hilitarization in the philippines 1972...

116
HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines is a rich country blessed with natural resources. The country comprises of 7107 islands and islets that are spread over more than a thousand miles from north to south, nearly seven hundred miles from east to west across some 500,000 square miles of the far western corner of the Pacific Ocean. Situated south - east of the Asian mainland, the Philippines is bounded on the north by Taiwan and Japan, on the east by the American Pacific Trust territories, on the south by Borneo and the Celebes islands, and on the west by China, Hongkong and Vietnam. The total land area of the country is 115.800 square miles. Sixty seven percent of the land area is occupied by the two largest islands Luzon and Hindanao. Politically, these two islands have been important since the time of Spanish colonization. Out of the 7,107 islands and islets, only sixty five have inhabitants. The people's religion was substantially animism; Islam had reached only the southern islands - Sulu and Mindanao.

Upload: vumien

Post on 23-Mar-2018

223 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

HILITARIZATION I N THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86

The Land and t h e P e o p l e

The P h i l i p p i n e s is a r i c h c o u n t r y b l e s s e d w i t h n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e s . The c o u n t r y c o m p r i s e s o f 7107 i s l a n d s and i s l e t s

t h a t a r e s p r e a d o v e r more t h a n a t h o u s a n d miles f rom n o r t h

t o s o u t h , n e a r l y s e v e n hundred m i l e s f rom e a s t t o w e s t

a c r o s s some 500,000 s q u a r e miles o f t h e f a r w e s t e r n c o r n e r

o f t h e P a c i f i c Ocean . S i t u a t e d s o u t h - e a s t o f t h e As ian

m a i n l a n d , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s is bounded on t h e n o r t h by Taiwan

and J a p a n , on t h e e a s t by t h e American P a c i f i c T r u s t

t e r r i t o r i e s , on t h e s o u t h by Borneo and t h e C e l e b e s i s l a n d s ,

and on t h e w e s t by C h i n a , Hongkong and Vie tnam. The t o t a l

l a n d a r e a of t h e c o u n t r y is 115 .800 s q u a r e m i l e s . S i x t y

s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d a r e a is o c c u p i e d by t h e two

l a r g e s t i s l a n d s Luzon and Hindanao . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e s e two

i s l a n d s have been i m p o r t a n t s i n c e t h e t i m e o f S p a n i s h

c o l o n i z a t i o n . Out of t h e 7 , 1 0 7 i s l a n d s and i s l e t s , o n l y

s i x t y f i v e have i n h a b i t a n t s .

The p e o p l e ' s r e l i g i o n was s u b s t a n t i a l l y an imism; I s l a m

had r e a c h e d o n l y t h e s o u t h e r n i s l a n d s - S u l u and Mindanao.

Page 2: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

P h i l i p p i n e s is t h e o n l y n a t i o n i n s o u t h e a s t A s i a t o have

been i n a t r i b a l s t a t e of d e v e l o p m e n t when i t came u n d e r

w e s t e r n c o l o n i a l i s m . T h i s a r c h i p e l a g o had n e i t h e r a c e n t r a l

government s t r u c t u r e r u l i n g o v e r a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y n o r a

t r a d i t i o n a l e l i t e c e n t e r e d round a r o y a l c o u r t . I t had

evaded t h e c u l t u r a l i m p a c t o f b o t h C h i n a and 1 n d i a . l Coming

u n d e r w e s t e r n dominance a t an e a r l y s t a g e o f c u l t u r a l and

p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s unde rwen t a l a r g e r

s c a l e o f c o n v e r s i o n t o w e s t e r n ways t h a n any o t h e r c o u n t r y

i n A s i a . Today n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n is

C h r i s t i a n s . H u s l i m s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d o n l y i n t h e s o u t h e r n -

most p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y .

S e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n l i v e s i n t h e r u r a l

areas. The b a s i c u n i t o f F i l i p i n o s o c i e t y is t h e f a r m e r , t h e

t i l l e r o f t h e l a n d , t h e h~. The p r i m a r y u n i t is t h e

e x c e p t i n t h e Hus l im a r e a s o f H indanao , t h e r e

were no p o l i t i c a l u n i t s l a r g e r t h a n t h e hmxmgc~

For c e n t u r i e s , t h i s " p e a r l o f t h e o r i e n t s e a s "

a t t r a c t e d many f o r e i g n t r a d e r s , m a i n l y b e c a u s e of i t s

a b u n d a n t n a t u r a l w e a l t h .

- B.N.Pande , m t h and Sou-5 - 1979): . . Problemsand (London: Mac M i l l a n , 1980), p . 9 .

Page 3: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

From C o l o n i a l i s m t o I n d e p e n d e n c e .

The h i s t o r y of c o l o n i s a t i o n of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s g o e s

b a c k t o t h e S i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I t c a u g h t European e y e s on

March 1 0 , 1521 t h r o u g h F e r d i n a n d H e g a l l a n . The i s l a n d was

u n d e r S p a n i s h r u l e f rom 1565 t o 1898. The c o u n t r y was named

' t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ' a f t e r P h i l i p I1 o f S p a i n . When t h e

S p a n i a r d s came t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h e y b r o u g h t t h e c r o s s and

t h e sword . They c o l o n i s e d t h e c o u n t r y i n t h e g u i s e of

C h r i s t i a n i s a t i o n , by sowing f e a r t h r o u g h r e l i g i o n and u s i n g

t h e sword t o e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e . B u t h i s t o r y p r o v e d t h a t t h e

i n t e r e s t o f t h e S p a n i a r d s was more economic t h a n r e l i g i o u s . 2

Under t h e S p a n i s h r u l e t h e p e o p l e embraced c h r i s t i a n i t y , 3

and a l s o t h e m i d d l e c l a s s g r e w . The S p a n i s h r e g i m e p r o v i d e d

them e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s . I n 1898, t h e S p a n i a r d s ceded

t h e i s l a n d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r $20 m i l l i o n and

t h e r e a f t e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s r ema ined u n d e r t h e U.S c o n t r o l

t i l l 1941. J a p a n i n v a d e d t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n 1941 and r u l e d

t h e c o u n t r y t i l l 1945.

Mar ia Reyes , "The P h i l i p p i n e s - A n o v e r v i e w " , P r o f it a t Gun P o i n t , ( S i n g a p o r e : CCA YOUTH, 1984), p . 29.

B e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f S p a n i s h c o l o n a l i s m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e p e o p l e ' s r e l i g i o n was m a i n l y an imism. Islam had r e a c h e d o n l y t h e s o u t h e r n i s l a n d - Hindanao .

Page 4: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The American p e r i o d (1898-1941) d i d l i t t l e t o change

t h e b a s i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e new r u l e s f rom t h a t o f S p a i n . The

economic i n t e r e s t s were a g a i n f o r e m o s t i n t h e U.S agenda f o r

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . I n t h i s p e r i o d , E n g l i s h became t h e common

l a n g u a g e . A f r e e economy i n a c a p i t a l i s t f ramework

emerged . The F i l i p i n o r u l i n g c l a s s e s were a b l e t o s t r e n g t h e n

t h e i r p o s i t i o n and w e a l t h . T h e s e g r o u p s a c q u i r e d t r a c t s o f

e s t a t e s i n r u r a l a r e a s . The o w n e r s h i p of l a n d remained

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n a f e n h a n d s . 4 I t was t o t h e s e F i l i p i n o

e l i t e s t h a t t h e U.S f i r s t t r a n s f e r r e d power . Under t h e t e r m s

o f t h e T y d i n g s - Mc D u f f i e Act 1934, t h e P h i l i p p i n e

commonwealth was s c h e d u l e d t o o b t a i n i ts i n d e p e n d e n c e i n

1 9 4 6 . But i n December 1941 , J a p a n a t t a c k e d P e a r l Harbour and

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s t r u c k a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a U.S c o l o n y and

m i l i t a r y b a s e . By A p r i l 1942 , t h e l a s t U.S and F i l i p i n o

f o r c e s h o l d i n g o u t a g a i n s t t h e J a p a n e s e o n s l a u g h t

s u r r e n d e r e d a t B a t t a n .

J u s t as t h e U.S had d o n e a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y ,

Japan was a b l e t o o b t a i n t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e m a j o r i t y of

t h e e l i t e . Even f o u r months b e f o r e t h e f a l l o f B a t t a n ,

N e a r l y f i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h e c u l t i v a t o r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s e x i s t e d a s L a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s a t t h e t i m e of U.S c o l o n i a l i s m . ( f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s ; s e e PandAy, Q p . C l t , , p . 10.

Page 5: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

l e a d i n g P l ~ i l i p p l n e p o l i t i c i a n s were o r g a n i a e d by t h e

J a p a n e s e i n t o a p r o v i s i o n a l c o u n c i l o f s t a t e . I n O c t o b e r

1943 , t h e J a p a n e s e e s t a b l i s h e d a t o t a l l y s u b s e r v i e n t b u t

n o m i n a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t P h i l i p p i n e R e p u b l i c w i t h t h e co-

o p e r a t i o n of much of t h e e l i t e .

