ibid.

Though t h e 'New S o c i e t y ' condemned g r a f t and

e x t r a v a g a n c e i n t h e f i r s t d a y s o f martial law, t h e

p r o p e n s i t y o f t h e 'New S o c i e t y was ' t o s p e n d t h e money of

t h e c o u n t r y on f r i v o l o u s and u n p r o d u c t i v e p r o j e c t s . I n

1974 , t h e f o r e i g n media r e p o r t e d t h a t a t o t a l o f $60 m i l l i o n

was s p e n t t o f i n a n c e t h e h o l d i n g o f t h e Miss U n i v e r s e

c o n t e s t i n M a n i l a . A $10 m i l l i o n w o r t h C u l t u r a l and T r a d e

C e n t r e was opened i n New Y o r k ' s F i f t h Avenue. Then a p r e s s

d e s p a t c h d a t e l i n e d C a i r o and p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l o c a l p r e s s ,

c o n f i r m e d t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e f i r s t l a d y had d o n a t e d $1

m i l l i o n t o t h e E g y p t i a n gove rnmen t f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f i t s

museums. 74

The c e n t r a l p rob lem o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s p r i o r t o t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of martial law was t h e undue c o n c e n t r a t i o n of

w e a l t h i n t h e h a n d s of r i c h f a m i l i e s . A f t e r September 1972 ,

Harcos moved t o d i s m a n t l e t h e " o l i g a r c h i c a l f i e f d o m s " and

t o take c o n t r o l o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e s e i t h e r t h r o u g h s t a t e

m o n o p o l i e s o r p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s d o m i n a t e d by h i s c r o n i e s .

But b o t h t h e s t a t e and t h e new o l i g a r c h y have made ma jo r

e r r o r s , and have n o t u s e d r e s o u r c e s e f f e c t i v e l y . Wea l th i s

i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e h a n d s of p e r s o n s who e i t h e r

e x e r c i s e m a r t i a l law a u t h o r i t y , o r a r e t h e i r r e l a t i v e s ,

a s s o c i a t e s , c r o n i e s o r p a t r o n s . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s , t h e

economy of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s unde rgone s e r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l

p r o b l e m s c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e w o r s t f i s c a l cr is is o f any o f

t h e non-communist n a t i o n s i n modern h i s t o r y . 75 T h i s s o r t o f

a cr is is was c r e a t e d by Harcos and he c o u l d monopo l i s e t h e

p o l i t i c a l power .

The open-door p o l i c y o f Harcos made t h e c o u n t r y o n e

among t h e most l u c r a t i v e c o u n t r i e s f o r i n v e s t m e n t s . T a k i n g

f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e open-door p o l i c y o f t h e m a r t i a l law

r e g i m e t o w a r d s f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s , . U.S and J a p a n e s e

b u s i n e s s f i r m s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r h o l d i n key a r e a s o f

t h e economy u n d e r t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n and expanded t h e i r

o p e r a t i o n s t o t h e p r e f e r r e d a r e a s . Accord ing t o t h e f i g u r e s

r e l e a s e d by t h e Board o f I n v e s t m e n t s , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l

a c c o u n t e d f o r 28% o f t h e t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t i n 1968 . But by

t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f 1975 , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l a c c o u n t e d f o r

more t h a n 58% 76 Ano the r r e m a r k a b l e f e a t u r e o f m a r t i a l l a w

was t h a t P h i l i p p i n e b a n k s , a d m i t t e d l y t o o many and u n d e r -

c a p i t a l i s e d , were r e q u i r e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p a i d - u p c a p i t a l

75 C l a r k D. Neher , ~ ~ . c i t . , p . 1 2 .

76 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group document , D D . c i t . , P . 26

t o a t l e a s t 100 m i l l i o n p e s o s . Because o f t h e r e g i m e ' s b i a s

i n f a v o u r o f f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s , t h e immedia te r e s u l t was

t h a t i n s t e a d o f F i l i p i n o b a n k s , m o s t ' o f them domina ted by a

few f a m i l i e s , merg ing and combin ing t h e i r a s s e t s , t h e

b i g g e s t names i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c e and b a n k i n g came

a l m o s t a t o n e f e l l swoop and became p a r t owner s and

f i n a n c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s - s o m e t h i n g most c o u n t r i e s o f t h e wor ld

would n e i t h e r e n c o u r a g e n o r p e r m i t .

I n o r d e r t o show h i s r e g i m e ' s g r a n d i o s e schemes f o r

d e v e l o p m e n t , Ha rcos r e l i e d on t h e t a l e n t s o f c o r p s of

t e c h n o c r a t s who had t h e i r t r a i n i n g m o s t l y f rom American

i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r had e x p e r i e n c e i n p l a n n i n g o r managing

economic e n t e r p r i s e s . The programme t h a t t h e y p u t t o g e t h e r

f o r t h e " m o d e r n i s a t i o n " o f t h e c o u n t r y e n t a i l e d huge

i n v e s t m e n t s i n b u i l d i n g s , h o t e l s , r o a d s , h ighways , b r i d g e s ,

power p l a n t s , h o u s i n g schemes and o t h e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f a r

beyond t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e d o m e s t i c economy t o a b s o r b .

These were a l s o n o t o n l y u r g e n t n e e d s o f t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y

of F i l i p i n o s who l i v e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . The o n l y way t o

f i n a n c e t h e s e b i g schemes was t h r o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r e i g n

b o r r o w i n g s f rom i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The

" o r g y o f b o r r o w i n g s " a v e r a g e d $ 2 . 5 b i l l i o n a n n u a l l y f o r a

t w e l v e - y e a r p e r i o d s t a r t i n g i n 1 9 7 2 . ~ ~ By 1984, t h e

c o u n t r y ' s f o r e i g n d e b t had r e a c h e d a s t a g g e r i n g $26 b i l l i o n ,

t o o much o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e r e s o u r c e s of an

e c o n o m i c a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d T h i r d World c o u n t r y .

A n a l y s t s f o l l o w i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

e x t e r n a l d e b t c o n t e n d t h a t it was d u r i n g t h e martial law

p e r i o d t h a t t h e H a r c o s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " d e l i b e r a t e l y l aunched

a f i s c a l p o l i c y o f d e f i c i t f i n a n c i n g . . . which was a n

i n d i s p e n s a b l e component o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t programmes

f o r m u l a t e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e and a d v i c e o f t h e World

With t h e huge amoun t s b r o u g h t i n by t h e

l o a n s , a f r e n e t i c p a c e o f economic a c t i v i t y began and

p r e q t e n t i o u s programmes f l o u r i s h e d i n t h e Me t ro M a n i l a area.

T h i s was p u r p o s e l y done by t h e gove rnmen t t o g i v e an

i l l u s i o n o f p r o g r e s s o r " i n s t a n t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n " . 7 9

S t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s t o t a k e c h a r g e of t h e r e g i m e ' s numerous

programmes and b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i e s g rew by t h e h u n d r e d s .

77 B e l i n d a A . Aquino , Theas . . of ~ l u m k r : T h e . . ( M a n i l a : Great Books T r a d i n g ,

1B87) , p . 2 8 .

78 Leone r M . B r i o n e s ,"The P h i l i p p i n e Debt Burden; Who . . Borrows , Who Pays?" I n t e r n a t i o n a l e b t C r i s i s : Focus a L l l l

. . , ( P h i l i p p i n e s : I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 4 .

79 B e l i n d a A . Aquino , m.cit,, p . 2 8 .

T h e management and c o n t r o l o f s e v e r a l o f t h e s e c o r p o r a t i o n s

were p l a c e d i n t h e h a n d s o f M a r c o s ' s r e l a t i v e s o r c r o n i e s .

A l l t h e s e i s s u e s showed t h a t a new o l i g a r c h y -

a p p a r e n t l y more p o w e r f u l t h a n t h e o ld-assumed c o n t r o l o f a

g rowing , s e e m i n g l y e n d l e s s list of c o r p o r a t i o n and b u s i n e s s

f i r m s . The o b j e c t i v e , o b v i o u s l y , w a s maximum c o n t r o l w i t h

minimum i n v e s t m e n t .

The R e p o r t o f t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group o f C i t i z e n s

p i c t u r e s q u e l y d e s c r i b e d t h i s t h u s :

What t h e a r c h i t e c t s o f t h e new s o c i e t y have c o n s t r u c t e d is a t a l l e r py ramid , w i t h r e s e r v e d a s s o c i a t e s - and t h e f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s whose i n t e r e s t s t h e y s a f e g u a r d and d e f e n d - a t t h e v e r y t o p . Under m a r t i a l l aw, i n s t a n t w e a l t h is e a s y t o come b f o r t h e few who know t h e l e v e r s and u s e s o f power. 80

The m o n o p o l i s a t i o n o f power became e v i d e n t w i t h t h e

r e l e a s e o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e F e b r u a r y 1975 r e f e r e n d u m . The

p e o p l e "ove rwhe lming ly" g a v e t h e P r e s i d e n t b l a n k e t a u t h o r i t y

t o r e t a i n , remove o r r e p l a c e l o c a l o f f i c i a l s whose t e r m s

were t o e x p i r e a t t h e end o f 1975 . Thus e v e r y b i g o r small

o f f i c i a l i n t h e gove rnmen t knew t h a t he h o l d s h i s o f f i c e a t

t h e p l e a s u r e of t h e P r e s i d e n t -- a P r e s i d e n t who, i n h i s

80 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group document , W, p . 26 .

own words , had " l a u n c h e d a p e a c e f u l , d e m o c r a t i c

r e v o l u t i o n . 8 1

D e s p i t e o f a l l claims a b o u t a c h i e v e m e n t s of 'New

S o c i e t y ' , t h e whole s i t u a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o b e v e r y

d i s t u r b i n g . The S e c r e t a r y o f N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , J u a n Ponce

E n r i l e , i n a s p e e c h a t t h e N a t i o n a l Defence c o l l e g e made t h e

c a n d i d a d m i s s i o n t h a t ;

. . . t h e n a t i o n s t i l l f a c e s t h e same t h r e a t s a s i t d i d s i n c e t h e i m p o s i t i o n 'of m a r t i a l law. . . We s t i l l f a c e t h e s p e c t r e o f i n t e r n a l s u b v e r s i o n a m i d s t t h e p r e s e n t economic c r i s i s , a d o p t i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t s t r a t e g y w i t h a d e c e n t r a l i s e d l e a d e r s h i p . . . T h e r e is t h e t h r e a t o f d o m e s t i c c r i m i n a l i t y , a g g r a v a t e d b y a n i n c i p i e n t e r o s i o n o f mora l v a l u e s i n o u r s o c i e t y . We a r e s t i l l p l a g u e d by c o r r u p t i o n a n a b u s e s among some s e c t o r s o f t h e

a2 p u b l i c s e r v i c e . . .

I n t h e y e a r of 1975 t h e r e were s i g n s of s h i f t s i n t h e

r e g i m e ' s i n t e r n a l b a l a n c e o f power . I m e l d a H a r c o s was named

Mayor of H e t r o M a n i l a . T h e r e was a m a s s i v e p u r g e o f

government b u r e a u c r a t s , i n c l u d i n g Defence S e c r e t a r y E n r i l e ' s

Under S e c r e t a r y . The r e g i m e ' s c h i e f t e c h n o c r a t A l e j a n d r a

H e l c h o l w a s r e p o r t e d t o have c l a s h e d w i t h Hrs. H a r c o s a s

E x c e r p t s o f E n r i l e ' s s p e e c h , d e l i v e r e d i n J u l y 1975 a t N a t i o n a l Defence C o l l e g e , B u l l e t i n Today, ( M a n i l a ) , J u l y 1 2 , 1975.

w e l l as E n r i l e and he was o u s t e d . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e s e

d e v e l o p m e n t s p roduced b o t h p r o t e s t and p e s s i m i s m . L e l a

G a r n e r Noble commented on t h i s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way:

The p r o t e s t was p r i m a r i l y of two k i n d s : t h a t o f l a w y e r s and c h u r c h l e a d e r s who c h a l l e n g e d t h e l e g a l i t y o r e t h i c s of t h e e x i s t e n c e and p o l i c i e s of t h e m a r t i a l law r e g i m e ; and t h a t o f e t h n i c g r o u p s , a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s , u r b a n w o r k e r s , s q u a t t e r s , and t h e i r s y m p a t h i s e r s , who opposed t h e r eg ime t h r o u g h armed r e b e l l i o n ( i n Man i l a and o t h e r c i t i e s ) . The Husl im s e p a r a t i s t Movement, f u e l l e d by c e n t u r i e s of a l i e n a t i o n , s p e c i f i c g r i e v e n c e s r e s u l t i n g f rom r e c e n t C h r i s t i a n m i g r a t i o n and o u t s i d e s u p p o r t f rom Muslim s t a t e s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s , was s u c c e s s f u l i n m o b l i s i n g a b o u t t h i r t y t h o u s a n d armed c o m b a t a n t s and d o m i n a t i n g much of c e n t r a l and s o u t h w e s t e r n Uindanao and t h e s u l o A r c h i p e l a g o . I n , s o d o i n g it j u s t i f i e d , a t l e a s t f rom t h e r e g i m e s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m i l i t a r y b u i l d - u p and t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of m a r t i a l l aw, b u t i t a l s o r e s u l t e d i n p r o g r e s s and bo t i e s f rom which a t l e a s t some Musl ims b e n e f i t e d . fl !I

O t h e r f o r m s of p r o t e s t had l e s s s u c c e s s . t h e Supreme

C o u r t c o n s i s t e n t l y r u l e d i n f a v o u r o f U a r c o s , t hough

somet imes w i t h mixed v o t e s and ambiguous r u l i n g s . A l though

many of t h o s e d e t a i n e d were s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s e d , p r o m i n e n t

l e a d e r s l i k e Ben igno Aquino and two members of t h e Lopez and

Osmena f a m i l i e s r ema ined i n j a i l . R e p o r t s o f t o r t u r e o f

83 L e l a G a r n e r Nob le , " P o l i t i c s i n t h e Marcos E r a " , e s : The b r c o s Era and Bevand, John

Bresnan ( e d . ) , (New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) , 1986, p . 8 3 .

p r i s i o n e r s p e r s i s t e d , r a i d s o f c h u r c h p r e m i s e s c o n t i n u e d ,

t h e p r e s s r ema ined c o n t r o l l e d , and t h e n a t u r e of

r e s t r i c t i o n s s h i f t e d f rom d i r e c t c e n s o r h s i p t o s e l f -

m o n i t o r i n g by s e l e c t e d owner s who s u p p o r t e d martial l aw .