T h e r e were many m o t i v e s f o r t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n of t h e

F i l i p i n o s . C o e r c i o n was a c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n o n l y a small

m i n o r i t y o f c a s e s . Some o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t o r s were a t t r a c t e d

by J a p a n ' s s l o g a n " A s i a f o r t h e A s i a n s , " a n a p p e a l i n g

c o n c e p t f o r c o l o n i a l p e o p l e t h o u g h i n p r a c t i c e i t meant

" A s i a f o r t h e J a p a n e s e . " 5 Some c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y

c o l l a b o r a t e d i n o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s f rom t h e

d e p r e d a t i o n s o f d i r e c t J a p a n e s e r u l e , b u t a t t h e same t i m e

t h e y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e J a p a n e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and

p a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y . F o r most o f t h e e l i t e s ,

c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h t h e new c o n q u e r o r s p r o v i d e d - a s i t had

w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s c o n q u e r o r s f o u r d e c a d e s e a r l i e r -- way of

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and economic power .

S e v e r a l mass u p r i s i n g s had p u n c t u a t e d t h e l o n g e r a of

S p a n i s h s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , b u t none p o s s e s s e d

D a n i e l B. S c h i r m e r & S .R . Shalom ( e d s . ), The Reader : A H i s t o r y of C o l m . Neo . . -

D i c t a t o r s h i r , , (Quezon C i t y : Ken I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1 9 8 7 ) , p . 69.

Page 6: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

n u l f 1cior1L oo . o r d i n a l i o t ~ Lo o u o t t l la E u r o p e a r ~ a . D u r i n g t he

1 9 t h c e n t u r y , an e d u c a t e d F i l i p i n o m i d d l e c l a s s emerged w i t h

s t r o n g n a t i o n a l i s t f e e l i n g s and a d e s i r e f o r P h i l i p p i n e

i n d e p e n d e n c e . The n a t i o n a l i s t movement a g a i n s t S p a n i s h

c o l o n i a l i s m was o r g a n i s e d m a i n l y by t h r e e l e a d e r s , Dr. J o s e

R i z a l , F r . J o s e Burgos and Mr. Andres B o n i f a c i o . They formed

t h e " K a t i p u n a n " s e c r e t s o c i e t y t o f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e

S p a n i a r d s . The war be tween t h e U.S and F i l i p i n o

r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , and a l s o t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t J a p a n e s e

i m p e r i a l i s m , were a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t r u g g l e

a g a i n s t S p a n i s h c o l o n i a l i s m .

Though t h e P h i l i p p i n e s became an i n d e p e n d e n t S t a t e i n

1946 , t h e r e was no s u b s t a n t i a l change i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of

t h e gove rnmen t . What t h e F i l i p i n o s a c h i e v e d i n 1946 was

i n d e p e n d e n c e f rom U.S w i t h o u t d e c o l o n i s a t i o n . As n o t e d by

J o s e Ma S i s o n ,

. . . t h e U.S g r a n t e d o n l y n o m i n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e c o u n t r y i n 1946 b u t c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r c i s e i n d i r e c t c o l o n i a l r u l e t h r o gh u n e q u a l t r e a t i e s , a g r e e m e n t s and a r r a n g e m e n t s . 1

J o s e Ma S i s o n , " P h i l i p p i n e C u r r e n t s and P r o s p e c t s " , (Bombay), Vo l . 22 , No. 8 ,

F e b r u a r y 1987 , p . 3 1 3 .

Page 7: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

It, wnn !.haao a r l l ~ l ~ g l i r l g t r a a l l a n l l l n t l~aonma a maJur

f a c t o r o f d i s c o n t e n t s i n c e 1946 . The s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n s

o f government t h a t P h i l i p p i n e s a d o p t e d was p a t t e r n e d a f t e r

t h e American mode l . A l l t h e e x e c u t i v e powers were v e s t e d i n

t h e P r e s i d e n t and t h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t e l e c t e d f o r a f o u r y e a r

term w i t h e l i g i b i l i t y f o r r e - e l e c t i o n , and l e g i s l a t i v e

powers were v e s t e d i n C o n g r e s s composed o f t h e S e n a t e and

t h e House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . I n t o t a l c o n f o r m i t y w i t h i n

t h e f ramework o f t h i s k i n d o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n P r e s i d e n t s

Manuel Roxas, E l i p i d o Q u i r i n o , Ramon Magsaysay, C a r l o s . P .

G a r c i a and Diodado Macapagal r u l e d t h e c o u n t r y f rom 1946 t o

1965 . Marcos was f i r s t been e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t i n 1965 and

r e - e l e c t e d f o r a s e c o n d t e r m i n 1969 . T h e r e a f t e r , he was i n

power t i l l 1986 F e b r u a r y , t h r o u g h u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l me thods .

H i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s f o r I i i l i t a r i z a t i o n

When t h e U.S e s t a b l i s h e d its supremacy i n 1899 , s e v e r a l

o f t h e F i l i p i n o s c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h them and many o t h e r s

r e s i s t e d U.S e f f o r t s f o r c o l o n i s a t i o n , j u s t a s a good number

o f F i l i p i n o p a t r i o t s had opposed J a p a n e s e c o l o n i a l i s m .

A l a r g e number of F i l i p i n o s became g u e r i l l a s and many

g u e r i l l a g r o u p s were formed i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s t o oppose t h e

J a p a n e s e . These g r o u p s were s u p p o r t e d and r e c o g n i s e d by t h e

Page 8: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

U n i t e d S t a t e s Armed F o r c e s i n t h e F a r E a s t and became known

as USAFFE g u e r i l l a s . They were l e d by U.S o f f i c e r s who had

evaded c a p t u r e o r by members o f t h e F i l i p i n o e l i t e . The most

s i g n i f i c a n t au tonomous g u e r i l l a war movement d e v e l o p e d i n

C e n t r a l Luzon, and a r e a of p e a s a n t r a d i c a l i s m . L e f t wing

l a b o u r and p e a s a n t l e a d e r s , and i n t e l l e c t u a l s e s t a b l i s h e d a

P e o p l e ' s A n t i - J a p a n e s e Army, t h e

Many of i t s l e a d e r s had a l s o been l e a d e r s i n t h e communist

p a r t y 8 and i n t h e communi s t d o m i n a t e d p e a s a n t g r o u p s . T h e Huk

g u e r i l l a s i n c r e a s e d t h e i r c o n t i n u e d r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e

J a p a n e s e and t h e i r e m p h a s i s was on a programme o f w e l f a r e

" f o r t h e common p e o p l e " . I n t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , t h e Huks

u n i t e d F i l i p i n o s w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s o r

s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The communist s y m p a t h i s e r s o f t h e Huks

were c a r e f u l t o d i r e c t t h e i r e f f o r t s a l o n g l i n e s t h a t would

a p p e a l t o t h e m a s s e s and a t t r ac t a l a r g e number o f

f o l l o w e r s . I n o p p o s i n g t h e J a p a n e s e , t h e Huks were a b l e t o

evoke s e n t i m e n t s o f n a t i o n a l i s m and p a t r i o t i s m among t h e

m a s s e s .

T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n c o n c e i v e d i n December 1941, w a s f o r m a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d on March 2 9 , 1942 . I t ' s o f f i c i a l name was W means p e o p l e ' s army t o f i g h t a g a i n s t J a p a n e s e i m p e r i a l i s m .

The Communist P a r t y of P h i l i p p i n e s (CPP) was formed i n i n 1930.

Page 9: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The Hukbalahap i n i t i a l l y was m e r e l y a m i l i t a r y f o r c e

b u t a c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t - t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Movement

(UFM), was soon formed a s t h e p o l i t i c a l arm o f t h e Huks.

T h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n was a j o i n t v e n t u r e of m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l

and mass g r o u p s . The m i l i t a r y a s s u r e d t h e f o r c e , t h e

p o l i t i c a l g r o u p p r o v i d e d p r o p a g a n d a and t h e mass g r o u p s

" s u p p l i e d t h e men a s w e l l a s food and money" .' The Huks

were i n c o n t i n u a l c o n f l i c t w i t h o t h e r g u e r i l l a f o r c e s

s u p p o r t e d by t h e U.S F o r c e s , (USAFFE g u e r i l l a s ) . Dur ing t h e

J a p a n e s e o c c u p a t i o n , b a t t l e s t o o k p l a c e i n which t h e Huks

and t h e USAFFE u n i t s met. The USAFFE g u e r i l l a s f a v o u r e d a

" l i e - l o w " p o l i c y and c o n c e n t r a t e d on g e t t i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e

i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e Amer icans u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s t h e y would

be a i d e d by t h e r e t u r n of t h e American f o r c e s . The Huks f e l t

t h a t t h e USAFFE g u e r i l l a s d i d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f a c t u a l l y

f i g h t i n g t h e J a p a n e s e . D i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r t h e " l i e - l o w "

p o l i c y was n o t o n l y t h e c a u s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g between

t h e two g r o u p s . USAFFE u n i t s r e s e n t e d t h e enc roachmen t of

Huks i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y : t h e Huks c l a i m e d t h a t m i l i t a r y

w a r f a r e was i n s e p a r a b l e f rom p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e and was, i n

"The Hukba lahaps" , ( O I R R e p o r t No. 5209, 1950), i n D a n i e l B . S c h i r m e r & S . R. Shalom ( e d s . ) , np.ci t , , p . 7 4 .

Page 10: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

f a c t , s u b o r d i n a t e t o it and t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e i r e x p a n s i o n

and p e n e t r a t i o n t o be o f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e . 10

While Huks, who were a w e l l t r a i n e d m i l i t a r y , were

f i g h t i n g t h e J a p a n e s e , t h e U n i t e d F r o n t Movement was a l s o

a c t i v e . The Huks had p l a c e d g r e a t e m p h a s i s on t h e i r s o c i o -

economic programmes. Under t h e g u i d a n c e and p r o t e c t i o n of

t h e Huks, p e a s a n t s began t o a c t a g a i n s t t h e r i c h l a n d l o r d s

who had been e x p l o i t i n g t h e p e a s a n t s . I g n o r i n g p re -war

s h a r e c r o p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s , t h e p e a s a n t s k e p t t h e e n t i r e

h a r v e s t o f t h e r i c e f i e l d s , a f t e r s u p p l y i n g t h e J a p a n e s e as

o r d e r e d by t h e l a n d l o r d s . ' ' The Huks i n s t i t u t e d r i g i d p r i c e

- c o n t r o l r e g u l a t i o n s i n t h e towns and barrios t h r o u g h o u t

C e n t r a l Luzon and were t h u s a b l e t o r e d u c e p r o f i t e e r i n g t o 'a

minimum. I n a l l t h e s e r e s p e c t s , t h e war t i m e a c t i v i t i e s o f

t h e Huks d i d much t o c r e a t e a p o l i t i c a l a w a r e n e s s i n t h e

p e a s a n t s . l2 P r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s were s e t up i n s e v e r a l

m u n i c i p a l i t i e s u n d e r t h e Huk-UFM c o n t r o l . The UFM had g o t

t h e Huks t o e s t a b l i s h law and o r d e r u n t i l t h e UFM l o s t i t s

p o p u l a r i t y i n 1945 .

Page 11: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Wltl~ l l ie r e l u r r ~ o r 1l1a Amat l ca r~ Army Lo t l ~ e lluk

p r o v i n c e s i n 1945 , many Huks o f f e r e d t h e i r s e r v i c e s a s

g u i d e s , i n f o r m a n t s , and b e h i n d - t h e - l i n e g u e r i l l a s . While

some Huks were f i g h t i n g s i d e by s i d e w i t h American f o r c e s ,

o t h e r s were engaged i n mopping up o p e r a t i o n s , c l e a n i n g o u t

s m a l l J a p a n e s e p o c k e t s b y p a s s e d i n t h e main d r i v e . 1 3 I n some

a r e a s t h e J a p a n e s e p u p p e t s o l d i e r s had l e f t i n f a v o u r o f t h e

Huk g u e r i l l a s . The Huk g u e r i l l a s were p r e p a r e d t o t a k e o v e r

t h e government o f t h e newly l i b e r a t e d a r e a s . I n f a c t , i n

most o f them t h e Amer icans found t h a t t h e armed p e a s a n t s had

c l e a n e d o u t t h e o p p o s i t i o n and Huks were a l r e a d y i n c o n t r o l

o f t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s , c l a i m i n g t o have been e l e c t e d .

The Huks o b v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d t h a t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Huk c o n t r o l

a s a f a i t a c c o m p l i migh t f o r c e American r e c o g n i t i o n , and

a c c e p t a n c e by t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d Commonwealth gove rnmen t . 14

B u t , i n f a c t , t h e Army's P h i l i p p i n e C i v i l A f f a i r s U n i t

r e p l a c e d most o f t h e Huk men. T h i s p o l i c y c a u s e d

d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e Huks. They r e a l i s e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

AFP d i d n o t r e c o g n i s e t h e i r l o y a l t y and f i g h t i n g p o t e n t i a l .

Later t h e h o s t i l i t y of U.S army a u t h o r i t i e s t o w a r d s t h e i r

o r g a n i s a t i o n b e c a u s e o f i t s l e f t i s t and M a r x i s t l e a n i n g s

Page 12: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

became c lear . The d e a l i n g s of t h e U.S - AFP a u t h o r i t i e s

a n t a g o n i s e d t h e Huks and t h e i r a n t a g o n i s m c o n t i n u e d t o

become s h a r p e r .

With t h e d e f e a t o f J a p a n , t h e a s c e n d a n t American power

saw no o t h e r p o t e n t i a l o r open e x t e r n a l t h r e a t t o A s i a

e x c e p t f rom communis t - led n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movements.

G e n e r a l Doughlas Mac A r t h u r , t h e n i n c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o f t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s and American armed f o r c e s , o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d h i s

f e a r s a b o u t t h e Hukbalahar, Movement.

( I t i s ) a d i s t i n c t p o t e n t i a l t h r e a t t o t h e Commonwealth gove rnmen t and t h e f u t u r e p e a c e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . ( h e n c e it is) . . . n e c e s s a r y t o k e t h e wing o u t o f t h e sai ls o f t h i s o r g a n i s a t i o n . 18

The P h i l i p p i n e gove rnmen t and l a n d l o r d s c o n d u c t e d a

r e i g n o f t e r r o r a g a i n s t t h e p e a s a n t r y o f C e n t r a l Luzoh i n an

a t t e m p t t o r e s t o r e t h e pre-war c l a s s r e l a t i o n s i n t h e

c o u n t r y s i d e . The Huks and t h e i r a f f i l i a t e d p e a s a n t u n i o n

PKM, had no i n t e n t i o n s o f t r y i n g t o o v e r t h r o w t h e

gove rnmen t , b u t t h e y were i n c r e a s i n g l y f o r c e d t o t a k e u p

weapons t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s . P r e s i d e n t Manuel Roxas '

gove rnmen t had p a s s e d a l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t c l a i m e d from

. . . l5 Rena to C o n s t a n t i n o , The Ph-:~Contin.Li&

m, (Quezon C i t y : T a l a p u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p p . 164-165.

Page 13: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

g u n r a n t e e d t e n a n t Pnrmors s e v e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e r i c e c r o p .

I n r e a l i t y , however , t h e law a l l o w e d l a n d l o r d s t o t a k e h a l f

o f t h e c r o p , which of c o u r s e , t h e y d i d . 16

The r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e s u l t a n t p e a s a n t d i s c o n t e n t was

t h a t t h e gove rnmen t o r g a n i s e d " a n t i - d i s s i d e n t " o p e r a t i o n s ,

l e d by p e o p l e who had e a r l i e r l e d armed men w i t h s k u l l and

c r o s s bones on t h e i r s h i r t s l e e v e s a g a i n s t p e a s a n t s . I n 1948

March, Roxas d e c l a r e d t h e Huks and t h e PRM t o b e i l l e g a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n s . l7 T h i s was u s e d a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r

f u r t h e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s and t e r r o r a g a i n s t t h e r u r a l

p o p u l a t i o n . Manuel Roxas d i e d t h e n e x t month and was

s u c c e e d e d by t h e Vice - P r e s i d e n t E l p i d i o Q u i r i n o . Q u i r i n o

t r i e d t o n e g o t i a t e a n amnes ty w i t h t h e Huks b u t t h e e f f o r t s

were d e l i b e r a t e l y s a b o t a g e d by t h e l a n d l o r d s who were

p o w e r f u l i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

A s a P h i l i p p i n e c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y s p e c i a l i s t h a s

r emarked , " t h e amnes ty o f f e r f a i l e d b e c a u s e it was n o t

accompanied by t a n g i b l e e f f o r t s o f t h e government t o r i d

i t s e l f o f g r a f t and c o r r u p t i o n , n o r was it accompanied by

l6 S t e p h e n R . Shalom, " C o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , o f ConLenporarv A s i a , No. 2 , 1977 , p . 153.