Pess imism r e s u l t e d f rom g r o w i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t i t had been

e a s i e r t o change g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s and p e r s o n n e l t h a n

t o c r e a t e a New S o c i e t y . 84 Many o f t h e p r o b l e m s of t h e o l d

s o c i e t y had s i m p l y t a k e n on new m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ; c o r r u p t i o n ,

p a t r o n a g e , e x t r a v a g a n c e , and a b u s e o f a u t h o r i t y c o n t i n u e d

somet imes w i t h d i f f e r e n t b e n e f i c i a r i e s and v i c t i m s . P a r t y

s w i t c h i n g was r e p l a c e d by d e f e c t i o n s ; p o l i c y making , once

s u b j e c t t o e x e c u t i v e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a t e m e n t , was now hampered

by b u r e a u c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s b u t be tween m i l i t a r y

o n e s . A p o l i t i c a l c y c l e t h a t had once depended on e l e c t i o n s

now depended on e x e c u t i v e i n i t i a t i v e s .

Marcos c o n t i n u e d t o s e r v e a s P r e s i d e n t and Pr ime

M i n i s t e r , and m a i n t a i n e d h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y powers . i n c l u d i n g

t h e r i g h t t o a p p r o v e any b i l l s i n t r o d u c e d and t o v e t o any he

d i s l i k e d and t o d i s s o l v e t h e Assembly i f he t h o u g h t it was

n o t d o i n g i ts j o b p r o p e r l y o r i f he d e c i d e d t h e r e was a

n a t i o n a l emergency .

The r e g i m e s i n i t i a t i v e s t o w a r d s a p p e a s i n g t h e Muslims

i n t h e S o u t h r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a t e

e i g h t e e s . Two KBL d o m i n a t e d ' au tonomous ' gove rnmen t s had

been c o n s t i t u t e d i n t h e two r e g i o n s , w i t h t h e c o m i s s i o n on

I s l a m i c a f f a i r s headed by Admi ra l Romulo Espa ladon

e s t a b l i s h e d t o o v e r s e e government programmes t o w a r d s

Musl ims. Funds were p r o v i d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e r e - e n t r y i n t o

c i v i l i a n l i f e o f t h o s e r e b e l s who d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e

main f o l d o f t h e l a n d . A t t h e same t i m e m i l i t a r y and

economic p o l i c i e s had d e s t r o y e d s e v e r a l o f t h e NPA's o l d

b a s e s and t h e army managed t o a r r e s t some o f i ts t o p

l e a d e r s . I n s p i t e of t h e s e , t h e NPA c o n t i n u e d t o grow and

s p r e a d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , army u n i t s were d e p l o y e d t o occupy

new a r e a s where t h e NPA s t a r t e d f u n c t i o n i n g . The m i l i t a r y

a p p e a r e d l o y a l t o t h e r e g i m e , t hough u n d i s c i p l i n e d a t lower

l e v e l s and f r a u g h t w i t h f a c t i o n a l r i v a l r i e s a t t h e t o p . I n

many a r e a s t h e m i l i t a r y c o n s t i t u t e d a g o v e r n i n g s t r u c t u r e

p a r a l l e l i n g and d o m i n a t i n g t h e c i v i l i a n , and r e t i r e d

g e n e r a l s f i l l e d p o s t s i n government a g e n c i e s . A t t h e same

t i m e , t h e t e c h n o c r a t s , t h e r e g i m e ' s main a g e n t s f o r t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t programmes, seemed i n c r e a s i n g l y i s o l a t e d . They

opposed s e v e r a l o f t h e new p r o j e c t s p r o p o s e d by Mrs. Marcos

as u n n e c e s s a r y and u n d e s i r a b l e e x t r a v a g a n c e s .

On t h e o t h e r hand , b r o a d e r e f f o r t s t o o k p l a c e t o

c o n s o l i d a t e o p p o s i t i o n . But t h e r e were d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r

l e a d e r s h i p , d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n on i s s u e s s u c h as U.S

b a s e s , t a c t i c s i n t h e e l e c t i o n s , e t c . However, i n August

1980 , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f e i g h t o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s i s s u e d a

N a t i o n a l Covenan t o f Freedom. The c o v e n a n t denounced t h e

Marcos gove rnmen t , and p r o p o s e d t h e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s " f rom a l l f o r m s of f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n i n a l l

a s p e c t s o f n a t i o n a l l i f e . "

D i f f e r e n t c h u r c h g r o u p s a l s o came f o r w a r d t o oppose t h e

m a r t i a l law r e g i m e s . Most marked d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d was t h e

s h a r p n e s s and c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f martial

law l e v e l l e d by t h e C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s ' C o n f e r e n c e of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f J a i m e C a r d i n a l S i n .

C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s ' C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s r e sponded t o

a s e r i e s of d e v e l o p m e n t -- a wave of a r r e s t s o f p r i e s t s ,

nuns and l a y p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n c h u r c h -- s p o n s o r e d s o c i a l

a c t i o n programme, an i n c r e a s e d government t e n d e n c y t o

d i s c r e d i t t h e l e f t as s u b v e r s i v e , m i l i t a r y a b u s e s a g a i n s t

c i v i l i a n s , f r a u d , d e c e i t , and c o n n i v a n c e i n t h e 1978

e l e c t i o n s , and t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n b e t t e r i n g

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e m a s s e s . P a s t o r a l l e t t e r s

and s t a t e m e n t s , w h e t h e r i s s u e d i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y ,

moved from t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and condemnat ion o f s p e c i f i c

ac t s , and p o l i c i e s t o a c a l l f o r t h e end o f martial l a u .

Meanwhile , t h e Task F o r c e o f D e t a i n e e s s e t up by t h e

A s s o c i a t i o n o f Major R e l i g i o u s S u p e r i o r s , c o n t i n u e d t o

m o n i t o r human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s , C a t h o l i c media p r o v i d e d an

a l t e r n a t i v e t o g o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d s o u r c e s and c h u r c h

w o r k e r s h e l p e d t o o r g a n i s e and d e f e n d t h e p o o r o r

p e r s e c u t e d . 85

D e s p i t e t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g economic s i t u a t i o n , and t h e

i n c r e a s e d s c o p e and o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n s and t h e o p p o s i t i o n , t h e r e g i m e was

s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n f i d e n t o f its s t r e n g t h t o make f u r t h e r

moves t o w a r d s n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . On J a n u a r y

1 7 , 1981, P r e s i d e n t t f a r c o s announced t h e e n d i n g o f e i g h t

y e a r s o f m a r t i a l l aw . The w r i t o f habeas was

r e s t o r e d , e x c e p t i n two r e g i o n s of Hindanao m i l i t a r y t r i a l s

and m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n o f c i v i l i a n o f f e n d e r s were phased

o u t ; some p r i s o n e r s were r e l e a s e d ; and l e g i s l a t i v e powers

were f o r m a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly.

Marcos r e t a i n e d , however , t h e r i g h t t o i s s u e d e c r e e s , and

a l l d e c r e e s i s s u e d u n d e r m a r t i a l law rema ined i n f o r c e .

A f t e r a s h o r t p e r i o d , Harcos d e c l a r e d t h e need f o r a

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment t h a t would e s t a b l i s h a F r e n c h - s t y l e

P r e s i d e n t i a l P a r l i a m e n t a r y Sys t em.

A s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e Assembly, t h e amendments p r o v i d e d

f o r a P r e s i d e n t a t l e a s t f i f t y y e a r s o l d , e l e c t e d f o r a s i x

y e a r r e n e w a b l e t e r m and empowered t o a p p o i n t and remove a

Pr ime H i n i s t e r and a four teen-member E x e c u t i v e Commit teg.

The Assembly app roved t h e amendments, which were t h u s

s u b m i t t e d t o a p l e b i s c i t e i n A p r i l , and t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l

e l e c t i o n f o l l o w e d i n J u n e 1981. Harcos r eg ime campaigned

h a r d , and n o t e n t i r e l y f a i r l y , b o t h i n t h e p l e b i s c i t e and

t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l c o n t e s t . H a r c o s was r e - e l e c t e d and

p r o c e e d e d t o a p p o i n t C e s a r V i r a t a Pr ime M i n i s t e r , r e o r g a n i s e

t h e C a b i n e t and C a b i n e t - l e v e l o f f i c e s , c o n s t i t u t e an

E x e c u t i v e Commit tee , and name new l e a d e r s h i p f o r government

c o n t r o l l e d f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e m i l i t a r y . The U.S

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l s o w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y s u p p o r t e d t h i s k i n d of a

move. U.S S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e H a i g , who was i n M a n i l a f o r a n

ASEAN m e e t i n g c o n g r a t u l a t e d H a r c o s f o r a " w o n d e r f u l v i c t o r y "

and v i c e - p r e s i d e n t Bush, who a t t e n d e d t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n of

t h e New R e p u b l i c , p r a i s e d h i s a d h e r e n c e t o d e m o c r a t i c

p r i n c i p l e s and t o t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s . n a r c o s and Reagan

r e p o r t e d l y had a c o r d i a l m e e t i n g a t t h e Cancum ( H e x i c o )

North-South C o n f e r e n c e , d u r i n g which Reagan i n v i t e d t h e

Marcoses f o r a s t a t e v i s i t , e v e n t u a l l y s c h e d u l e d f o r

September 1982 , t h e v i s i t p roduced a few a g r e e m e n t s ,

i n c l u d i n g m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s f rom t h e U.S E x p o r t - I m p o r t

Bank f o r t h e B a t t a n n u c l e a r power p l a n t p r o j e c t and a

commitment t o r e n e g o t i a t e t h e terms f o r U.S b a s e s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s no l a t e r t h a n December 1983 . 8 6

Between 1981 and 1983, w h i l e Marcos a p p e a r e d t o have

t o t a l c o n t r o l o f p o l i t i c a l i n i t i a t i v e s , he had c o n s i d e r a b l y

l e s s s u c c e s s w i t h economic f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e

r e g i m e ' s p o l i t i c a l b a s e and s t a b i l i t y . I n 1981 J a n u a r y t h e

As ian Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l p u b l i s h e d a summory o f a World

Bank s t u d y o f p o v e r t y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 87 Economic

f i g u r e s f o r 1981 and 1982 d i d n o t a l l e v i a t e t h e B a n k ' s

c o n c e r n s o r t h o s e o f o t h e r l e n d e r s . Growth r a t e s d e c r e a s e d ,

e x p o r t s d e c l i n e d i n v a l u e , i m p o r t s i n c r e a s e d , and d e b t

s e r v i c i n g c o s t s e s c a l a t e d . Whereas t h e c o n c o n u t , b a n a n a ,

s u g a r and c o p p e r i n d u s t r i e s were a l l a f f e c t e d by marked

d e c l i n e i n p r i c e s o r demands, t h e c o c o n u t i n d u s t r y , on which

o n e - t h i r d of t h e p o p u l a t i o n and t w o - t h i r d s o f t h o s e i n

c e r t a i n a r e a s o f Hindanao , were d e p e n d e n t , was p a r t i c u l a r l y

h a r d h i t . Unemployed r a t e s f o r u r b a n w o r k e r s r e a c h e d 2 5

p e r c e n t o r more i n M a n i l a and o t h e r c i t i e s , even w i t h a n

e s t i m a t e d 500,000 F i l i p i n o s work ing o v e r s e a s . The g rowing

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o f Xarcos and t h e m i s e r i e s f a c e d by t h e

p e o p l e i n a l l w a l k s of l i f e g a v e more i m p e t u s t o p o p u l a r

d i s c o n t e n t and t h i s s u p p o r t b a s e s h r a n k t o a l i m i t e d number

o f c r o n i e s .

A l e s s o b v i o u s b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h e economic c r i s i s was

t h e m i l i t a r y , whose power grew as a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s were

r e q u i r e d t o cope w i t h d i s s e n t . G e n e r a l Ver , p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

was g i v e n i n c r e a s e d s t a t u s . The M i l i t a r y became s o p o w e r f u l

t h a t some t imes t h e y went o u t o f c o n t r o l . Marcos c o n t i n u e d

t o e n j o y t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n d i f f e r e n t ways even

a f t e r l i f t i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w . Benigno Aquino, t h e l ong-

t i m e p o l i t i c a l opponen t of Marcos, and t h e man who eve rybody

t h o u g h t would become t h e n e x t p r e s i d e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y , was

a s s a s s i n a t e d by Marcos ' men on 2 1 s t August 1983 a t t h e

M a n i l a I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r P o r t w h i l e he was r e t u r n i n g home

f rom t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

A f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of M a r t i a l Law, Aquino was u n d e r

m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n and was a c c u s e d o f a v a r i e t y o f c r i m e s ,

i n c l u d i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a p o l i t i c a l k i l l i n g . L a t e r ,

r e l e a s e d f rom j a i l t h r o u h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o u n d e r g o h e a r t s u r g e r y i n t h e U.S Aquino

q u i c k l y d i s p l a c e d l e s s c h a r i s m a t i c f i g u r e s t o become t h e

p r i n c i p a l l e a d e r of t h e e x i l e d o p p o s i t i o n . I n 1981 , w h i l e

Aquino was s t i l l a b r o a d , Marcos h e l d P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n ,

b u t n o t b e f o r e amending t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n t o r a i s e t h e

minimum P r e s i d e n t i a l a g e t o f i f t y , t h e r e b y e x c l u d i n g t h e

f o r t y - e i g h t - y e a r o l d Aquino . By 1983, t a u n t e d by Marcos '

spokesmen f o r h i s f a i l u r e t o r e t u r n hone t o j a i l a s he had

p r o m i s e d , i m p a t i e n t w i t h t h e new American a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s

P h i l i p p i n e p o l i c y , and w o r r i e d by r e p o r t s o f M a r c o s ' s

u n c e r t a i n h e a l t h , Aquino d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h e hope o f p e r s u a d i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t t o