1 7

Page 14: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

p o s i t i v e s t e p s t o w a r d s removing d i s c o n t e n t m e n t among t h e

m a s s e s . " I8 Ano the r c a u s e , n o t e d , was t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e

government t o c o u n t e r t h e Huk a c c u s a t i o n of bad f a i t h on t h e

pa r t o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T e r r o r and c o r r u p t i o n by t h e

P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y m e r e l y i n c r e a s e d a n d , a t t h e same

t i m e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e e l i t e s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r a g e o l d p r a c t i c e

o f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l power f o r p e r s o n a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t . The

l a s t straw on t h e c a m e l ' s b a c k came i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e

P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1949 . . . which was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as

" a l a n d mark o f d i s h o n e s t y " . O f f i c i a l r e c o r d s e s t i m a t e d more

t h a n a f i f t h o f t h e b a l l o t s t o b e s p u r i o u s . Eve ry d e v i c e

known t o f r a u d u l e n t e l e c t i o n s was u s e d . . . F i l i p i n o s s a d l y

w i s e c r a c k e d t h a t e v e n t h e b i r d s and b e e s v o t e d i n some

p r e c i n c t s " . 1 9

The Huks, f i n d i n g p a r a m i l i t a r y s t r u g g l e u s e l e s s , c a l l e d

f o r t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e Government . Huks g a i n e d m a s s i v e

s u p p o r t f rom t h e d i s s a t i s f i e d p e a s a n t community, and t h e i r

s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e d w i t h armed s u p p o r t e r s . The v e r y

c o n t i n u i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t a t e w a s i n q u e s t i o n a t o n e

s t a g e .

1 8

q u o t e d i n Lhib,

Page 15: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The U n i t e d S t a t e s was w a t c h i n g a l l t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s

i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and s t e p p e d i n and a d v i s e d t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s P r e s i d e n t t h a t "no f u r t h e r American a i d c o u l d be

c o n s i d e r e d u n l e s s and u n t i l t h e r e is t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s t a k e n s t e p s t o p u t i t s house i n o r d e r

and t h a t it would t h e n n e e d , and b e i n p o s i t i o n t o

e f f e c t i v e l y u s e , a d d i t i o n a l a i d " . 20 A r e p o r t t o t h e

P r e s i d e n t by t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on t h e p o s i t i o n

of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s a i d t h a t " t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a r e an

e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e A s i a n o f f - s h o r e i s l a n d c h a i n of b a s e s

on which t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e

F a r East d e p e n d s " . The r e p o r t f u r t h e r s a i d " t h e t h r e a t o f

f u r t h e r communist ench roachmen t i n Formosa and S o u t h e a s t

Asia r e n d e r s i t i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s b e a s s u r e d . The U n i t e d S t a t e s is commit ted t o

t h e e x t e r n a l d e f e n c e o f t h e I s l a n d s and c a n n o t p e r m i t them

t o b e t a k e n by a g g r e s s i o n o r i n t e r n a l s u b v e r s i o n . The

s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

is s u c h a s t o j u s t i f y t h e commitment o f U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r c e s

Page 16: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

f o r i t s p r o t e c t i o n , s h o u l d c i r c u m s t a n c e s r e q u i r e s u c h

a c t i o n . - 2 1

The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l ' s s u g g e s t i o n on method o f

a c t i o n s s t a t e d t h a t :

The S e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s become and r ema in s t a b l e , a n t i - c o m m u n i s t , pro-American and an example f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e wor ld o f t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o e n c o u r a g e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e 9 3 o f p r o g r e s s i v e and r e s p o n s i b l e Government .

J o i n t U.S M i l i t a r y A d v i s o r y Group (JUSMAG) c o n s i d e r e d

i t s own p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e t o be one o f i n s u r i n g t h a t t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s f o l l o w e d t h i s i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y o r i e n t a t i o n .

A c c o r d i n g l y , JUSMAG d r e w up recommendat ions t h a t were

a c c e p t e d by P h i l i p p i n e o f f i c i a l s f o r a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g

r e o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e a n t i d i s s i d e n t campa ign . On t h e a d v i s e

o f JUSMAG, t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y , combined w i t h t h e

AFP u n d e r t h e o f f i c e of t h e S e c r e t a r y of N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e ,

was g i v e n t h e t a s k o f f i g h t i n g Huks. S p e c i a l a n t i - H u k s u n i t s

c a l l e d B a t t a l i o n Combat Teams (BCT) were o r g a n i s e d w i t h

21 " A R e p o r t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t by t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on t h e P o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h R e s p e c t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , November 9 , 1950 , i n F o r e i m

s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . , (Wash ing ton D . C : U.S Government p r i n t i n g o f f i c e , 1 9 7 6 ) , pp .1514-1515 .

Page 17: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

a r t i l l e r y ~ a p a b i l i t y . ' ~ To h e l p t h e newly formed B a t t a l i o n

Combat Teams, U.S m i l i t a r y a i d was s p e e d e d up and t h e i r

a c t i v i t i e s c o n t i n u e d i n f u l l - s w i n g f o r t h i s p u r p o s e .

On t h e s t r o n g u r g i n g o f U.S o f f i c i a l s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s , Ramon Magsaysay was a p p o i n t e d as t h e S e c r e t a r y

o f N a t i o n a l Defence by P r e s i d e n t Q u i r i n o . A s S e c r e t a r y o f

N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , Magsaysay was a b l e t o o b t a i n f o r h i m s e l f a

f r e e hand i n r u n n i n g t h e armed f o r c e s and t o r e v i t a l i s e i t .

N e w methods were i n t r o d u c e d t o combat Huks. An o f f i c e f o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e o p e r a t i o n s was s e t up d i r e c t l y u n d e r

Magsaysay. I t was soon renamed t h e C i v i l A f f a i r s O f f i c e

(CAO). The CAO u n d e r t o o k a m a s s i v e p r o p a g a n d a e f f o r t a g a i n s t

t h e Huks. I t o r g a n i s e d a n t i - c o m m u n i s t f o r m s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s .

P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s were o r g a n i s e d t o g e t t h e Huks t o

l e a v e a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a , and it became a n i m p o r t a n t

component of c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s . An example of

t h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t a q t i c was t h e " e y e o f God" p l o y

u s e d a g a i n s t H u k - i n f l u e n c e d areas. " teams would

c r e e p i n t o t h e n i g h t and p a i n t an e y e on t h e house o f

s u s p e c t e d Huk s y m p a t h i s e r s . The community would wake up t o

f i n d p e e r i n g e y e s , enough t o i n d u c e f e a r . Ano the r was t h e

23 S t e p h e n R . Shalom, ~ o . c i t .

Page 18: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

"aswang" t a c t i c , w h e r e i n c a p t u r e d Huks were k i l l e d by

p u n c t u r i n g two h o l e s i n t h e n e c k , d r a i n i n g t h e i r b l o o d and

t h e i r c o r p s e s were l e f t i n p l a c e s where many p e o p l e p a s s e d .

T h i s was aimed a t p r e v e n t i n g p e o p l e f rom g o i n g o u t a t n i g h t ,

t h u s m i n i m i z i n g t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h Huks p a t r o l l i n g a t n i g h t .

The most s u c c e s s f u l p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t e c h n i q u e was

t h e Economic Development C o r p s o r EDCOR. E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e

Army t o o k a s i ts own t h e Huk s l o g a n "Land f o r t h e l a n d l e s s "

and p romised t o r e s e t t l e a n y r e c a n t i n g Huks on t h e i r p l o t s

of l a n d . But t h o u g h t h e l a n d s e t t l e m e n t were " s u p p o s e d l y f o r

Huk s u r r e n d e r e e s . "

I n O c t o b e r 1950, t h e a n t i - H u k campaign made a ma jo r

b r e a k t h r o u g h when, i n what a U.S Army h i s t o r i a n c a l l e d "a

g r e a t s t r o k e o f l u c k . " a n i n f o r m e r p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n

l e a d i n g t o t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e e n t i r e communist p o l i t b u r o

( t o p - l e a d e r s h i p ) i n M a n i l a . JUSMAG a s s i s t e d P h i l i p p i n e

o f f i c i a l s i n p r e p a r i n g e v i d e n c e f o r u s e i n t h e t r i a l and

s u b s e q u e n t c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e p o l i t b u r o members. Magsaysay

and JUSMAG u s e d t h e M a n i l a round-ups a s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

g e t Q u i r i n o t o s u s p e n d t h e w r i t o f h a b e a s CQUXEL When t h e

w r i t was r e s t o r e d two y e a r s l a t e r , more t h a n a t h o u s a n d

Page 19: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

p e o p l e were b e i n g h e l d i n p r i s o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g been c h a r g e d

w i t h a c r i m e o r h a v i n g r e c e i v e d p u b l i c h e a r i n g s . 24

The m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s were c o n t i n u e d . JUSMAG had

recommended t h a t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " i n c r e a s e g round f o r c e s as

r a p i d l y as p o s s i b l e . " I n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1950 , t h e Army

was i n c r e a s e d f rom t e n t o s i x t e e n B a t t a l i o n Combat Teams

"upon d i r e c t JUSMAG A d v i c e . " And i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f 1951 ,

t e n new t eams were a d d e d . The t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e

P h i l i p p i n e Armed F o r c e s r o s e f rom t h i r t y two t h o u s a n d a t t h e

s t a r t o f 1851 t o f i f t y s i x t h o u s a n d i n l a t e 1952 . I n mid

1951 , Washington approved an a d d i t i o n a l g r a n t o f 10 m i l l i o n

i n m i l i t a r y a i d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o f i n a n c e t h e g r o w t h of

t h e A F P . ~ ~

With c o n s i d e r a b l e American a s s i s t a n c e , t h e P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y r e o r i e n t e d i t s e l f f rom a p u r e l y e x t e r n a l d e f e n c e

f o r c e t o a n army whose p o l i c y p l a c e d e q u a l s t r e s s on

i n t e r n a l d e f e n c e . The C I A p l a y e d a v i t a l r o l e i n t h i s and

t h e armed f o r c e s unde rwen t a s t r e a m l i n i n g .