, a r r a n g e f o r a p e a c e f u l t r a n s f e r o f power t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n ,

o r f a i l i n g t h a t , t o assume l e a d e r s h i p o f t h a t o p p o s i t i o n

h i m s e l f . He had been p r e v i o u s l y warned by I l r s .Marcos and

othnrn t.lint. t i in l i e n migh t t ~ o nndarlgored by ~ u c h n r o t u r r l . 8 8

Aqu ino ' s a s s a s i n a t i o n t r i g g e r e d w i d e s p r e a d p u b l i c

demands f o r P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s ' s r e s i g n a t i o n . T h a t e v e n t

p r o v i d e d t h e f i l l i p f o r t h e s u r f a c i n g of p e o p l e ' s l o n g - f e l t

88 C a r l H.Lande , "The P o l i t i c a l C r i s i s " , i n John B r e s n a n , ( e d . ) , ~ ~ . c i t - , p . 1 1 5 .

a n g u i s h and g r i e v a n c e s i n t h e fo rm o f open p r o t e s t a t i o n s

a g a i n s t t h e r e g i m e . S e v e r a l h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d p e o p l e who

a t t e n d e d t h e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n t u r n e d t h e i r g r i e f i n t o

a n g e r and p r o t e s t aimed a t P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s , h i s w i f e

I m e l d a , and t h e m i l i t a r y , whom t h e y h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f b r

t h e murde r . Accord ing t o Williams O v e r h o l t :

... a f t e r t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f Benigno Aquino, t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s b a s e o f s u p p o r t became s t i l l n a r r o w e r . The c rowds a t Aqu ino ' s f u n e r a l were t h e l a r g e s t i n modern P h i l i p p i n e ' s h i s t o r y , e x c e e d i n g t h o s e a t P o p e ' s v i s i t , H c A h u r ' s s e n t i m e n t a l r e t u r n and H a g s a y s a y ' s f u n e r a l . sQ

Many w r i t e r s s e e A q u i n o ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n a s t h e pace -

s e t t e r f o r t h e d o w n f a l l o f H a r c o s . Wolden B e l l o r emarked :

S u r p r i s i n g i r o n i e s o f h i s t o r y t h a t Benigno Aquino a c c o m p l i s h e d i n h i s d e a t h t h e d o w n f a l l o f H a r c o s ' s d i c t a t o r s h i p . The murder i o r t a l i s e s t h e murdered and d e s t r o y s t h e m u r d e r e r . ..Be3

A p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s e r u p t e d s p e c t a c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e

a s s a s s i n a t i o n of f o r m e r P h i l i p p i n e s e n a t o r Aquino . I n t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n Carl H.Lande o b s e r v e d :

89 William H . O v e r h o l t , " R i s e and f a l l o f F e r d i n a n d Marcos" , S u r v e v ( C a l i f o r n i a ) , Vo l . 26 , No. 1 1 , November 1986 , p . 1 1 5 7 .

g0 Walden B e l l o , "Benigno Aquino: Between D i c t a t o r s h i p and Democracy i n P h i l i p p i n e s " , Third World (London) , Vo1.6 , No.2, A p r i l 1987 , p . 2 8 3 .

I t s e t o f f a r a p i d d e c l i n e i n b u s i n e s s c o n f i d e n c e , l e a d i n g t o a m a s s i v e f l i g h t o f c a p i t a l and t o t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s government t o s e r v i c e its f o r e i g n d e b t . I t s t i m u l a t e d an o u t b u r s t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a c t i v i t y by t h e d e m o c r a t i c o p p o s i t i o n and an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s c a l e of m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n by t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y o p p o s i t i o n . F o r P r e s i d e n t Marcos, it b r o u g h t a p r e c i p i t o u s d e c l i n e i n l e g i t i m a c y and a u t h o r i t y , and i n h i s a b i l i t y t o s h a p e t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . I t l e d a l s o t o e f f o r t s on t h e p a r t o f i m p o r t a n t f r i e n d s , b o t h d o m e s t i c and f o r e i # p , t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f rom t h e Marcos r e g i m e .

More and more F i l i p i n o s were c o n v i n c e d o f t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e r e was no a l t e r n a t i v e commit ted by Marcos r e g i m e . The

r e g i m e ' s c o r r u p t i o n , f a i l u r e o f i ts economic p o l i c i e s , i ts

r e p r e s s i v e n e s s and m i l i t a r y a b u s e s , and its s u p p o r t f rom t h e

U . S , e t c . v i r t u a l l y c a u s e d v i o l e n t p o p u l a r d i s c o n t e n t . o n e

of t h e ma jo r c a u s e s o f d i s c o n t e n t was t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y o v e r t h e y e a r s . The C a t h o l i c Church

became more o u t s p o k e n , u r g i n g Marcos t o r e s i g n b e c a u s e he

had l o s t t h e r e s p e c t and s u p p o r t o f t h e p e o p l e . They

c r i t i c i s e d t h e r o l e o f U . S b a s e s i n t h e P h i l i p i n e , i n

s u p p o r t i n g t h e Marcos r e g i m e . The CBCP denounced t h e

r e g i m e s a b u s e s o f human r i g h t s .

The U . S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l s o seemed l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c

a b o u t t h e r e g i m e a f t e r t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , a n o p i n i o n i n

Carl H.Lande , i n J o h n B r e s n a n ( e d . ), a m , p . 114.

l i n e w i t h t h a t o f U.S. C o n g r e s s and t h e House of

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . U.S i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c i e s a p p a r e n t l y

s h a r e d t h e World B a n k ' s v iew t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n was

" p r e c a r i o u s " , and t h e y had l i t t l e hope t h a t t h e reg ime had

s u f f i c i e n t i n s i g h t o r w i l l t o r e c o v e r . An a i d e t o S e c r e t a r y

o f S t a t e , George S h u l t z , r e p o r t e d l y s t a t e d t h a t "The Harcos

r eg ime is e n t e r i n g its t w i l i g h t zone and we d o n ' t want t o

f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n t h e same p o s i t i o n as we d i d i n I r a n when

t h e Shah was o v e r t h r o w n . ..92

C o n t i n u e d d e c l i n e i n P h i l i p p i n e economy, t h e

u n r e l e n t i n g g r o w t h o f t h e communist i n s u r g e n c y , and

i n c r e a s e d American p r e s s u r e f o r r e f o r m s had l e d Harcos t o

c a l l a "Snap" p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n f o r F e b r u a r y 7 , 1986 .

I n t h i s e l e c t i o n , momentous e v e n t s changed t h e P h i l i p p i n e

p o l i t i c a l l a n d s c a p e . The murdered Benigno Aquino a c h i e v e d

a v i c t o r y d e n i e d him i n l i f e : h i s widow Corozon Aquino

became P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , w h i l e h e r r i v a l ,

F e r d i n a n d Marcos , t o o k r e f u g e i n d i s g r a c e i n t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s . Hr s .Aqun io r e c e i v e d wide s u p p o r t f rom a l l w a l k s of

l i f e . Among them were l a r g e numbers of men and women of t h e

m i d d l e and u p p e r c l a s s e s who had been p o l i t i c i z e d by t h e

92 S h e i l a h Ocampo-Kal fe rs , "No more I r a n s " , F a r Eastern (Hong Kong), J u l y 2 1 , 1983, p . 1 6 .

Aquino a s s a s s i n a t i o n . I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t a b o u t 40,000

p e o p l e worked on e l e c t i o n d a y a s v o l u n t e e r s i n t h e n o m i n a l l y

n o n - p a r t i s a n b u t c l e a r l y p r o - o p p o s i t i o n NAHFREL. They were

s u c c e s s f u l i n g u a r d i n g t h e b a l l o t t i n g p r o c e s s a g a i n s t

m a s s i v e p r o - H a r c o s f r a u d . NAHFREL won w i d e s p r e a d d o m e s t i c

and f o r e i g n r e c o g n i t i o n f o r t h e a c c u r a c y of i t s c o u n t and

f o r t h e d e t a i l e d n a t u r e of i ts r e p o r t s o f f r a u d . The

C a t h o l i c Church a l s o p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e a s an ill-

d i s g u i s e d a l l y o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n c a n d i d a t e s . I t was C a r d i n a l

S i n , t h e A r c h b i s h o p of H a n i l a , h i m s e l f who p e r s u a d e d Corozon

Aquino t o j o i n f o r c e s w i t h S a l v a d o r L a u r e l and a l s o

p e r s u a d e d L a u r e l t o a c c e p t t h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t c a n d i d a t u r e on

t h e i r j o i n t t i c k e t . C a t h o l i c Church members, i n c l u d i n g

p r i e s t s and n u n s , p r o v i d e d t h e b u l k o f NAHFREL'S v o l u n t e e r s

and l e a d e r s . I t was t h e c h u r c h ' s r a d i o s t a t i o n V e r i t a s and

t h e B i s h o p s ' p a s t o r a l l e t t e r s , r e a d i n a l l P h i l l i p p i n e

C a t h o l i c c h u r c h e s , t h a t b r o k e t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s monopoly of

mass c o r n r n ~ n i c a t i o n . ~ ~ F i n a l l y , i t was C a r d i n a l S i n who

m o b i l i z e d " p e o p l e power" - t h e human b a r r i e r t h a t p r o t e c t e d

t h e m i l i t a r y i n s u r g e n t s f rom t h e s u p e r i o r f i r e p o w e r of t h e

P r e s i d e n t ' s l o y a l i s t armed f o r c e s .

9 3 C a r l H Lande , n o . c i t L , p . 1 4 3 .

- 214 -

The m i l i t a r y s o f a v o u r e d by Marcos, p roved i n t h e end

t o be u n d e p e n d a b l e . The g r o w i n g r i f t w i t h i n t h e armed

f o r c e s between d e f e n d e r s o f t h e r e g i m e and p r o t e c t o r s of t h e

n a t i o n came t o b e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s u n d o i n g . Marcos ' p o s t -

e l e c t i o n move t o a r r e s t members of t h e r e f o r m movement -

i n c l u d i n g t h e i r p a t r o n s - Defence H i n i s t e r J u a n Ponce

E n r i l e and G e n e r a l F i d e l Ramos - provoked a p r e e m p t i v e and

s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t . H a r c o s ' l o y a l i s t s , f a c e d w i t h a c h o i c e

be tween c r u s h i n g t h e b a r r i e r o f " p e o p l e power " and d e f y i n g

t h e o r d e r s o f t h e i r C h i e f , c h o s e n o t t o move. Wi th in f o u r

d a y s , Marcos ' m i l i t a r y d e f e n s e s had c rumbled and he was on

h i s way t o Guam.

R o l e o f t h e AFP i n martial l a w and a f te r

When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s e t up t h e P h i l i p p i n e army i n

1936, it c r e a t e d , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , a f o r c e v e r y much i n t h e

imnde CJF i t s own n r m y ; i t . W R R c m n l l , p r o f c s s i n n a l nnd

commi t t ed , above a l l , t o t h e n o t i o n o f c i v i l i a n sup remacy .

F o r many y e a r s a f t e r t h e g r a n t i n g o f i ndependence i n 1946,

t h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) r ema ined t h e v e r y

model o f a w e s t e r n army. I t had n o t been o b l i g e d t o f i g h t

f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e , and i t s s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e

Huk g u e r i l l a s i n Luzon n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , had n o t t o c o n t e n d

w i t h a n a t i o n w i d e i n s u r g e n c y .

Most s e n i o r o f f i c e r s had s e r v e d i n t h e U.S army -

P r e s i d e n t F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t o r d e r e d t h e i n d u c t i o n of a l l

P h i l i p p i n e s e r v i c e m e n i n t o t h e U.S army on t h e e v e of P e a r l

Harbour - , a t t e n d e d U.S m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s and g e n e r a l l y

had a h i g h r e g a r d f o r t h e American a p p r o a c h . t h e most

p o p u l a r h e r o f i g u r e f o r n o t F i l i p i n o o f f i c e r s was n o t , a s i n

o t h e r newly i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , a l o c a l p a t r i o t b u t an

American - Gen. Doug la s Mac A r t h u r .

I n t h e y e a r a f t e r World War I1 i t was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t

t h e a r m y ' s r o l e encompassed t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e s t a t e and no

more . Over t h e s u c c e e d i n g d e c a d e s , however , c h a n g e s had

t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e AFP. The most o b v i o u s o f t h i s had been

t h e d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e of t h e m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t . S i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law i n

September 1972 , t h e AFP had s e e n i t s r a n k s s w o l l e n

t h r e e f o l d , l a r g e l y on a c c o u n t o f t h e b i t t e r war a g a i n s t

Muslim s e p e r a t e s i n Mindanao and t h e c o n t i n u i n g war a g a i n s t

t h e g u e r i l l a s o f t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army (NPA), t h e m i l i t a r y

wing o f t h e o u t l a w e d Communist P a r t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

When m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , AFP was a f o r c e of 5 8 , 0 0 0

men. I n 1982 , a f t e r t e n y e a r s l a t e r , i t was a round 146 ,000

w i t h 6 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e Army ( p l u s a r e s e r v e of 9 0 , 0 0 0 ) , 1 6 , 0 0 0

i n t h e Air F o r c e , 28 ,000 i n t h e Navy ( i n c l u d i n g 9 t o 10

t h o u s a n d m a r i n e s ) and 4 2 , 0 0 0 i n t h e P a r a m i l i t a r y P h i l i p p i n e

C o n s t a b u l a r y ( P C ) . And t h o u g h t h e P h i l i p p i n e s s p e n d s a

c o n s i d e r a b l y lower p e r c e n t a g e o f i t s g r o s s n a t i o n a l

p r o d u c t on d e f e n c e t h a n any o t h e r ASEAN n a t i o n , its d e f e n c e

b u d g e t b a l l o o n e d f rom U.S $1 b i l l i o n i n 1981.94 T h i s is a

h i g h e r r a t e o f e x p a n s i o n t h a n i n any o t h e r c o u n t r y .

The r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e AFP c r e a t e d p r o b l e m s of

o r g a n i s a t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e . One p rob lem c e n t r e d on s o -

c a l l e d o v e r s t a y i n g G e n e r a l s . H a r c o s k e p t s e n i o r men i n

p l a c e w e l l beyond t h e u s u a l r o t a t i o n p e r i o d c a u s i n g m o r a l e

p r o b l e m s . Ano the r p rob lem c e n t r e d on l a c k of d i s c i p l i n e and

p o o r m o r a l e b o t h of which were e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e b i t t e r

f i g h t i n g i n Hindanao and o t h e r p l a c e s . S t a n d a r d s f e l l a s a

l a r g e number o f y o u n g e r o f f i c e r s were i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e army

and thrown i n t o a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Musl ims . I n t e r - s e r v i c e

r i v a l r y was a l s o a p rob lem and p o o r m o r a l e i n army and P.C

u n i t s l e d a t t i m e s t o s h o o t - o u t s be tween g r o u p s o f o p p o s i n g

s o l d i e r s s t a t i o n e d i n t h e S o u t h . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of

m a r t i a l l aw, t h e r e were i n c i d e n t s o f wide a b u s e o f power,

s u p p r e s s i o n o f human r i g h t s and t o r t u r e . T r o o p s were

a c c u s e d o f l o o t i n g , ' r a p i n g and " s a l v a g i n g " , a euphemism

g4 David J e n k i n s , " A l l t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s Hen", R e v h i , (Hong Kong) , March 1 0 , 1883, p . 1 5 .

employed by army men t o d e s c r i b e t h e murder o f c i v i l i a n

s u s p e c t s . The army had c r e a t e d an image t h a t " t h e y a r e gun-

With t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l l a w , t h e AFP was n o t

o n l y g i v e n an expanded r o l e i n t h e c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y f i e l d

b u t a l s o a g r e a t l y expanded b a n k r o l l . A f t e r 1972 ,

P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y a s a whole came u n d e r much g r e a t e r

m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l . R e t i r e d m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l were p l a c e d i n

key government p o s i t i o n s and t h e armed f o r c e s were

r e o r g a n i s e d u n d e r a u n i f i e d command s t r u c t u r e which s t r i p p e d

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e r v i c e h e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e i r power.

The p r o c l a m a t i o n of m a r t i a l l a w g a v e t h e Armed F o r c e s

o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) e x t e n s i v e new powers . P r o c l a m a t i o n

No. 1081 r e a d s :

Now, t h e r e f o r e , I , F e r d i n a n d E . Marcos , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , by v i r t u e o f t h e powers v e s t e d upon me by A r t i c l e VII, s e c t i o n 1 0 , p a r a g r a p h ( 2 ) o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , d o h e r e b y command t h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o m a i n t a i n law and o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s of l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e a s w e l l a s any a c t of i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n and t o e n f o r c e o b e d i e n c e t o a l l l aws and d e c r e e s , o r d e r s and r e g u l a t i o n s r o m u l g a t e d by me p e r s o n a l l y o r upon my d i r e c t i o n . 9 5

95 P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081 , (Sep tember 21 , 1971)

Subsequen t g e n e r a l o r d e r s i s s u e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t

a u t h o r i s e d t h e armed f o r c e s t o a r r e s t p e o p l e s u s p e c t e d o f

s p e c i f i e d o f f e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o p u b l i c

o r d e r . The C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP was empowered t o

e s t a b l i s h s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s t o t r y c a s e s of p e o p l e

c h a r g e d w i t h t h e s e o f f e n c e s . T h e i r d e t e n t i o n u n d e r t h e

t e r m s of m a r t i a l law was t o b e a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e AFP. The

l i f t i n g of m a r t i a l law h a s l e d t o a r e d u c t i o n of t h e r o l e of

t h e armed f o r c e s o n l y i n s o f a r a s new c a s e s were removed

f rom t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s . E a r l i e r , on

Armed F o r c e s Day, P r e s i d e n t Marcos t o l d t h e t r o o p s t h a t when

mart ia l law had been l i f t e d t h e armed f o r c e s s h o u l d " s t a y i n

p l a c e , c o n t i n u e w i t h your o p e r a t i o n s and a t t a i n y o u r

o b j e c t i v e s . 9 6

While j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t y had s u f f e r e d f rom P r e s i d e n t

H a r c o s ' i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f m a r t i a l l aw, t h e m i l i t a r y

had become an i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e r f u l f o r c e i n t h e gove rnmen t .

When m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , P r e s i d e n t Harcos had

c a l l e d on t h e armed f o r c e s t o " p r e s e n t o r s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s

of l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e , a s w e l l a s any a c t o f i n s u r r e c t i o n o r

96 Repor t o f an Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e R e p u b l i c of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 11-28 November, 1981 , (London: Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 8 8 2 ) , p . 1 5 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981)

r e b e l l i o n " . 97 I n l i f t i n g m a r t i a l law he n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h

t h e communist i n s u r g e n c y had been " s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d " ,

t h e p u b l i c s a f e t y " c o n t i n u e t o t z q u i r e a d e g r e e of c a p a b i l i t y

t o d e a l a d e q u a t e l y w i t h e l e m e n t s who p e r s i s t i n e n d e a v o u r i n g

t o o v e r t h r o w t h e government by v i o l e n t means . . . 98

A c c o r d i n g l y , he p r o c l a i m e d t h a t " t h e c a l l t o t h e Armed

F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s

v i o l e n c e , i n s u r r e c t i o n , r e b e l l i o n and s u b v e r s i o n " was t o

r ema in i n f o r c e . 99 A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s F i l i p i n o s c o n t i n u e d

t o l i v e u n d e r t h e e f f e c t o f e x t e n d e d m i l i t a r y r u l e .

Over t h e 13 y e a r s f rom 1972 t h e AFP grew t o i n c l u d e

more t h a n 200 ,000 a c t i v e s o l d i e r s , w i t h more t h a n 70 ,080

a d d i t i o n a l armed s o l d i e r s u n d e r its c o n t r o l t h r o u g h a

c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a known as t h e C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e

(CHDF) . The g r o w t h was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h o f a g u e r i l l a movement,

t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army (NPA), and i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s f o r

e x p a n s i o n g e n e r a t e d by c o r r u p t and i n e f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y

comnande r s . The d r a m a t i c g r o w t h of t h e AFP had o c c u r r e d

d u r i n g a p e r i o d when t h e r e h a s been no t h r e a t o f e x t e r n a l

97 P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081 (Sep tember 2 1 , 1972)

P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 2045 ( J a n u a r y 1 7 , 1985)

89

a g g r e s s i o n and t h e c r i s i s was home-grown and s e l f - imposed .

The U.S i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t s a l s o a f f i r m e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

NPA r e c e i v e d no m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t f rom o u t s i d e c o u t r i e s o r

f o r c e s , s u c h a s t h e S o v i e t Union , C h i n a , L i b y a t h e P a l e s t i n e - L i b e r a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n o r Vie tnam. lBO Though t h e

P h i l i p p i n e Armed F o r c e s have s w e l l e d i n l a r g e p a r t i n

r e s p o n s e t o t h e NPA t h r e a t , t h e y had o f t e n s e r v e d t o f u e l

t h e i n s u r g e n t s ' g r o w t h , r a t h e r t h a n s t e m i t . I n many p a r t s

o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a s u b s t a n t i a l m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e had come

t o b e synonymous w i t h p e r v a s i v e m i l i t a r y a b u s e . Though

c h a r g e d , i n P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s ' s words , t o " s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s

v i o l e n c e " , t h e armed f o r c e s have been r e s p o n s i b l e f b r

t h o u s a n d s of a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s of

t h e gove rnmen t . t h e s e a r r e s t s were o f t e n accompanied by

t o r t u r e and o t h e r f o r m s o f i l l - t r e a t m e n t , a s w e l l a s l o n g

p e r i o d s o f incommunicado d e t e n t i o n w i t h o u t f o r m a l c h a r g e o r

t r i a l .

The phenomenon o f " m i l i t a r i z a t i o n " was i n c r e a s i n g i n '

e a c h and e v e r y f i e l d and i ts c o n s e q u e n c e s were d e p l o r e d by

i n f l u e n t i a l l e a d e r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i n c l u d i n g s e n i o r

c h u r c h o f f i c i a l s , j u r i s t s and l a w y e r s , e t c . , as well as by

lBO A s q u o t e d i n The Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t - 1985, - . c i t , , p . 2 3 .

i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s . J a i m e s C a r d i n a l

S i n , Roman C a t h o l i c Archb i shop of Man i l a o b s e r v e d :

D a i l y we e x p e r i e n c e t h e i n c r e a s i n g m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of o u r l i v e s : t h e p e r v a s i v e s u r v e i l l a n c e of c i t i z e n s who e x p r e s s d i s s e n t d e m o c r a t i c a l l y by m i l i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e ; t h e l a c k of mercy and p r u d e n c e shown by s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y u n i t s a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d c r i m i n a l s ; The u s e of t o r t u r e t o e x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n ' t h e u n e x p e c t e d w e a l t h o f many m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s . i0l

The m i l i t a r y was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l a r g e number of c a s e s

of m i l t a r y a b u s e s . D e s p i t e o f f i c i a l g u i d e l i n e s and

d i r e c t i v e s g i v e n t o t h e m i l i t a r y men, human r i g h t s

v i o l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t by government a g e n t s .

I n August 1979 , t h e H i n i s t e r o f N a t i o n a l Defence , Juan

Ponce E n r i l e , app roved t h e recommendat ion o f t h e B a r b e r o

Commission a f t e r i t s h e a r i n g i n Davao c i t y , r e q u i r i n g t h e

C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP and t h e C h i e f o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

C o n s t a b u l a r y

. . . t o remind a l l s u b o r d i a n t e m i l t a r y / p o l i c e u n i t s t o o b s e r v e a t a l l t i m e s t h e human r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n even a s a g a i n s t e n e m i e s of t h e s t a t e ; t h a t p e r s o n s who a r e a r r e s t e d / c a p t u r e d i n o p e r a t i o n s must b e t r e a t e d

lol L e t t e r w r i t t e n by Arch B i s h o p James C a r d i n a l S i n t o Archb i shop John R . Roach, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e of C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s , U n i t e d S t a t e s , (Sep tember 4 , 1 9 8 1 ) .

w i t h d i g n i t y and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e n o b l e p r o f e s s i o n of arms and t h a t any v i o l a t i o n t h e r e o f w i l l b e a g round f o r d i s m i s s a l from t h e s e r v i c e of t h e o f f e n d i n g p e r s o n n e l w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e t o t h e i 6 2 c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n a s t h e e v i d e n c e may w a r r a n t .

I n A p r i l 1981 t h e C h i e f o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y ,

G e n e r a l F i d e l V . Ramos, was r e p o r t e d t o have i s s u e d

g u i d e l i n e s t o law e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c i a l s on s e l f - d e f e n c e i n

r e s p o n s e t o w i d e s p r e a d r e p o r t s o f a r b i t r a r y k i l l i n g s by s u c h

o f f i c i a l s . A summary of t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s r e a d s :

1. The o n l y j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r law e n f o r c e s t o k i l l c r i m i n a l s is s e l f d e f e n c e which can o n l y be , r e s o r t e d t o when t h e r i s k of s u b d u i n g them p e a c e f u l l y w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e d e a t h of law e n f o r c e s o r c i t i z e n s ;

2 . The p r i m a r y d u t y u n d e r t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m is t o a r r e s t o f f e n d e r s and i n i t i a t e c o u r t a c t i o n a g a i n s t them . . . The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y w i l l n o t t e l e r a t e lawmen becoming p r o s e c u t o r s , j u d g e s and e x e c u t o r s of o f f e n d e r s ;

3 . A l l c a s e s of e n c o u n t e r s w i t h c r i m i n a l s b e i n g a r r e s t e d o r e s c a p i n g p r i s o n e r s a s a m a t t e r o f s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e , sha]bgbe c o v e r e d by a u t o p s y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r t s .

lo2 Q u o t e d i n Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on P h i l i p p i n e s 1981 , ~ ~ ~ c i t , , P . 1 8 .

- 2 2 3 -

D e s p i t e s u c h o f f i c i a l g u i d e l i n e s and d i r e c t i v e s ,

m i l i t a r i z a t i o n was i n c r e a s i n g . Human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s s u c h

~ : ~ ~ m m n r y s x ~ c ~ t t i o n n , m n s s n c r e s nnd " d i s p p e n r ~ ~ i c e s " w h e r e

t h e v i c t i m s a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e d e a d , a l l a l l e g e d l y c a r r i e d

o u t by m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l . The r o l e o f t h e armed f o r c e s i n

w h a t had t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n c i v i l i a n matters was e x p a n d e d

w i t h t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law.

S t r u c t u r e of t h e AFP

The AFP c o n s i s t o f f o u r m a j o r s e r v i c e s : t h e Army,

Navy, A i r F o r c e a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y . A large

c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a , known a s t h e C i v i l a i n Home D e f e n c e F o r c e

a l s o o p e r a t e d u n d e r t h e o s t e n s i b l e command o f o f t h e AFP.

A l l o f t h e s e f o r c e s w e r e i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r t h e M i n i s t r y o f

D e f e n c e , a n d a l l were i n v o l v e d i n c o m b a t o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t

t h e N e w P e o p l e ' s Army, Muslim i n s u r g e n t s , a n d o t h e r g r o u p s

i n t h e c o u n t r y o p p o s i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e o f M a r c o s .

(a) T h e P h i l i p p i n e s C o n s t a b u l a r y (PC)

The PC, o r i g i n a l l y named t h e I n s u l a r P o l i c e F o r c e was

f o u n d e d by t h e U.S c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n 1901 as a law

e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y t o m a i n t a i n p e a c e a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . A s s u c h , i t r a t h e r t h a n t h e l o c a l p o l i c e ,

o v e r w h i c h t h e PC t h e n had s u p e r v i s o r y p o w e r s , u n d e r t o o k a l l

STRUCTURE OF ARMED FORCES OF THE PHIL1 PPINE.5 : 1984

J . , I

1 PHlU WINES PHIL1 PPlNES PHILIPPINES PHILI PPINES COWTA~ULARY * m y N4vy A I R fbPLE

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I b n s t a b ~ l a r ~ Skurity Units (CSU S) - Criminal lnvesti atim Services (CIS) a

Sprid 1 O p r a t i c ~ s Groups (SO-) Constabulary An&- narr&cs uwi ts CCANU)

U.S. PHILIPPINE MILI THKY PSSISTM~ 'rrilin,n A61REEMENT (MA& A4viLe PRESIOENT14L SECURITY

- I - ~ o n ~ ~ l b u b v q &-shore Anti-Crime L4rrl.t-s 1

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PRESIDENT -0s

Souwe: Philippine k t i w , Lppo* &mupi Documents : Ausballiu, ,q&.