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) w a s r e v i v e d

and d e p u t e d t o a c t a s a s e c u r i t y f o r c e and w a t c h d o g i n 1 9 5 1

Page 20: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

e l e c t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y . A t t h i s e l e c t i o n , Magsaysay became

t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Even b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n ,

p e o p l e had e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d o u b t a b o u t a f r e e and ' f a i r

e l e c t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e c o r r u p t p r a c t i c e s a t t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l . But AFP - C I A campaign e f f e c t i v e l y

c r e a t e d an image t h a t c l e a n and f a i r e l e c t i o n s were p o s s i b l e

i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s e v e n a t a t i m e when c o r r u p t i o n w i t h i n t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r a m p a n t . T h i s was a t a c t i c a l move of t h e

CIA i n o r d e r t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e Huk movement and c r e a t e an

a v e r s i o n among t h e p e o p l e a g a i n s t t h e Huks. A f t e r Magsaysay,

t h e AFP c o n t i n u e d t o p e r f o r m r o l e s o u t s i d e o f i ts m i l i t a r y

f u n c t i o n , r a n g i n g f rom typhoon a s s i s t a n c e t o r a i n making. To

c o n s o l i d a t e t h e n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e

AFP e s t a b l i s h e d i ts own "Socio-Economic M i l i t a r y Programme-

SEMP i n 1958 , t h o u g h i t was o n l y a f t e r 1966 t h a t t h e

v i g o r o u s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of s u c h a programme was

u n d e r t a k e n . 2 6

I t was u n d e r t h e r u l e of F e r d i n a n d H a r c o s t h a t m i l i t a r y

i n v o l v e m e n t i n n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s was t o expand

q u a l i t a t i v e l y and t u r n t h e m i l i t a r y f rom a mere i n f l u e n c e t o

26 C a r o l i n a G. Hernandez , "The e x t e n t o f d i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n t h e P h i l i o o i n e s 1946-1970". - - ( U n p u b l i s h e d Ph.D. t h e s i s , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , New ~ o r k j 1976) , p . 207 .

Page 21: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

an a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t i n P h i l i p p i n e p o l i t i c s . 2 7 I n h i s f i r s t

N a t i o n a l a d d r e s s i n 1966 Marcos s t a t e d q u i t e e x p l i c i t l y .

He s a i d :

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s w i t h i ts man power, m a t e r i a l and e q u i p m e n t r e s o u r c e s p l u s its o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c o h e s i v e n e s s and d i s c i p l i n e p o s s e s s e s a t r emendous p o t e n t i a l t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n economic d e v e l o p m e n t , wh ich s h o u l d b e e x p l o i t e d t o t h e maximum. Such p a r t i c i p a t i o n becomes i m p e r a t i v e c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e p rob lem b e s e t t i n g t h e c o u n t r y is s o c i o - e c o n o m i c r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y , and t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l t o s o l v e t h i s p rob lem are s c a r c e and l i m i t e d . 5 8

The m i l i t a r y had s t a r t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e and be i n v o l v e d

i n c i v i l i a n - c o n t r o l l e d d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s e k i n d s

of i n v o l v e m e n t p r o v i d e d t h e g r o u n d r e a s o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u i n g

i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s .

S p r e a d o f Military i d e o l o g y

The i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r i m e r a t e and t h e g r o w i n g r a d i c a l

movements l e d by s t u d e n t s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s p r o v i d e d

j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s t o c a l l f o r m i l i t a r y e x p a n s i o n

i n t h e AFP. A s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n smugg l ing

27 P . N . A b i n a l e s , Monograph ( P h i l i p p i n e s : N a t i o n a l i s t R e s o u r c e C e n t r e ) , p . 1 .

28 C a r o l i n a G . He rnandez , n o . c i t . , p . 207 .

Page 22: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

a c t i v i t i e s i n . 1087 and the g r o w i n g " u r b a n u n r e s t " , t h e

M e t r o p o l i t a n Command (METROCOH), which became an a f f i l i a t e

u n i t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y (PC) , was formed. T h i s

p a r t i c u l a r u n i t which expanded f rom a mere 300 t o 1 , 7 0 0 a s

a f o r c e e q u i v a l e n t t o o n e P .C.Zone , p l a y e d a c r u c i a l p a r t i n

imp lemen t ing martial law. 2g New m i l i t a r y e d u c a t i o n a l

t r a i n i n g was i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y

o f f i c i a l s . The N a t i o n a l Defence C o l l e g e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

i n s t i t u t e d r e g u l a r c o u r s e s i n 1966 w i t h an a im t o

. . . p r e p a r e and d e v e l o p n a t i o n a l d e f e n c e l e a d e r s , c i v i l i a n o f f i c i a l s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b r a n c h e s o f t h e gove rnmen t , and s e l e c t e d e x e c u t i v e s f rom t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r f o r more e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of n a t J 8 n a l p o l i c y , and f o r h i g h command and s t a f f d u t y . . .

S i m i l a r m i l i t a r y e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r m i d d l e

l e v e l o f f i c e r s , l i k e t h e Command and G e n e r a l S t a f f C o l l e g e .

s t a r t e d o f f e r i n g t o p l e v e l c o u r s e s d e s i g n e d n o t o n l y t o

t r a i n s e l e c t e d o f f i c e r s f o r t h e h i g h command b u t a l s o " t o

enhance t h e o f f i c e r 's m a n a g e r i a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l

30 J o s e G . S y j u c e , "The N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e C o l l e g e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , The D m s e Rev& ( S p e c i a l i s s u e on t h e A n n i v e r s a r y o f P r e s i d e n t i a l P r o c l a m a t i o n 1081, 1978) a q c i t e d C a r o l i n a G . He rnandez , w.ci t . , p . 158.

Page 23: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

s k i l l s . . . ( So as) t o i n c r e a s e h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e

n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( s i c ) f o c u s i n g on b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y

and c i v i l i a n r o l e s a s a m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r . ,831

Thus , Marcos b roadened and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d t h e p l a n s

which Magsaysay i n i t i a t e d . By i n t e g r a t i n g m i l i t a r y r e s o u r c e s

w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n , he went beyond t h e

o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e e n v i s i o n e d by Hagsaysay and p l a c e d t h e

m i l i t a r y i n a p o s i t i o n where it n o t o n l y had t h e c a p a b i l i t y

o f i n t e r n a l d e f e n c e b u t a l s o t h e c a p a c i t y t o a d m i n i s t e r

i t s e l f and s e t u p p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e s which c a n t a k e o v e r

and c o n t r o l c r u c i a l s e c t o r s o u t s i d e o f t h e m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t . 32 Through t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law,

m i l i t a r y became a d o m i n a n t f o r c e i n P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y . The

m i l i t a r y was a u t h o r i s e d t o p l a y a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e

c r e a t i o n o f t h e "New S o c i e t y " . Marcos o p e n l y e x p r e s s e d h i s

s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h h i s s i t u a t i o n where t h e m i l i t a r y ' s

c a p a c i t y t o g o v e r n , r u l e and e x a c t o b e d i e n c e . . . was s e e n as

t h e f i r s t new p r i n c i p l e o r m a n i f e s t a t i o n i n t h e new s o c i e t y ,

and which w a s t o b e implemented by "a b r e e d o f men c a p a b l e

31 A s c i t e d , pp.cit,, p . 155

32 A b i n a l e s , w . c i t . , P . 5 .

Page 24: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

n o t o n l y of r u l i n g o t h e r s b u t o f g o v e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s " . 3 3

Thus , d i s c i p l i n e , r e s t r a i n t , c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f power and

o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l m i l i t a r y i d e o l o g y were t o be

t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s of t h e p o l i c y f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e " N e w

S o c i e t y " . By and l a r g e , t h e p e o p l e , s i c k and t i r e d o f

u n e n d i n g bombings, r i o t s , ambushes , g r a f t s , i n e f f i c i e n c y ,

and o f f i c i a l m i s d e e d s , f e l t s o m e t h i n g had t o b e d o n e . They

q u i e t l y a c c e p t e d t h e a s s u r a n c e s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t t h a t i n

r e s o r t i n g t o t h e e x t r e m e remedy, he was m o t i v a t e d o n l y by

h i s d e s i r e t o " s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and ~ e f o r m s o c i e t y " . The

o l d s o c i e t y was d i s c r e d i t e d and r e p u d i a t e d . The s o c a l l e d

"New S o c i e t y " was b o r n w i t h a s e t o f brand-new s l o g a n s and

it w a s supposed t o r e p r e s e n t e v e r y t h i n g good - a new s e n s e

o f d i s c i p l i n e , u p r i g h t n e s s , and l o v e of c o u n t r y .