COMMAND C P S ~

- Civic A c t i o n P3rammes I (CAP)

b u t r o u t i n e law e n f o r c e m e n t d u t i e s i n c l u d i n g t h e s u p p r e s s i o n

o f d i s s i d e n t movements . A l t h o u g h c h a r g e d w i t h c i v i l i a n

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

t h e i n t e r i o r , i t was o r g a h i s e d a l o n g m i l i t a r y l i n e s and i ts

members s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e .

Between 1 9 3 5 a n d 1 9 5 0 , t h e PC u n d e r w e n t s e v e r a l p h a s e s

o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m a n d i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h p o l i c e a n d m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . I n J u l y 1 9 5 0 , i t was f u l l y merged w i t h t h e

AFP a n d p l a c e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , a s t a t u s w h i c h i t h a d r e t a i n e d e v e r s i n c e .

I n 1 9 7 5 , by P r e s i d e n t i a l Decree (PD) No. 7 6 5 , t h e I n t e g r a t e d

N a t i o n a l P o l i c e ( I N P ) was e s t a b l i s h e d , c o m p r i s i n g t h e PC as

i ts n u c l e u s a n d t h e i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c e f o r c e s a s c o m p o n e n t s ,

t o f u n c t i o n d i r e c t l y u n d e r t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t i o n a l

D e f e n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e INP was n o t p a r t o f t h e AFP, PD No.

7 6 5 p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e PC would r e m a i n a m a j o r s e r v i c e o f

t h e AFP. T h e d u t i e s o f t h e PC u n d e r mar t ia l law w e r e

o f f i c i a l l y d e f i n e d as c o m p r i s i n g " g e n e r a l p o l i c e d u t i e s " ;

" m i s c e l l a n e o u s p o l i c e d u t i e s " a s a s s i g n e d b y e x p l i c i t

p r o v i s i o n o f l a w , by d i r e c t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , by

d e p u t a t i o n a n d b y r e q u e s t w h i c h i n c l u d e e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e

A n t i - S u b v e r s i o n law; " s p e c i a l d u t i e s " , i n c l u d i n g g e n e r a l

s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e p o l i c e f o r c e s ; " n a t i o n a l d e f e n c e

d u t i e s " , i n c l u d i n g p r o v i d i n g " r e a r a r e a s e c u r i t y and damage

c o n t r o l d u r i n g war" and b u i l d i n g up i t s R e s e r v e F o r c e d u r i n g

p e a c e t i m e " ; and " m a r t i a l law d u t i e s : , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e

" e n f o r c e m e n t and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s ,

" I n t h e 13 G e n e r a l o r d e r s and l e t t e r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

y e a r s p e r i o d s i n c e m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , t h e PC had been

d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y d u t i e s ; combat

d u t i e s i n s u p p r e s s i n g movements a i m i n g a t t h e armed

o v e r t h r o w of t h e gove rnmen t ; t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of d e t a i n e e s

a r r e s t e d by members of t h e armed f o r c e s , t h e p o l i c e and

o f f i c i a l s d e s i g n e d t o make a r r e s t s u n d e r t h e m a r t i a l law

p r o v i s i o n s ; S u p e r v i s i o n of t h e I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home

Defence F o r c e (ICHDF), t h e c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a which had

g r e a t l y expanded s i n c e 1972 t o a s s i s t t h e AFP i n its law

e n f o r c e m e n t r o l e ; and t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of m u n i c i p a l and l o c a l

f o r c e s . The w i d e - r a n g i n g powers of t h e PC s i n c e t h e

p r o c l a m a t i o n of m a r t i a l law t h e r e f o r e spanned m i l i t a r y ,

i n t e l l i g e n c e and p o l i c i n g r o l e s o s t e n s i b l y d i r e c t e d a t

s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n which o c c a s i o n e d m a r t i a l l aw.

I n a r e a s where t h e armed f o r c e s were engaged i n

r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l s o f combat w i t h t h e NPA o r t h e HNLF,

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981, w . c i L , p . 2 0 .

t h e y were o r g a n i s e d i n t o s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y commands: I n

a d d i t i o n s p e c i a l u n i t s were a c t i v e which a l t h o u g h somet imes

a c t i n g i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e g u l a r p r o v i n c i a l commands,

were d i r e c t l y a c c o u n t a b l e t o r e g i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i n c i a l

commanders o r d i r e c t l y t o c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n M a n i l a .

These u n i t s were ; I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s : S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s ,

s u c h a s t h e Long Range P a t r o l o f t h e PC and A i r b o r n e U n i t s

o f t h e army; and Task F o r c e s c o m p r i s i n g PC and army

p e r s o n n e l .

Over t h e y e a r s PC had come t o be r e g a r d e d a s one of t h e

a b u s i v e p a r t n e r s o f AFP. T e s t i m o n i e s f rom v i c t i m s o f human

r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s f rom a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y , s h a r e t h e PC

f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n a c c o u n t s of b r u t a l i t y and o f f i c i a l

v i o l e n c e , o f t e n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s . 105

(b) I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s

S i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l l aw, t h e r e had been a

p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y u n i t s empowered

t o a r r e s t and d e t a i n p e o p l e s u s p e c t e d of o f f e n c e s r e l a t i n g

t o n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . The main c o - o r d i n a t i n g body o f t h i s

The r e s e a r c h e r had o b t a i n e d f i r s t hand i n f o r m a t i o n f rom d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n .

d e p a r t m e n t was t h e N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y

A u t h o r i t y (NISA); I t s D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l was t h e t h e n C h i e f

o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP, G e n e r a l F a b i a n . When F a b i a n was t h e

D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l o f NISA, t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d of h i s t r i a l

i n c o n n e c t i n w i t h t h e Aquino murder c a s e he was o f f i c i a l l y

on l e a v e and r e p o r t e d l y c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r t c o n s i d e r a b l e

i n f l u e c n e o v e r d a y - t o - d a y a f f a i r s i n NISA. P r e s i d e n t i a l

D i r e c t i v e No. 1498 , d e s c r i b e d NISA a s " t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r

d i r e c t i o n , c o - o r d i a n t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n of government

.. 107 a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g n a t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s c o - o r d i n a t i n g f u n c t i o n , NISA h a s i t s own

a g e n t s i n t h e f i e l d who a r r e s t , d e t a i n and i n t e r r o g a t e

a l l e g e d p o l i t i c a l o f f e n d e r s . NISA was f o r m a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e

t o t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and i ts

Chai rman, P r e s i d e n t Marcos . 108

Under NISA t h e r e a r e t h e AFP i n t e l l i g e n c e u n i t s and

t h e C i v i l I n t e l l i g e n c e S e c u r i t y A u t h o r i t y (CISA) -

c o m p r i s i n g v a s t i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n t h e m s e l v e s . These

were made up of t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n t h e m s e l v e s .

L a w y e r s , Commit tee R e p o r t , oo.cit., p . 2 8 .

P .D.No.1498, ( N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code)

108 bid.

These were made up o f t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s of t h e AFP

(ISAFP) w i t h a l l i t s f i e l d u n i t s , and t h e H i l i t a r y

I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIG) , u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l e y e s of

JUSHAG.

The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y a l s o h a s i ts i n t e l l i g e n c e

network-CSUS ( C o n s t a b u l a r y S e c u r i t y U n i t s ) , CIS ( C r i m i n a l

I n v e s t i g a t i o n S e r v i c e ) , SOGS ( S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s G r o u p s ) ,

CANU ( C o n s t a b u l a r y A n t i - N a r c o t i c s U n i t s ) COSAC ( C o n s t a b u l a r y

O f f - S h a r e Ant i -Cr ime U n i t s ) , e t c . The army, navy and

a i r f o r c e a l l have t h e i r own a d d i t i o n a l n e t w o r k s and f i e l d

u n i t s . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e v e r y l i f e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t

h i m s e l f i s t h e PSU - P r e s i d e n t i a l S e c u r i t y U n i t .

The i n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s were c o - o r d i a n t e d by NISA,

which had been most f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d were t o have

a r r e s t e d d e t a i n e d and i n t e r r o g a t e d s u s p e c t s engaged i n

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . I n 1985 t h e U.S b a s e d Lawyers

Commit tee f o r Human R i g h t s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e y had r e c e i v e d

r e p o r t s o f human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s commit ted by a number of

o t h e r i n t e l l e g e n c e u n i t s t h a t o p e r a t e u n d e r t h e co-

o r d i a n t i o n of NISA, w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e I n t e l l e g e n c e S e r v i c e

of t h e AFP, whose o p e r a t i n g u n i t s a r e known a s H i l i t a r y

I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIGS); t h e P C ' s & I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e

( C 2 ) , whose o p e r a t i n g u n i t s c a l l e d R e g i o n a l S e c u r i t y U n i t s

(HSUS o r HZ5), i n c l u d e t h e P C ' s Metro Man i l a Command .-

Metrocom I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y G r a s p (MISG); o t h e r PC

u n i t s , i n c l u d i n g i t s C r i m i n a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n S e r v i c e ( C I S ) ;

and Army I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s r e f e r r e d t o a s G2, whose

o p e r a t i n g g r o u p s a r e c a l l e d M i l i t a r y S e c u r i t y U n i t s

(MSUs). 109

A l l o f t h e s e f o r c e s a r e empowered t o a r r e s t and d e t a i n

p e r s o n s s u s p e c t e d o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y

o f f e n c e s . I t is i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h c a s e s t h a t a l a r g e

number of v i o l a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i n i t i a l

p e r i o d a f t e r a r r e s t when s o - c a l l e d " t a c t i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n "

is c o n d u c t e d . I n a number of i n s t a n c e s , p e o p l e have

d i s a p p e a r e d a f t e r b e i n g a b d u c t e d by i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s ,

l a t e r t o r e a p p e a r i n t h e c u s t o d y of m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s .

( c ) S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s .

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f rom

11 t o 28 November 1981 l e a r n e d of t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a number

of S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s o n l y l o o s e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e

r e g u l a r c h a i r o f command whose a c t i v i t i e s had g i v e n ground

Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t , m . c i t . , p . 2 9 .

f o r c o n c e r n . 'I0 These i n c l u d e d t h e PC, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Army ( P A ) and Compos i t e Task F o r c e s a s s i g n e d t o p r o v i n c i a l ,

r e g i o n a l o r S p e c i a l Commands, whose u n i t s o f t e n a p p r e a r e d t o

be a c c o u n t a b l e o n l y t o t h e i r commanders. O t h e r g r o u p s s u c h

a s Task F o r c e Kan laon , Task F o r c e L o r r o , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Army Task F o r c e Agusan, F i r s t Composi t I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n ,

e t c . a l s o were f u n c t i o n i n g from d i f f e r e n t a r e a s and

i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e p r o c e s s of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n .

(d) The I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e ( I D H D F )

The ICHDF o p e r a t e d a s a c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a t h r o u g h o u t

t h e c o u n t r y u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e o f f i c e of t h e

I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

C o n s t a b u l a r y . The members o f t h e ICHDF were r e c r u i t e d

m o s t l y f rom c r i m i n a l s and t h e p e r s o n a l b o d y g u a r d s o f l o c a l l y

p o w e r f u l p e o p l e . Ano the r s o u r c e of r e c r u i t m e n t was f rom t h e

members oP i r r e g u a l r q u a s i - m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s

o r c r i m i n a l g r o u p s . T h e r e were d i s t u r b i n g a l l e g a t i o n s

a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of ICHDF r e c r u i t s and t h e i r l a c k of

t r a i n i n g s and i n a d e q u a t e d i s c i p l i n a r y m e a s u r e s e x a c e r b a t e d

t h e p rob lem. Once r e c r u i t e d , ICHDF members were g i v e n arms

and were e s s e n t i a l l y l e t l o o s e t o o p e r a t e a s a f r o n t - l i n e

'I0 Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981 , p . 2 3 .

f i g h t i n g a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e . ICHDF members were m o s t l y

l o c a l r e s i d e n t s i n a r e a s w h e r e t h e i n s u r g e n c y was s t r o n g .

T h e y were o f t e n u s e d as i n f o r m a n t s t o i d e n t i f y

" s u b v e r s i v e s " . B e c a u s e t h e ICHDF is a n " i n t e g r a t e d " f o r c e ,

h o w e v e r , i t s u n i t s may b e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m o n e area t o

a n o t h e r . When c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t a p r r t i c u l a r u n i t s t a r t e d

t o m o u n t , t h a t u n i t was o f t e n s i m p l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o t h e r

a r ea . 11 1

The ICHDF was m o d e l l e d a f t e r t h e C i v i l i a n G u a r d s u s e d

b y t h e P h i l i p p i n e m i l i t a r y t o s u p p r e s s t h e "Huk" r e b e l l i o n

i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e s e c o u n t e r -

i n s u r g e n c y e f f o r t t h e C i v i l i a n G u a r d s were known f o r t h e i r

b r u t a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n . T h e ICHDF

a g a i n s t a r t e d d u r i n g t h e mar t i a l law p e r i o d , h a d g rown

i m m e n s e l y a n d o p e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . On a

n a t i o n a l l e v e l t h e r e was a n o f f i c e o f t h e ICHDF w i t h i n t h e

c o n s t a b u l a r y . A t t h e l o c a l l e v e l ICHDF g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e d

u n d e r t h e d i r e c t command o f t h e l o c a l PC d e t a c h m e n t

commander . O f t e n ICHDF u n i t s work c l o s e l y w i t h o t h e r

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e g u l a r a r m y . T h e r e are a l s o

r e p o r t s t h a t ICHDF u n i t s c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h some o t h e r

L a w y e r s ' C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t , n o . c i t . , p . 3 2 .

g r ~ v o r r ~ m e r ~ L a l o f f i c e s , s u c h a s t.he o t ' f i r r o f t . 1 1 ~ I ' r e s i d e r ~ t i ~ l

A s s i s t a n t on N a t i o n a l M i n o r i t i e s (PANAMIN). PANAMIN

e s t a b l i s h e d t r i b a l s e t t l e m e n t s i n a r e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e NPA i n s u r g e n c y was

s t r o n g . 112

I n some c a s e s ICHDF members commit ted random v i o l e n c e i n

r e s p o n s e t o v i o l e n c e commit ted by New P e o p l e ' s Army. On

numerous o c c a s i o n s ICHDF i n s e a r c h o f s u s p e c t e d s u b v e r s i v e s

had l e f t non-combatan t c i v i l i a n s d e a d i n t h e i r wake. But

t h e m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s j u s t i f i e d t h e a c t i o n of t h e ICHDF a s

" s e l f - d e f e n c e " .