Mount ing T e n s i o n s and U n r e s t

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s was e l e c t e d as P r e s i d e n t f o r t h e

f i r s t time i n 1965. He was w i d e l y viewed a s a r e f o r m e r . He

i n s t i t u t e d a programme o f l a n d r e f o r m , i n i t i a t e d e f f o r t s t o

b u i l d s c h o o l s and r o a d s , and l a u n c h e d a campaign t o c u r b t h e

33 Razon F e l i x and Hensman R i c h a r d , The ODD-

LIE indinenous ~ e o ~ l e of t h e . .

-, Monograph, (Denmark: IWGIA P u b l i c a t i o n , 1976) . p . 27.

Page 25: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

power of l o c a l l a n d l o r d s , p o l i t i c i a n s , e t c . H i s p r e s i d e n c y

t u r n e d o u t t o b e a t y p i c a l one i n many r e s p e c t s : g r e a t

p r o m i s e s and few r e s u l t s . D u r i n g t h e campaign , Harcos had

d e c l a r e d t h a t he was opposed t o s e n d i n g any P h i l i p p i n e army

u n i t s t o Vietnam b u t n o s o o n e r had he been e l e c t e d , t h a n he

u r g e d t h e d i s p a t c h o f a P h i l i p p i n e C i v i l A c t i o n Group t o

Vie tnam. S o c i a l r e f o r m , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a n d r e f o r m s , made no

p r o g r e s s u n d e r H a r c o s , b u t H a r c o s h i m s e l f had done v e r y

well: "on a r a t h e r modes t p r e s i d e n t i a l s a l a r y , he became one

o f t h e l a r g e s t t a x p a y e r s i n t h e c o u n t r y . ..34

M a r c o s ' s g r e a t p o l i t i c a l s k i l l s and a b i l i t y t o u s e t h e

p u b l i c t r e a s u r y t o h i s a d v a n t a g e e n a b l e d him t o become t h e

f i r s t P r e s i d e n t i n t h e R e p u b l i c of P h i l i p p i n e s t o be re-

e l e c t e d f o r a s e c o n d t e r m i n 1969 . T h i s e l e c t i o n was a l s o

c h a r a c t e r i s e d by u n p r e c e d e n t e d v i o l e n c e and w i d e s p r e a d pay-

o f f s and m o s t l y i n f a v o u r o f H a r c o s ' s p a r t y . The p o l i t i c a l

t r e n d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o o k a new t u r n a t t h i s time.

Marcos o r i g i n a l l y f u n c t i o n e d w i t h i n t h e f ramework o f t h e

"Old S o c i e t y " . M i c h a e l S z a z n o t e s t h a t i n t h i s s y s t e m t h e

c h e c k s and b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h r e e c o - e q u a l b r a n c h e s o f

gove rnmen t , v i z . , t h e e x e c u t i v e , l e g i s l a t u r e and t h e

34 " M a r t i a l Law", D a n i e l B . S c h i r m e r & S . R . Shalom, ne &, p . 1 6 3 .

Page 26: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

j u d i c i a r y were o b s e r v e d and t h e l e a d e r s were a c c o u n t a b l e t o

t h e p e o p l e i n e l e c t i o n s h e l d e v e r y f o u r y e a r s . 35 T h i s is

n o t c o m p l e t e l y t r u e of t h e work ing o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m and t h i s d i d n o t mean t h a t t h e p e o p l e ' s

v o i c e was h e a r d r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e helm o f power i n a r e a l

d e m o c r a t i c s e n s e . P r e s i d e n t Marcos t r i e d t o overcome t h e

c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s e t up by r e s o r t i n g t o

u n d e s i r a b l e m a n i p u l a t i o n s i n e l e c t i o n s and o t h e r p o l i t i c a l

p r o c e s s e s . T h i s was more e v i d e n t i n t h e 1969 P r e s i d e n t i a l

e l e c t i o n s . Accord ing t o P e t e r Khan,

. . . t h e 1969 P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i s h o n e s t even f o r a c o u n t r y i n which b l a t a n t v o t e b u y i n g and p o l i t i c a l s h o o t o u t s were f a i r l y common p l a c e . I t l e f t t h e c o u n t r y p o l i t i c a l l y e x h a u s t e d , t h e economy i n c h a o s , t h e p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n d e e p l y e m b i t t 5ged and t h e p u b l i c more c y n i c a l t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .

The r e p o r t s o f a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p of c i t i z e n s d e v o t e d t o

t h e c a u s e of t r u t h , j u s t i c e and f r eedom o b s e r v e d :

. . . t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c o n t e s t o f 1969 , g o i n g f a r beyond a l l p r e v i o u s e l e c t i o n s i n t e r m s of what was

35 Michae l Z. S z a z , "The P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r Marcos" , The 1 of S o c i a l . P o l i t i c a l and E c o n o n i c S t u d i e s ,

. . (Washington D. C.j, Vol . 1 0 , No. 3 , F a l l 1985 , p . 308 .

36 P e t e r R. Khan, "The P h i l i p p i n e s w i t h o u t Democracy", F o r e i e n A f f a i r s (New York ) , Vo l . 5 3 , No. 2 , A p r i l 1974 , p . 6 1 6 .

Page 27: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

d e s c r i b e d by r e s p o n s i b l e newsmen a s t h e " t h r e e g ' s " - - g u n s , g o o n s and g o l d - b r o u g h t t o t h e f o r e t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r t h e s y s t e m was s o v i c 4 9 u s and h o p e l e s s t h a t i t s h o u l d b e c a s t o v e r b o a r d .

L a t e s i x t e e s and e a r l y s e v e n t e e s saw a r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f

t h e movement f o r a g e n u i n e democracy i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Growing a w a r e n e s s among t h e p e o p l e o f t h e need t o f i g h t

a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n t e n d e n c i e s o f H a r c o s ' r eg ime a l s o

s p r e a d w i d e l y . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , L e s t e r Edwin Ru iz p o i n t s

o u t t h a t :

. . . i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s , F i l i p i n o s began t o e x p e r i e n c e a g r o w i n g s e n s e of c o l l e c t i v e n a t i o n a l a g i t a t i o n n o t f e l t b e f o r e , a t least i n i ts d e p t h and m a g n i t u d e , i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e R e p u b l i c . . . T h i s c o l l e c t i v e n a t i o n a l a g i t a t i o n was d u e , i n l a r g e m e a s u r e , t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y a r i s i n g f rom its 5 t p e r i e n c e of c o l o n i a l and n e o - c o l o n i a l d o m i n a t i o n .

Workers , p e a s a n t s , s t u d e n t s , r e l i g i o u s men and women,

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , e t c . seem t o have found a common c a u s e d u r i n g

t h i s p e r i o d . When t h e F i l i p i n o s were o r g a n i s i n g t h e m s e l v e s

i n a b i g way a g a i n s t Marcos , he was becoming more power

h o ~ e t 0 e o f who care, (Monograph) , A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p of c i t i z e n s d e v o t e d t o t h e c a u s e of T r u t h , J u s t i c e and L i b e r t y ( P h i l i p p i n e s ) , 1 9 7 7 , p . 7 . [Here a f t e r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p document ]

38 Lester Edwin J . R u i z , " P h i l i p p i n e P o l i t i c s as a P e o p l e ' s Q u e s t f o r A u t h e n t i c P o l i t i c a l S u b j e c t h o o d . " , Alternative ( G u i l d f o r d ) , V o l . 11. No. 4 , O c t o b e r 1986 , p . 506 .

Page 28: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

hungry and was t r y i n g t o c l i n g on t o power i n w h i c h e v e r way

p o s s i b l e . The F h i l i p p i n e C o n s t i t u t i o n r e s t r i c t e d t h e

P r e s i d e n t t o two t e r m s i n o f f i c e , and t h u s by 1972 Harcos

c o u l d s e e t h e impend ing t w i l i g h t o f h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r .

Fo r someone a s commi t t ed t o s e l f - a g g r a n d i z e m e n t as H a r c o s ,

t h i s p r e s e n t e d a s e r i o u s c r i s i s . T h r e e s e p e r a t e c r i s e s

conve rged a t t h e end o f 1972; a c r i s i s f o r P h i l i p p i n e

P r e s i d e n t F e r d i n a n d E . Marcos , a c r i s i s f o r t h e P h i l i p p i n e

s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e s t a t u s q u o , and a c r i s i s f o r Washington .