A g r o u p o f o p p o s i t i o n members o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

N a t i o n a l Assembly ( B a t a s a n g Pambansa) f i l e d a r e s o l u t i o n on

A p r i l 27 , 1985 c a l l i n g f o r t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e ICHDF.

C i t i n g what t h e y te rmed " g r a v e a c t s o f i n j u s t i c e " , t h e

r e s o l u t i o n c h a r g e d :

The ICHDFs, o r g a n i s e d by v a r i o u s u n i t s o f t h e AFP have c a u s e d u n t o l d m i s e r i e s t o t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n Qy t h e i r a b u s e s and c o n t i n u i n g a c t s o f i n j u s t i c e . 11

Ibid., p . 3 8 .

Halava, ( M a n i l a ) , A p r i l 28, 1985

A s a r e s u l t o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n move t h e Defence M i n i s t e r

E n r i l e had o r d e r e d n e x t d a y a " t o p - l e v e l - commit tee" t o

r e a s s e s s t h e o v e r a l l c o n c e p t o f ICHDF a c t i v i t i e s . The

c o m m i t t e e , headed by t h e t h e n Deputy Defence M i n i s t e r J o s e

C r i s o l , is t o examine t h e r e c r u i t m e n t , t r a i n i n g , d i s c i p l i n e ,

o p e r a t i o n a l u t i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e ICHDF programme.

C r i s o l a s p e c i a l i s t i n c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s , had

d e s c r i b e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e ICHDF a s " v e r y s o u n d " . 114

On t h e same d a y , P r e s i d e n t Harcos d e l i v e r e d a s p e e c h

a t t a c k i n g t h e p r o p o s a l t o a b o l i s h t h e ICHDF and he warned

o p p o s i t i o n l e a d e r s t h a t he viewed t h e p r o p o s a l a s "an

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e New p e o p l e ' s Army, t h e m i l i t a r y arm of

t h e CPP, was g o i n g t o be u s e d i n t h e coming e l e c t i o n s . 115

P r e s i d e n t Harcos d i d n o t r e s p o n d t o c r i t i c i s m s o f ICHDF

a b u s e s , n o r d i d he e x p r e s s any c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e need t o

improve r e c r u i t m e n t o r t r a i n i n g o f t h e s e f o r c e s . .

T h e r e were t r emendous p u b l i c o u t c r y o v e r t h e inhuman

a c t i v i t i e s of ICHDF and r e s p o n s i b l e human r i g h t s

o r g a n i s a t i o n s c h a r g e d t h a t t h e ICHDF became " i n s t r u m e n t s of

U e t i n w, ( M a n i l a ) , A p r i l 29 , 1985

t e r r o r r a t h e r t h a n p e a c e " , t h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e ICHDF be

a b o l i s h e d .

(e) I r r e g u l a r P a r a m i l i a t a r y F a n a t i c g r o u p s

C e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s were a l l e g e d l y

a c t i n g w i t h o f f i c i a l a p p r o v a l o f AFP. The Army was a r m i n g ,

m o t i v a t i n g and s u p p o r t i n g r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s f o r

c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y p u r p o s e s . D e s p i t e s t r o n g p r o t e s t a g a i n s t

i n t e g r a t i n g n o t o r i o u s g r o u p s i n t o t h e p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e s

and a rming i r r e g u a l r armed g r o u p s by t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e

p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , Many of t h e g r o u p s

have f i g u r e d i n some s i g n i f i c a n t c a s e s of k i l l i n g s and

m a s s a c r e s and had n o t o r i o u s r e c o r d s of m u t i l a t i o n of dead

b o d i e s . The I l a g a s ( R a t s ) , a f a n a t i c a l g r o u p armed and

t r a n i n e d by t h e m i l i t a r y a g a i n s t t h e MNLF i n mid 7 0 ' s were

r e p o r t e d l y a c t i v e a g a i n i n many p a r t s o f C o t a t i a t o and

Zamboanga d e l S u r . The P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n

(PLO) was a g r o u p of f o r m e r MNLF r e b e l s who s u r r e n d e r e d t o

t h e government and i t s members were a l l o w e d a g a i n t o c a r r y

a rms and o p e r a t e a s a g r o u p . U n l i k e o t h e r r e l i g i o u s

f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s , t h e PLO was a p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p armed and

s p o n s o r e d by t h e m i l i t a r y . 116

116 ~,imer on -, . . ( M a n i l a : Ecumenica l

Movement f o r J u s t i c e and P e a c e ) , p.16.

S i m i l a r t o t h e PLO is t h e ' L o s t Command', a n o t o r i o u s

p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e which o p e r a t e d as a c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y

t eam. T h i s ' L o s t Command' f i g u r e d i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c o n t r o v e r s y when i t was employed by a B r i t i s h - f u n d e d

a g r i b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e ( t h e NDC - G u t h r i e C o r p o r a t i o n ) i n 1983

a s i t s s e c u r i t y u n i t . The . L o s t Command, had been

engaged i n e x t o r t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , k i l l i n g s o f t r a d e u n i o n i s t s

and r e b e l s y m p a t h i s e r s , e t c .

Some of t h e f a n a t i c a l r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s s u p p o r t e d by t h e

m i l i t a r y were i d e n t i f i e d a s I I a g a ( R a t s ) , Four Ks, P a t i k s of

Bukiduon, R u r a l R e f o r m i s t Movement, Rock C h r i s t , P h i l i p p i n e s

B e n e v e l e n t M i s s i o n a r i e s A s s o c i a t i o n , Bagong J e r u s a l e m ,

P i n i l i n g Nasud ( c h o s e n p e o p l e ) , P a t a n y Buhi ( P i e and L i v e ) ,

Alpha Omega, L i k u s - L i k o s , Ka tyaan , S a n t a Lana , Doce P a r e s

( 1 2 p a i r s ) , P c i n g y a p a l k ( B a r e f o o t e d P C ) , e t c . 11* These

g r o u p s were r e p o r t e d t o be r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l o r c r i m i n a l

i n c h a r a c t e r an i n some c a s e s e x h i b i t e d a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They o p e r a t e d w i t h t h e s a n c t i o n of

gove rnmen t .

P h i l i p p i n e s : a N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y S t a t e

S e c u r i t y can b e u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r as t h e c a p a c i t y o f a

s t a t e t o c o n f r o n t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s t o i ts o r d e r

o r a s " p r o t e c t i n g t h e p e o p l e s f rom t h r e a t " . The f i r s t

p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e s t a t e and t h e

s econd on t h e s e c u r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s . 119 From t h e

P h i l i p p i n e e x p e r i e n c e we can c l e a r l y come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n

t h a t P r e s i d e n t Marcos imposed m a r t i a l law and p r o p a g a t e d t h e

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i s s u e s m a i n l y t o j u s t i f y h i s a c t i o n s . I n

o r d e r t o s u p p r e s s w i d e s p r e a d o p p o s i t o n t o g r o w i n g

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , c o r r u p t i o n , t h e p r e s e n c e o f U.S b a s e s .

i n c r e a s i n g f o r e i g n c o n t r o l o f t h e economy and o t h e r f o r m s

o f o p p o s i t i o n , Marcos used t h e m i l i t a r y . M a r t i a l l aw, and

t h e m a s s i v e m i l t a r y c a n p a i g n s which f o l l o w e d , were j u s t i f i e d

l a r g e l y b e c a u s e t h e government p e r c e i v e d t h e Communist P a r t y

of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i t s m i l i t a r y wing New P e o p l e ' s Army

(NPA) and t h e Muslim s e c e s s i o n i s t g r o u p Moro N a t i o n a l

L i b e r a t i o n F r o n t (MNLF), a s p r i m e t h r e a t t o n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y a v e r y s m a l l

p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . Dur ing t h e p e r i o d between t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law and i ts " l i f t i n g " i n 1981 , more

J . A . V i e r a - G a l l o , " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y D o c t r i n e s and t h e i r impac t on M i l i t a r i s m and Human R i g h t s " ,

R i m , (Geneva : World C o u n c i l o f C h u r c h e s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 2 9 .

L ha11 tiUU,UUU F i 1 i p i r ~ o c i L i z e n s w e r e n r r e s L e d a r ~ d

i m p r i s i o n e d w i t h o u t t r i a l o r c h a r g e s - u s u a l l y o n l y on

s u s p i c i o n o f s u b v e r s i v e a c t i v i t i e s - a w i d e l y i n t e r p r e t e d

120 n o t i o n , commonly c o n n e c t e d w i t h " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y

T h e o r y . "

Marcos j u s t i f i e d h i s c a l l i n g o n t h e m i l i t a r y t o

m a i n t a i n law a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o

p r e v e n t a n d s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s o f lawless v i o l e n c e as wel l

a s a n y a c t o f i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n , a n d t o e n f o r c e

o b e d i e n c e t o a l l t h e l a w s , d e c r e e s , o r d e r s a n d r e g u a l a t i o n s ,

p r o m u l g a t e d by h i m . To c a r r y t h e s e o u t , a programme o f

r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e AFP was i n i t i a t e d , t h e g r e a t e r

p r o p o r t i o n o f f u n d s f o r w h i c h came f r o m U.S m i l i t a r y

a s s i s t a n c e . Under t h e U.S - R.P M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e

Agreement (MAA) 1 9 4 7 , t h e U . S f u r n i s h e s :

. . . m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h e t r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e armed f o r c e s a n d i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o t h e r s e r v i c e s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h may d e v o l v e upon t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s i n c l u d i n g c o m m i t m e n t s

120 . . . RePr- , (London:

KSP, 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 9 . ( M o n o g r a p h ) .

I I ! I ! I I I~ I ( * (~ I I I N 1111(1 t o t . t ~ n mn 1 oItnll(on 011

p e a c e and s e c u r i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 111

The p r o v i s i o n s s p e c i f y t h e p r o c u r e m e n t of arms and

ammunit ion and o t h e r s u p p l i e s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , t r a i n i n g and

i n s t r u c t i o n o f s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t s i n t h e U . S , and

d i s c l o s u r e and e x c h a n g e s of c l a s s i f i e d m i l i t a r y equipment

and i n f o r m a t i o n o f s e c u r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The M i l i t a r y

A s s i s t a n c e Agreement a l s o g o v e r n e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s of JUSMAG,

t h e J o i n t U.S M i l i t a r y Adv i so ry Group which e x t e n d e d

s t r a t e g i c s t a f f d i r e c t i o n , l o g i s t i c s , t r a i n i n g and

i n t e l l i g e n c e c o - o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e Armed F o r c e s of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s - t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e AFP . . . 122

A t t h e t i m e o f t h e 1972 e x p a n s i o n programme, U.S M i l i t a r y

a s s i s t a n c e s t o o d a t U.S $20 m i l l i o n . I t jumped s e v e n t i m e s

s i n c e t h e n t o U.S $ 1 4 0 . 1 m i l l i o n i n 1982 . 1 2 3

P r i o r t o 1972 t h e r e were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 32 ,000 men

a c t i v e i n t h e AFP. The r e g u l a r f o r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e

P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y and t h e I n t e g r a t e d N a t i o n a l P o l i c e

(INP) numbered 230 ,000 i n 1977 . The e x p a n s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d

M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e Agreement ( P r e a m b l e ) i n T r e a t y S e r i e s , Vol.1, p . 1 6 1 , c i t e d i n Roland S imbu lan , our, (Quezon C i t y : BALAI F e l l o w s h i p , I n c . , 1 9 8 5 . )

Roland S imbu lan , U, p . 8 2

L b i . L , p . 2 3 2 .

an a p p r o x i m a t e 700 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e f rom p r e - m a r t i a l law

s t r e n g t h . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e 1 2 4 , 0 0 0 R e s e r v e F o r c e s of

t h e army, navy and a i r f o r c e . The p a r a m i l i t a r y , I n t e g r a t e d

C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e (ICHDF) was 7 5 , 4 9 9 and y o u t h s

who had unde rgone o r who were u n d e r g o i n g b a s i c and advanced

m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s and b a r a n g a y b r i g a d e s e m i n a r s ,

numbered 3 9 2 , 4 0 0 . 124

Defence m i n i s t e r J u a n Ponce E n r i l e made it more c l e a r

t h a t " . . . i t now c o s t s t h e government&' 5 p e r b u l l e t f i r e d by

a s o l d i e r , P 1 5 , 0 0 0 p e r hour f o r g a s o l i n e t o s e n d one p l a n e

on a m i s s i o n , and P 300 ,000 m i l l i o n t o buy one f i g h t e r

p l a n e . . . " 125 P u t i t a n o t h e r way, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was

s p e n d i n g on d e f e n c e U.S $ 17 p e r c i t i z e n p e r y e a r o r 14

p e r c e n t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s t o t a l b u d g e t . The a p p r o p r i a t i o n

f o r t h e m i l i t a r y was 4' 8 . 3 b i l l i o n i n 1 9 8 3 . 126 T h a t was

a d d i t i o n a l t o U . S m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e , and complementary

l o g i s t i c a l m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t f rom A u s t r a l i a and some o t h e r

European g o v e r n m e n t s .

A s q u o t e d i n . .

s M i l i t a r v Aid t o t h e . . v, ( C a n b e r r a : ACFOA, 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 5 .

S imbu lan , a ~ . c i t . , p . 2 4 6 .

The AFP was f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by P h i l i p p i n e s e c u r i t y

a g e n c i e s u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f t h e F e d e r a t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l

S e c u r i t y O r g a n i s a t i o n s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . And a l s o t h e r e

were t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s . The U.S invo lvemen t i n

P h i l i p p i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e o p e r a t i o n s had been e x t e n s i v e .

P o s t - m a r t i a l law c a s e s o f d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t

i n t e r f e r e n c e have been r e g u l a r s i n c e 1972 . S p e c i a l F o r c e s

(Green B e r e t s ) have c o n d u c t e d m i s s i o n i n d i s s i d e n t a r e a s .

C I A a g e n t s , v e t e r a n s of t h e Indo-China campa ign , had been

a s s i g n e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s as USAID p r o v i n c i a l a d v i s e r s .