The p e r i o d o f t h e Marcos p r e s i d e n c y , which was d u e t o

e x p i r e a t t h e end o f 1973 , saw an i n c r e a s e and

i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f p r o t e s t . The moun t ing u n r e s t i n d i f f e r e n t

p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y became a s e r i o u s p rob lem. C o r r u p t i o n

was r a m p a n t . Ten p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p l e e n j o y e d o w n e r s h i p o f

n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f t h e w e a l t h . The l a n d r e f o r m law which was

p a s s e d i n t h e s e n a t e went l a r g e l y un implemented f o r l a c k of

o r g a n i s e d i d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n b e h i n d i t . A l l o t h e r

p r o b l e m s -- t h e c r i m e r a t e , law and o r d e r , v i o l e n t

d i s s i d e n c e -- were u l t i m a t e l y t o be t r a c e d t o s o c i a l

i m b a l a n c e . T h e r e was a l s o a p o l i t i c a l i m b a l a n c e . The two

m a j o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s were p r o t e c t e d e x c l u s i v e l y by

s t a t u t e a t t h e c o u n t i n g o f t h e b a l l o t s and t h e s y s t e m had

Page 29: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o a monopoly of one p a r t y w i t h two f a c t i o n s ,

b o t h c o n t r o l l e d by economic power b l o c s

The y e a r 1972 t u r n e d o u t t o be t h e y e a r o f a p ro found

c r i s i s . I n J u n e 1972 Harcos convened a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l

C o n v e n t i o n . P r e s i d e n t Harcos c o n t r o l l e d t h e c o n v e n t i o n w i t h

t h e aim o f s t o p p i n g t h e move f o r key e l e c t o r a l r e f o r m t h a t

would r e v o l u t i o n i z e t h e p a r t y s y s t e m , and a l l o w t h e p e a c e f u l

r i s e o f new i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s which migh t l a t e r p r o v e t o be

h i s a n t a g o n i s t s . D u r i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n , t h e whole n a t i o n was

shocked by t h e r e v e l a t i o n s o f a c o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e , Edvardo

Q u i n t e r o , a f o r m e r Ambassador , who s t o o d on t h e f l o o r and

denouncdd t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of money i n e n v e l o p e s t o a

number of d e l e g a t e s . Raul S . Manglapus , a f o r m e r F o r e i g n

S e c r e t a r y and l e a d e r o f t h e p r o g r e s s i v e s i n t h e t h e n

C o n s i t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n p o i n t e d o u t :

The f i r s t e v i d e n t o b j e c t i v e o f P r e s i d e n t Marcos i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n wee t o g e t i t t o change t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l t o t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m s o t h a t he m i g h t c o n t i n u e i n power as P r i m e M i n i s t e r , s i n c e h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r r u n f o r P r e s i d e n t . The second was t o d e f e a t a r e s o l u t i o n f i l e d by members o f o u r g r o u p t h a t would ban p a s t and incumbent P r e s i d e n t s and t h e i r s p o u s e s f rom u n n i n g f o r any o f f i c e u n d e r t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n . 3 5

39 Raul S. Manglapus , " P h i l i p p i n e M a r t i a l Law: t h e T r u t h and F i c t i o n " , Preedorn-Issue No. 20 , J u l y - August 1973 , i n A-for (Wash ing ton : Movement f o r a F r e e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 9 .

Page 30: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

A s e r i e s of m y s t e r i o u s bombings t o o k p l a c e i n t h e

g r e a t e r M a n i l a area d u r i n g Augus t and t h e f i r s t t h r e e weeks

o f Sep tember , 1972. Raul S . Manglapus d e s c r i b e d it a s

f o l l o w s :

. . . a k i n d of c r i s i s , s u s p i c i o u s l y 1

a r t i f i c i a l , had begun t o i r k t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e M a n i l a a r e a . I t was a s o r t o f ready-made, i n s t a n t "mess" . Bombs were b e i n g e x p l o d e d i n t h e o d d e s t p l a c e s . Only o n e p e r s o n was k i l l e d - a s h o p p e r i n a d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e . Some o f t h e bombs were p l a n t e d i n t o i l e t s i n c l u d i n g t h e l a v a t o r y o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n on t h e e i g h t e e n t h f l o o r o f t h e Quezon C i t y Hall . T h i s l e d a d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e t i r e d J u s t i c e o f t h e Supreme C o u r t t o r emark i n a s p e e c h on Law Day t h a t he c o u l d n o t a c c e p t t h e o f f i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n t t t h i s was a l l p a r t o f communist c o n s p i r a c y . . . ti3

As F e l i x Roxano and R i c h a r d Hensman p u t i t : " t o s a t i s f y

o u r f o r e i g n c r e d i t o r s , t o s e e k t o c o n t i n u e i n power and t o

p r e v e n t c r i t ic i sm becoming l e t h a l , o n e h a s t o b e i n c o n t r o l

o f what is s a i d and d o n e . ,941

Y e t , t h e t h r e a t s , h a r a s s m e n t , impr i sonmen t and

a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f d i s s e n t e r s by t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s a g e n c i e s

were h e l p i n g t o c r e a t e a u n i t e d o p p o s i t i o n . The p r o t e s t i n g

i n t e l l e c t u a l s g r o u p s were o r g a n i s e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y b e t t e r i n

t h i s p e r i o d . The Communist P a r t y , which had been r e o r g a n i s e d

41 F e l i x Raxon & Hensman R i c h a r d , cD.cit., p . 25

Page 31: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

on M a r x i s t L e n i n i s t l i n e s i n 1968 , and i ts armed wing c a l l e d

New P e o p l e ' s Army which had come i n t o b e i n g i n 1969, g a i n e d

momentum and p e o p l e ' s s u p p o r t . Members o f t h e Armed F o r c e s

had p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t what t h e y r e g a r d e d as u n p a t r i o t i c

moves and s t a r t e d g o i n g o v e r t o j o i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y g r o u p s .

I n Mindanao, t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f P h i l i p p i n e s , armed r e v o l t

b r o k e o u t and s p r e a d . The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y s t a r t e d

t h e p r o c e s s o f t e r r o r i s i n g t h e Muslim areas and k i l l i n g

p e o p l e . But t h e y c o u l d n o t s u p p r e s s t h e r e v o l t and Muslim

" s e c e s s i o n i s t " g r o u p s g a i n e d more s t r e n g t h d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e s .

Ano the r c r i s i s which e r u p t e d c o n c e r n e d u n f a v o u r a b l e

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e U.S sup remacy i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . On

1 7 Augus t , 1972 , t h e P h i l i p p i n e Supreme C o u r t g a v e its

d e c i s i o n i n a case which i n v o l v e d t h e r i g h t s o f American

c i t i z e n s . Through t h i s judgement it r u l e d t h a t t h e

p r e f e r e n t i a l r i g h t s e n j o y e d b y U.S c i t i z e n s u n d e r t h e

" P a r i t y " a r r a n g e m e n t were u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l . The Amer icans

a c q u i r e d l a n d i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r

t h i s a g r e e m e n t . I t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f , t h e s e

was a b o u t U.S $ 700 m i l l i o n s i n 1972 . The Supreme C o u r t

d e c i s i o n demanded t h e i r c o n f i s c a t i o n o r made them s u b j e c t t o

f o r c e d s a l e by 1 9 7 4 . T h i s a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y a l l l a n d

Page 32: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

a c q u i r e d by U.S c i t i z e n s s i n c e 1946 b u t t e r m i n a t e d t i m b e r

l i c e n s e s , p e t r o l e u m l e a s e s , p u b l i c s e r v i c e f r a n c h i s e s and

o t h e r c o n t r a c t s w i t h v a l i d i t y beyond 1 9 7 4 . ~ ' E a r l i e r , t h e r e

had been o t h e r Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n s showing t h e p r a c t i c e s

o f o i l compan ie s t o b e i l l e g a l , and i n e f f e c t c u r t a i l i n g

s p e c i a l U.S p r i v i l e g e s i n o i l e x p l o i t a t i o n and s o o n . Such

j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s , c h a l l e n g i n g t h e i l l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s and

a c q u i s i t i o n s o f U.S c o r p o r a t i o n s , were w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d by

n a t i o n a l i s t and a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t f o r c e s i n t h e c o u n t r y . I t

was a s i g n of t h e c h a n g i n g t i m e s t h a t f rom c o n s e r v a t i v e

q u a r t e r s t h e r e had come a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t a t e

t o r e v e a l i ts t r u e f u n c t i o n s . Even i n t h e n e o - c o l o n i a l

s i t u a t i o n t h e r e was a c h o i c e be tween o b s e r v i n g t h e law o f

t h e l a n d and e n a b l i n g f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s t o d e f y i t .43 Given

t h e mood of t h e c o u n t r y , t h e b i p a r t i s a n s u p p o r t f o r U.S

i n t e r e s t s i n t h e f a c t i o n s o f t h e r u l i n g class c o u l d n o t b e

c o u n t e d upon t o e n s u r e t h a t , whoever was e l e c t e d , t h e

s t a t u s - q u o would be m a i n t a i n e d . T h e r e was no imminent

d a n g e r t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t , b u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c i v i l -

l i b e r t i e s was a l l o w i n g - p e r h a p s f o r t h e f i r s t time i n

P h i l i p p i n e h i s t o r y - a b r o a d b a s e d c h a l l e n g e t o t h e s t a t u s -

Page 33: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

q u o t o grow. The b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h e d e e p l y i n e q u i t a b l e

s o c i a l o r d e r saw a l o n g - t e r m t h r e a t t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and

w e a l t h .