U.S F o r c e s s t a t i o n e d i n t h e U.S B a s e s have a l s o been u s e d

i n c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y programmes d i s g u i s e d as ' C i v i l A c t i o n

Programmes' (CAP) and ' P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programmes'

(PDP) - c o - o r d i n a t i n g c l o s e l y w i t h P h i l i p p i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e

and AFP. The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code (NSC) was s i g n e d i n

1978 and i t s s u p p l e m e n t , t h e P u b l i c O r d e r Act (POA) i n 1980 ,

but, n0i t .h - r w p r p ~ u b l i r ~ l y announced u n t i l t h ~ ' l i f t i n d ' of

m a r t i a l l aw , on 17 J a n u a r y , 1 9 8 1 . lZ8 The J u r i s d i c t i o n o f

t h e s e laws was f a r - r e a c h i n g . Under t h e NSC, a n y t h i n g

127 ACFOA documen t , w . c i t ,, p . 5 .

128 B o n i f a c i o H . G i l l e g o , "The i n v i s i b l e army o f Marcos d i c t a t o r s h i p " , JsUhy~, J u n e 5, 1981 , p . 1 .

c r i t i c a l o f and i n i m i c a l t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , f rom

rumour - monger ing t o s u b v e r s i o n as s u b j e c t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d

o r d e f i n e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t , was c o n s i d e r e d a c r i m e a g a i n s t

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and p u b l i c o r d e r . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e

d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h c r i m e s i n c l u d e d p r e v e n t i v e d e t e n t i o n ,

t a c t i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n ( a euphemism f o r t o r t u r e ) i n a

' s a f e h o u s e ' and ' s a l v a g i n g ' . The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code

p r o v i d e d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s w i t h immunity f rom law

s u i t s .

G e n e r a l F a b i a n Ver , was e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and he was a p p o i n t e d a s t h e D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l

o f N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y A u t h o r i t y . NISA was

t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e d i r e c t i o n , c o - o r d i n a t i o n and

i n t e g r a t i o n of a l l t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s , u n d e r t h e

w a t c h f u l e y e of JUSHAG. 12' Under NISA, t h e r e were t h e AFP

i n t e l l i g e n c e u n i t s and t h e C i v i l I n t e l l i g e n c e S e c u r i t y

A u t h o r i t y (CISA) - c o m p r i s i n g v a s t i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n

t h e m s e l v e s . These were made up o f t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s

of t h e AFP (ISAFP) w i t h a l l i t s f i e l d u n i t s , and t h e

M i l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIG).

ACFOA documen t , ~ ~ . c i t . , p . 5

About t h e M i l i t a r y o f f i c e r e n t r u s t e d w i t h s u c h

f o r m i d a b l e a u t h o r i t y one w r i t e r h a s commented,

Even d u r i n g t h e d a y o f h i s power , H i t l e r was n o t a b l e t o c e n t r a l i s e and p u t u n d e r one c o n t r o l , a s H a r c o s h a s done i n t h e c a s e of v e r , a l l o f germ any.^ i n t e l l e g e n c e and s e c u r i t y a g e n c i e s l i k e t h e SA, t h e SS, t h e G e s t a p o , t h e ABWEHR and Admira l C a n a r i s ' e s p i o n a g e . . . " I n a l l l o c a l and n a t i o n a l government o f f i c e s , i n a l l s c h o o l s , i n a l l c r i t i c a l s e c t o r s o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y , i n t h e b a r r a n g a y s , t h i s s e c r e t army h a s i ts p e n e t r a t i o n a g e n t s , o p e r a t i v e s and i n f o r m a n t s , v i r t u a l l y s e r v i n g a s t h e e y e s and ears of t h e d i c t a t o r . . . t h e y have e n v e l o p e d o u r h a p l e s s and i n an a t m o s p h e r e of t e r r o r , a c l i m a t e o f f e a r , cowigg o u r p e o p l e i n t o a s t a t e o f a b j e c t s u b m i s s i o n . . .

Groups s u c h as t h e in famous ' L o s t Command', compr i sed of

e x - c r i m i n a l s and demoted army o f f i c e r s , c a r r i e d o u t

l i q u i d a t i o n campa igns o r ' s p e c i a l m i s s i o n s ' w i t h which t h e

AFP would p r e f e r n o t t o be p u b l i c l y c o n n e c t e d . The L o s t

Command u n l e a s h e d a r e i g n o f t e r r o r i n t h e Mindanao p r o v i n c e

of Aguson d e l s u r . I t a s s i s t e d t h e i n c u r s i o n o f a g r i -

b u s i n e s s ( t h e NDC/Guthrie P a l m - o i l p l a n t a t i o n ) f o r c i b l y

p u s h i n g f a r m e r s o f f t h e i r l a n d and p r o v i d i n g ' s e c u r i t y ' f o r

t h e p l a n t a t i o n management. 131 P r o v i n c i a l and l o c a l m i l i t a r y

commands had e f f e c t i v e l y s u p p l a n t e d g o v e r n o r s and ma jo r a s

130 q u o t e d i n Ibid.

Ibid., p . 7 .

I.llo rrrn I Ir~vttrt oI' c lnv i r r I r ~ r t snk lrld pownr I t 1 lor-n 1 n r n n n .

T h e r e was a t r e n d t o w a r d s h i g h r a n k i n g o f f i c e r s , c l o s e t o

t h e P r e s i d e n t , a s suming i n f l u e n t i a l a d v i s o r y r o l e s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e ' s p o l i t i c a l and economic a r e a s . Even t h e

s m a l l e s t u n i t o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y - t h e barannap - had

f e a t u r e s of m i l i t a r y invovement i n c i v i l i a n a f f a i r s .

I n t h e j u d i c i a l f i e l d , PD 39 c r e a t e d 20 m i l i t a r y

t r i b u n a l s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y . I n a d d i t i o n , 48 P r o v o s t

c o u r t s were e s t a b l i s h e d . The m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s had

j u r i s d i c t i o n i n c a s e s which t h e government deemed t o be

r e l a t e d t o s u b v e r s i o n , r e b e l l i o n and o t h e r m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n g

' n a t i o n a l - s e c u r i t y ' . Very c l e a r l y , more t h a n one d e c a d e

o f t h e Marcos e r a had s e e n t h e emergence o f a n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y s t a t e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

U a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f H i l i t a r i z a t i o n .

The m a r t i a l law p e r i o d , P r e s i d e n t Marcos c l a i m e d ,

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f u s e d t h e t h r e a t s o f s u b v e r s i o n , s e d i t i o n

and r e b e l l i o n . Yet he c o n t i n u e d t o j u s t i f y t h e m a s s i v e

132 ~ i ~ h t ~ s i t u a t i o n i o n . . in a ~ l n e s : T r e n d s ~ ~ ~ S L Y S ~ S 1984, A S t u d y r e p o r t

o f 13 human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , p . 1 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s s t u d y r e p o r t on Human r i g h t s and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n ) .

m i l t a r y b u i l d u p , c i t i n g t h e problem of i n s u r g e n c y . The NPA

known t o have a m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h of t e n t o t w e n t y thousand

armed r e g u l a r s and o p e r a t i n g i n same 62 o u t o f 73133

p r o v i n c e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ; and t h e BMA, number ing some

s i x t o t e n t h o u s a n d armed r e g u l a r s c o n c e n t r a t e d ma in ly i n

Muslim-dominated a r e a s i n Mindanao, were t h e f a c t o r s c i t e d

by t h e Harcos a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n AFP

p e r s o n n e l f rom 6 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1972 t o 300 ,000 i n 1983 , 134

i n c l u d i n g some 221 ,000 men composed of p a r a m i l i t a r y u n i t s ,

i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p s and armed r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c s d i r e c t l y

and o r i n d i r e c t l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e m i l i t a r y . 135

s i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e armed f o r c e s was d e p l o y e d i n

Mindanao, where l e s s t h a n one f o u r t h of t h e p o p u l a t i o n was

r e s i d i n g . Mindanao became t h e most h i g h l y m i l i a r i z e d r e g i o n

n o t o n l y i n t h e c o u n t r y b u t i n t h e whole ASEAN r e g i o n a s

w e l l . Mindanao had one s o l d i e r f o r 100 p e r s o n s d u r i n g t h e

Marcos e r a . The n a t i o n a l r a t i o was one t o 250 w h i l e t h e

133 The P-ooines. . . A sim - r t , S t a f f R e p o r t t o t h e U.S S e n a t e S e l e c t Commit te on I n t e l l i g e n c e , (Washington D . C : U.S S e n a t e , 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 1-8.

135 S t u d y R e p o r t on Human R i g h t s s i t u a t i o n and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n , n p . c i t . , p . 1 .

A: : I~AN rnL l o wtr!: unr t o 3 4 5 . "0 so ~ t l i l i p p i r l c m i l i t a r y

budge t had grown t o 1 0 , 5 0 0 m i l l i o n p e s o s i n 1986 . 137

Under m a r t i a l law t h e AFP have a c q u i r e d a dominan t

r o l e i n t h e s t a t e . Both army and t h e c o n s t a b u l a r y became

t h e p r ime P o l i c e a g e n c i e s i n t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h l o c a l P o l i c e

a c t i v i t y h a v i n g v i r t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r d i n i n s u r g e n c y z o n e s and

p l a y i n g a s e c o n d a r y r o l e e l s e w h e r e . P o l i t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e

and s e c u r i t y f u n c t i o n s have been c e n t r a l i z e d t o a d e g r e e

u n p a r a l l e l e d i n P h i l i p p i n e h i s t o r y , w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y -

domina ted N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y Agency (NISA)

f o r m i n g t h e a p e x of a s t r u c t u r e of i n t e r l o c k i n g army and

c o n s t a b u l a r y a g e n c i e s . 138 A l l l e v e l s o f t h e c r i m i n a l

j u s t i c e s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a of " p o l i t i c a l

c r i s i s " , were e f f e c t i v e l y d o m i n a t e d by t h e m i l i t a r y .

S u s p e c t s a r e app rehended by m i l i t r a r y s e c u r i t y a g e n c i e s ,

immprisoned and t o r t u r e d a t m i l i t a r y camps, p r o s e c u t e d by

m i l i a t r y l a w y e r s and judged by m i l t a r y commiss ions . I n t h e

words of Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l :

136 P r i m e r on M i l i t a r i z a t i o n , w . c i t , , p . 3.

137 -our Year Book N88, V o l . 1 1 , ( E n g l a n d : Europa P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d ) , p . 2 1 5 .

13' Walden B e l l o and S e v e r i n a R i v e r a , T h e w oaf -,(Washington D . C : F r i e n d s of t h e F i l i p i n o P e o p l e , 1977) , pp .41 -42 .

ARUED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES : MAN POWER AND HILITARY EXPENDITURES (1972 - 1986)

Year Han Power Military ( in Thousands) Expenditure

(Hillion dollars)

. . Source : Cimpiled Form World Ex~emijLures and

ers : 1967 - 76. _and 1977 - . . 987, ( U . S Arms Control and Disarmament Agency), W v B-e 1976 - M.ZI, (London : International Institute for Strategic . . Studies) and P v and Social Exoenditures 1985 - l.&B, (Washington D.C : World Priorities).

[ T l h e r e h a s been . . . a m a s s i v e s h i f t o f j u r i s d i c t i o n f rom c i v i l c o u r t s t o m i l i t a r y commiss ions , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r o f f e n c e s which a r e p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r e . The o n l y a p p e a l f o r j udgemen t s o f m i l i t a r y commiss ions is t h r o u g h t h e s e c r e t a r y of N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e t o t h e P r e s i d e n t . Thus , t h e Supreme C o u r t ' s t h e o r e t i c a l a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l check on a r b i t r a r y e x e c u t i v e a c t i o n h a s been d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d .

I n sum, s t r i p p e d o f i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n and i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e j u d i c i a r y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s become t o t a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n p r e v e n t i n g v i o l a t i o n s o f human r i g h t s . . . The r u l e of law is a u t h o r i t a r i a n p r e s i d e n t i a l - m i l i t a r y r u l e , unchef$gd by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g u r a r e n t e e o r l i m i t a t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a s suming enormous p o l i c e and j u d i c i a l

f u n c t i o n s , t h e m i l i t a r y had a l s o been d e l e g a t e d

a d m i n s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y a t t h e m u n i c i p a l , p r o v i n c i a l , and

n a t i o n a l l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M a r c o s ' s

model o f " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " , p r o v i n c i a l

g o v e r n o r s and town m a j o r s have been d e p r i v e d o f any

i n d e p e n d e n t l e g a l b a s e of a u t h o r i t y . " P r o v i n c i a l m i l i t a r y

commands of t e n t i m e s have t h e f i n a l s a y i n t h e r u n n i n g o f

l o c a l a f f a i r s , making t h e g o v e r n o r a mere f i g u r e - h e a d of t h e

n o n - e x i s t e n t " c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t y " . 140 I n a d d i t i o n , s i n c e

139 kDor t of an ~mnestv to to 1 i c of t h e -, (London: am nest,^

. . I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1976), p . 5 4 .

140 -ion . . in our y e a r s of 1 Law i n t h e

. . , ( O a k l a n d , CA: Union of

D e m o c r a t i c F i l i p i n o s , 1976). p . 8 . (Monograph) .

t h e m i l i t a r y is t h e o n l y o r g a n i s e d power b a s e of t h e Marcos

r e g i m e , i t h a s d e f a c t 0 been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e n a t i o n ' s

o n l y l e g i t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . l4' The m i l i t a r y command

had become t h e a r e n a of p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t be tween d i f f e r e n t

g r o u p s b a c k i n g t h e r e g i m e .

The c o m b i n a t i o n of economic and p o l i t i c a l power would

i n e v i t a b l y b r e e d c o r r u p t i o n . M i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l have been

a l l o w e d t o t a k e o v e r t h e r a c k e t s o f members o f C o n g r e s s and

t h e p r o t e c t i o n r a c k e t s run by l o c a l po l i cemen a t s o a r i n g

r a t e s of i n t e r e s t s . Lower l e v e l m i l i t a r y g r o u p s , " u n a b l e t o

s h a r e i n t h e g r a f t o f t h e i r commanders, engage t h e m s e l v e s i n

s y n d i c a t e d k i d n a p p i n g f o r ransom, a r s o n , m u r d e r , c a r n a p p i n g

and r o b b e r y h o l d u p " . 14' The m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l had been

a c c u s e d of g r a b b i n g l a n d from t h e t r i b e s - f o l k . C o r r u p t i o n

e x t e n d e d t o t h e b a t t l e f i e l d i t s e l f . The g u n , p o l i t i c a l

power and economic p r e v i l e g e were an e x p l o s i v e c o m b i n a t i o n .

So t h e m i l t a r y were a b l e t o s p i n a web of c o r r u p t i o n ,

r e p r e s s i o n and human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y .

The m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s which e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e

e a r l y y e a r s o f m a r t i a l law y e a r s was i t s e l f t h e l o g i c a l

l4' Walden B e l l o and S e v e r i n a R i v e r a , n ~ . c i t , , p . 4 2 .

142 Ibid., p.43.

r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i v e e f f o r t t o s t a m p o u t t h e

p o l i t i c a l . . . o p p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h a s p e e d y m i l i t a r y a c t i o n .

I nt I 1 I I 111 y I F I n ln r lnR t .~ l t r> b r r n k t armccl

r e s i s t a n c e , b o t h i n t h e c i t i e s a n d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , b u t

o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y . 143 By 1 9 7 5 , t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c

movement had w e a t h e r e d t h e i m p a c t o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n a n d

s t a r t e d t o r e b u i l d i t s c r i p p l e d o r g a n i s a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g s o f

a n e l a b o r a t e u n d e r g r o u n d s y s t e m were t a k i n g f o r m among

w o r k e r s , u r b a n p o o r a n d s t u d e n t s , w h i l e new g u e r i l l a f r o n t s

were o p e n e d b y t h e NPA i n N o r t h e r n L u z o n , t h e V i s a y a s a n d

S o u t h e r n Mindanao . 144

M e a n w h i l e , i n M i n d a n a o , t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e g i m e

a n d M N L F f o r c e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o s e e k n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r a

s o l u t i o n t o t h e Mus l im p r o b l e m . W i t h t h e i n i t i a t i v e of t h e

Islamic c o n f e r e n c e , t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d MNLF o p e n e d

n e g o t a i a t i o n i n 1 9 7 6 l e a d i n g t o a c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t .

T h i s a g r e e e m e n t p r o v i d e d f o r a c e a s e - f i r e t o g e t h e r w i t h

m u t u a l moves b y b o t h s i d e s t o e s t a b l i s h p o l i t i c a l a u t o n o m y

i n t h e Mus l im a reas . T h e a g r e e m e n t b r o k e dowm a f t e r t h e

143 J o e l Rocamora , " T h e S t r u c t u r a l I m p e r a t i v e o f A u t h o r i t a r i a n R u l e " , Southeast, ( W a s h i n g t o n D . C . ) I s s u e N o . 6 5 , 1 9 8 3 , p . 6 .

MNLF accused Harcos of d u p l i c i t y and by mid-1977 war , a l b e i t

on a l e s s e r s c a l e , b r o k e o u t once more . 145 The HNLF was

f a c t i o n a l i s e d and d e m o r a l i s e d , p a r t l y d u e t o H a r c o s ' s a s t u t e

p o l i t i c a l manoeuve r ing d u r i n g t h e m i d - s e v e n t i e s and p a r t l y

d u e t o t h e m a s s i v e m i l i t a r y campa igns of t h e AFP, k i l l i n g

t h o u s n a d s and t h o u s a n d s of Musl ims . But t h e y r e g a i n e d power

and became more a c t i v e i n open c o n f r o n t a t i o n . HNLF was a b l e

t o show o c c a s i o n a l f l a s h e s of i ts l o g i s t i c a l c a p a b a b i l i a t y

and t h e NPA was c o n d u c t i n g a s e r i e s of ambuscades more

f r e q u e n t l y t h a n e v e r . 146

The e a r l y y e a r s of t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e of Harcos

were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m i l t a r i z a t i o n t h r o u g h a r r e s t s ,

d e t e n t i o n and d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e

c o u n t r y s i d e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s , human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s

were i n c r e a s i n g . L o c a l i t i e s s u s p e c t e d of b e i n g

' s y m p a t h e t i c ' t o t h e ' r e b e l s ' became t a r g e t s f o r i n t e n s i f i e d

m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y . The k i n d s of t a c t i c s employed by t h e

government m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n a t t e m p t s t o c o n t a i n t h e

g rowing s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e b e l s c a u s e , r a n g e f rom t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of ' f r e e - f i r e z o n e s ' t o e s t a b l i s h i n g ' s t r a t e g i c

145 A b i n a l e s , n ~ . c i t ,, p . 13.

h a m l e t s ' t o ' s a l v a g i n g - ( t h e a r b i t r a r y e x e c u t i o n o f

i n d i v i d u a l s s u s p e c t e d of s u b v e r s i o n ) .

The ' F r e e - F i r e z o n e ' t a c t i c was i n t e n d e d t o i s o l a t e

p o p u l a r l y s u p p o r t e d g u e r i l l a s f rom t h e p e a s a n t r y , and is one

o f t h e most b r u t a l and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e t a c t i c s d e v i s e d i n

modern w a r f a r e . T h i s t e c h n i c i n v o l v e d t h e f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n

o f p e o p l e f rom t h e i r a n c e s t r a l p e o p e r t y and t h e c o n v e r s i o n

of t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a i n t o a zone where a n y t h i n g t h a t moves

is f a i r game f o r t h e m i l t a r y .

I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of

m a r t i a l law i n 1972 , 50 ,000 p e a s a n t s were f o r c i b l y e j e c t e d

f rom a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150 v i l l a g e s i n I s a b e l l a p r o v i n c e i n a

manoeuvre t o i s o l a t e t h e NPA g u e r i l l a s f rom t h e p e o p l e . 147

T h i s k ind o f r e l o c a t i o n h a s been c a r r i e d o u t i n d i f f e r e n t

p a r t s o f Luzon, V i s a y a s and Hindanao r e g i o n s . 148 AS many a s

t e n f a m i l i e s crammed i n t o a room i n t h e t e m p o r a r y s h a n t i e s

was a common s c e n e i n most o f t h e s e p l a c e s . T h i s was r e a l l y

a d d i n g t o t h e a l r e a d y d e s p a r a t e food s h o r t a g e , and t o

t h e p r e v a l e n t d i s e a s e s s u c h a s d y s e n t e r y , pneumonia and

148 The P h i l i p p i n e s is d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e r e g i o n s f rom N o r t h t o S o u t h a s Luzon, V i s a y a s and Hindanao .

b r o n c h i t i s . Those who r e f u s e d t o l e a v e t h e i r homes and

f a r m s f a c e d h a r a s s m e n t and i n t i m i d a t i o n f rom t h e m i l t a r y by

way of e x t o r t i o n , t h e b u r n i n g of h u t s and c r o p s , t h e

c o n f i s c a t i o n and k i l l i n g o f a n i m a l s , r a p e , i l l e g a l

d e t e n t i o n , t o r t u r e and economic b l o c k a d e s . T h i s k i n d of

m a s s i v e ' s e a r c h and d e s t r o y ' campaign by t h e m i l i t a r y

a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d d i s s i d e n t s f o l l o w e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of

m a r t i a l l aw . Task F o r c e D e t a i n e e s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . a

human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n , r e p o r t e d t h a t c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n ' s t

t h e m i l t a r y a v e r a g e 54 ,000 e v e r y y e a r . 14' G e n e r a l Ramos

h i m s e l f h a s been f o r c e d t o a d m i t t h a t c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t

m i l i t a r y a b u s e p o u r e d i n a t t h e r a t e o f 150 p e r d a y . 150

S y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s h a s

c h a r a t e r i s e d AFP campa igns i n Mindanao, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e

Muslim a r e a s . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s i n Lebak o f

C o t a b a t o p r o v i n c e , 500 c i v i l i a n s were k i l l e d f rom F e b r u a r y

1 . 1 . J I I ~ I ~ LR73. I t . wnn onCimnt.od t h ~ t b y t l ~ n ond of 19'79

a round 9 0 , 0 0 0 i n n o c e n t Muslim c i v i l i a n s had d i e d d u e t o

m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , w h i l e no l e s s t h a n 250 ,000 h o u s e s

14' TFDP r e p o r t q u o t e d i n . . R e ~ r u

PP C L , P . 4 1 .

150 H o r a c i o V. P a r a d e s , "Oplan S a g i t a r u s : A Decade A f t e r " , WHO, ( M a n i l a ) , Vol .V, No.39, December 28 1983, p . 8 .

and t h o u s a n d s of Mosques were b u r n e d . 151 These f i g u r e s

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e murder of c i v i l i a n s was i n g e n o c i d a l

p r o p o r t i o n s . A s e a r l y as 1974, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s government

a d m i t t e d t o h a v i n g c r e a t e d more t h a n one m i l l i o n r e f u g e e s a s

a r e s u l t o f i ts m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y aimed a t w i p i n g o u t t h e

HNLF o p p o s i t i o n . 152 The r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s u sed by t h e

m i l i t a r y have t a k e n on new d i s t u r b i n g d i m e n s i o n s .

' S t r a t e g i c h a m l e t t i n g ' t a c t i c u s e d by t h e a r m i e s o f U.S

and S o u t h Vietnam a g a i n s t t h e Vie tnamese p e o p l e d u r i n g t h e

I n d o c h i n e s e war was implemented i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a s a

r e l o c a t i o n s t r a t e g y . I t h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t 300,000

c i v i l i a n s have been a f f e c t e d i n 11 p r o v i n c e s o f Hindanao i n

a t l e a s t 225 h a m l e t c e n t r e s s i n c e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h i s

t a c t i c . 153 L o c a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s c l a i m e d t h a t

random k i l l i n g s , t o r t u r e , h a r a s s m e n t and d e s t r u c t i o n

of p r o p e r t i e s have been an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n

p r o c e s s i n v a r i o u s ways.

151 R e s i s t a n c e , oo.cit., p . 5 8 .

152 H o r a c i o V . P a r e d e s , o o . c i t ,, p . 8 .

153 l 3 ~ s t r g t e e i c h a m l e t s o f K i u h u ~ , (Hindanao : M i n d a n a o Documenta t ion Commit tee f o r Re fugees , 1 9 8 2 ) , Monograph.

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (1981)

o b s e r v e d t h a t :

. . . t h e S e c u r i t y F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a v e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n g a g e d i n p r a c t i c e s w h i c h v i o l a t e f u n d a n e n t a l human r i g h t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o l i f e , t h e r i g h t t o s e c u r i t y o f p e r s o n , and t h e r i g 9 8 2 a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t and d e t e n t i o n .

The AFP was i n v o l v e d i n m a s s i v e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s w i t h , t h e s u p p o r t o f U.S m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t s .

The l a r g e s t c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y programme e v e r u n d e r t a k e n i n

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was l a u n c h e d i n e a r l y 1983 - e n t i t l e d

' O p l a n K a t a t a g a n ' . T h i s was d e s i g n e d t o "win t h e h e a r t s and

m i n d s o f t h e p e o p l e t h r o u g h m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a n d c i v i l

r e l a t i o n s " . B u t t h e AFP d i d n o t g a i n a n y s u p p o r t f r o m t h e

e i g h t y p e r c e n t i m p o v e r i s h e d F i l i p i n o s , b e c a u s e t h e AFP

was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c r u s h i n g s t r i k i n g w o r k e r s who

r e f u s e d t o work 16-24 h o u r s h i f t s , f i x i n g on p i c k e t l i n e s o f

t h o s e i n d e s p e r a t e n e e d o f b e t t e r w a g e s , s h o o t i n g a t 3,000

lulrhgry c u c c ~ t l u l I ' u ra le r s p r u ~ a u t i r l g a Lax of t 'esos li0 t'er 100

Kg o f C o p r a , t h e m a s s a c r e o f 45 men, woman a n d c h i l d r e n ,

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y f i r i n g on b o y c o t t m a r c h e r s , o r m u r d e r i n g a

r e s p e c t e d t r i b a l l e a d e r who h e l p s h i s p e o p l e r es i s t a

154 Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t o n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981, o ~ . c i t . , P . 10.

rlovelnpmrr~t. protinct wt~ictr t.hrent,onn 1C1C1.800 tribal 1 iven. 155

The escalation of militarization in the Philippines

under President Harcos was primarily a response to political

threats to the unpopular authoritarian regime. ( The

deployment of armed forces in areas where popular opposition

is represented by the armed groups of the NPA and MNLF, and

the subsequent, systematic militarization, abuse of civilian

pnpulations reaching RenOCidal proportions, etc are the

manifestations of repression and human rights violations in

a military dominated civilian rule.) The dominating

presence of the miltary everywhere became an integral part

of Philippine politics. There was, more importantly, a

conscious policy to instill military values among the people

as part of the effort to create, a new culture under the new

political order. 156

The principal legacy of the martial law period and the

period after the lifting of martial law was the massive

increase in the size and role of the Armed Forces and the

consequent militarization of the Philippine society. Task

Force Detainees of the Philippines (TFDP) has estimated

155 ACFOA document, nc-.cit,, P.5

15' Abinalas, oo.cit., p. 18.

t h a t , s i n c e m a r t i a l law t h e r i g h t s o f n e a r l y a m i l l i o n

F i l i p i n o s had been v i o l a t e d d i r e c t l y . The v i o l a t i o n s

t o o k v a r i o u s f o r m s . The p a t t e r n of m i l i t a r y a b u s e s t h u s

began t o t a k e s h a p e u n d e r t h e c a t c h - a l l p h r a s e " n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y " , whole r a n g e of a c t i v i t i e s , f rom l o o t i n g t o

a r r e s t , t o r t u r e and murder was g i v e n e f f e c t i v e s a n c t i o n .

Most v i c t i m s of human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s , a b o u t 70 t o 80

p e r c e n t , were f a r m e r s . O t h e r v i c t i m s were w o r k e r s ,

s t u d e n t s , human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t s , e t c . Under t h e Marcos

r eg ime m i l i t a r i z a t i o n became rampant and human r i g h t s

v i o l a t i o n s were g r o s s and s y s t e m a t i c .

157 The " S t a t e o f human r i g h t s " , T h e a C h r o n i c l e . ( M a n i l a ) , December 1 4 , 1986.

*