I t w a s i n t h i s s e t t i n g o f a n a r c h y , p u b l i c c o n f u s i o n .

t e r r o r and d e s p a i r , o c c u r i n g j u s t one y e a r b e f o r e t h e end

of h i s u n e x t e n d a b l e s e c o n d t e r m , t h a t P r e s i d e n t F e r d i n a n d

Harcos p r o c l a i m e d m a r t i a l law. The p r o c l a m a t i o n was d a t e d

September 2 1 , 1972 , t h e d a y when C o n g r e s s was s c h e d u l e d t o

a d j o u r n f o r t h e y e a r . But C o n g r e s s d i d n o t f i n i s h its t a s k

on t h a t d a t e , and t h e p u b l i c r e l e a s e o f t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n had

t o be d e f e r r e d . The immed ia t e c a u s e o f t h e martial law

d e c l a r a t i o n as o f f i c i a l l y announced , was a n a t t e m p t on t h e

l i f e o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f N a t i o n a l Defence on t h e n i g h t o f

September 2 2 , 1972 . A R e p o r t t o t h e Commit tee on F o r e i g n

R e l a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S e n a t e by two members o f i t s

s t a f f s e n t t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n

i n November, 1972 , r e p o r t e d :

The f a c t o f t h e m a t t e r is t h a t t h e a t t e m p t a g a i n s t t h e S e c r e t a r y of Defence o c c u r e d on t h e e v e n i n g o f Sep tember 22 , t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f m a r t i a l l a w was announced b u t , as i t t u r n e d t t h e d a y a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n had been s i g n e d .

44 " S t a f f R e p o r t f o r U . S . S e n a t e Commit tee on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s : Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1972" , 9 3 r d C o n g r e s s , 1st s e s s i o n , F e b r u a r y 18, 1973 (Washington D.C : U.S Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 1 - 2 . [ h e r e a f t e r , A r e p o r t f o r U . S . S e n a t e Commi t t ee . 19721

Page 34: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

On 23 S e p t e m b e r , 1972 , t h e P r e s i d e n t announced t h r o u g h

t h e t e l e v i s i o n t h a t he had s i g n e d p r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081, as

of September 2 1 , 1972 p l a c i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r martial

law a l l e g e d l y " t o s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and r e f o r m s o c i e t y " .

I n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f Martial l a w

The d a y f o l l o w i n g t h e s i g n i n g of t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f

m a r t i a l l aw, p r o m i n e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s , a l l o f whom had been

c r i t i c a l o f t h e H a r c o s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were p u t u n d e r a r r e s t .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y s a s e r i e s o f arrests c o n t i n u e d . S c o r e s

of C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e s , s t u d e n t l e a d e r s ,

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , p r i e s t s , p e a s a n t l e a d e r s , e t c . , were t a k e n t o

t h e s t o c k a d e . A f t e r a r r e s t i n g s o many d e l e g a t e s of t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n , P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s a l l o w e d t h e

C o n v e n t i o n t o c o n t i n u e i t s s e s s i o n s . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s

became e v i d e n t i m m e d i a t e l y . Marcos was g o i n g t o u s e t h e

C o n v e n t i o n t o l e g i t i m i s e h i s power-grab and

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e h i s f u t u r e d i c t a t o r s h i p . He p r o m u l g a t e d

t h r o u g h t h e C o n v e n t i o n a t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n p r o v i d i n g f o r

an i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly composed o f t h e members of

C o n g r e s s and t h e C o n v e n t i o n d e l e g a t e s who v o t e d " y e s " t o t h e

p r o p o s a l . I t a l s o made t h e P r e s i d e n t Marcos t h e i n t e r i m

d i c t a t o r . T h i s was t h e h e a r t o f t h e c o n s p i r a c y . T h i s k i n d

o f a p r o v i s i o n r a t i f i e d a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f P r e s i d e n t

Page 35: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Harcos u n d e r m a r t i a l l aw r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e

acts were l e g i t i m a t e l y w i t h i n h i s r i g h t s u n d e r t h e 1935

C o n s t i t u t i o n . Raul S. Manglapus h a s o b s e r v e d :

I t v e s t s a l l powers o f g o v e r n m e n t s i n him and l e a v e s i t t o him t o d e c i d e when t o c a l l t h e i n t e r i m n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y t o s e s s i o n . S i n c e it is t h i s a s s e m b l y t h a t is empowered t o c a l l t h e f i r s t r e g u l a r e l e c t i o n s u n d e r t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n , he c a n s i m p l y d e s i s t f rom c o n z s n i n g it and s t a y i n a b s o l u t e power i n d e f i n i t e l y .

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n was supposed t o e s t a b l i s h a

p a r l i a m e n t a r y form o f gove rnmen t , and t h e t r a n s i t o r y

p r o v i s i o n , was t o p r o v i d e t h e b r i d g e be tween t h e o l d and t h e

new. On November 3 0 , 1972 t h e e n t i r e p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n ,

w i t h t h e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n was s i g n e d by most o f t h e

d e l e g a t e s , h o p i n g t h e y would d o m i n a t e t h e law-making body

which was s u p p o s e d t o e x i s t " i m m e d i a t e l y " upon t h e

r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e new C h a r t e r .

With r e m a r k a b l e s p e e d , t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c r e e d t h a t a

n a t i o n a l p l e b i s c i t e on t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n would b e h e l d on

J a n u a r y 15, 1973 . T h i s k i n d o f a c a l l i t s e l f was i l l i c i t

s i n c e it was t h e C o n g r e s s o r , a s some a u t h o r s would

c l a i m , C o n v e n t i o n i t s e l f t h a t c a n f i x t h e time f o r a

-

45 Raul S . H a n g l a p a u s , D . c i t . , P . 9 .

Page 36: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

p l e b i s c i t e . Under t h e o l d C o n s L l t u L i o n , C o n g r e s s was

supposed t o convene on J a n u a r y 22 , 1973, b u t t h e

r a t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n would mean t h e o u t r i g h t

a b o l i t i o n o f C o n g r e s s - t h e p o l i t i c a l b r a n c h t h a t c o u l d , i f

i t had t h e w i l l , c h a l l e n g e t h e i n d e f i n i t e i m p o s i t i o n of one-

man r u l e . Most o f t h e Congressmen were c a l l e d t o t h e

p a l a c e . They a g r e e d t o d i s s o l v e t h e m s e l v e s , h o p i n g t h e y

would be r e c o n s t i t u t e d as members o f p a r l i a m e n t . 46

The h o l d i n g o f t h e p l e b i s c i t e was p r o m p t l y q u e s t i o n e d

by v a r i o u s g r o u p s i n t h e Supreme C o u r t , on two g r o u n d s : l a c k

o f f r eedom o f c h o i c e u n d e r m a r t i a l l a w , and l a c k o f

s u f f i c i e n t t i m e f o r d i s c u s s i o n and d e b a t e . 4'1 s e n s i n g

a d v e r s e p u b l i c r e a c t i o n t o t h e i d e a o f a p l e b i s c i t e w i t h o u t

p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n , P r e s i d e n t Marcos i s s u e d a d i r e c t i v e on

December 2 1 , 1972 , o r d e r i n g t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law, t o a l l o w " f r e e and open

d e b a t e s " . He a l s o announced he was s t u d y i n g a p r o p o s a l t o

p o s t p o n e t h e p l e b i s c i t e t o a l a t e r d a t e .

I t was d u r i n g t h e l i m i t e d p e r i o d of f r e e p u b l i c d e b a t e

on t h e new C o n s t i t u i o n t h a t t r emendous o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e 9

46 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p documen t , Q O . C ~ ~ . , p . 12 .

4 7 Ibid.

Page 37: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

m a r t i a l law r e g i m e s u r f a c e d . I t was as i f a b e w i l d e r e d ,

c o n f u s e d p e o p l e , i n a b r i e f p e r i o d o f f r e e d o m and r e f l e c t i o n ,

saw t h r o u g h t h e whole c h a r a d e . 48 , P l a c e d u n d e r s c r u t i n y

d u r i n g t h e s e d e b a t e s were t h e c o n v e n i e n t and e a s y

a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t democracy , w e s t e r n s t y l e , d o e s n o t f i t t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s i t u a t i o n , t h a t t h e c i v i l and p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s

g u r a n t e e d by t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n are o f . l i t t l e v a l u e t o p e o p l e

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p rob lem o f d a i l y s u r v i v a l , and t h a t

m a r t i a l law, P h i l i p p i n e s t y l e , would r e f o r m t h e s i c k

s o c i e t y .

Again , t h e S t a f f R e p o r t f o r t h e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s

Commit tee o f t h e U.S S e n a t e s t a t e d :

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s s i g n e d p r o c l a m a t i o n 1081, p l a c i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r m a r t i a l law, on September 2 1 and announced i t on S e p t 23 . I n h i s p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t a t t h e time m a r t i a l law was p r o c l a i m e d , he s a i d t h a t t h e n a t i o n was " i m p e r i l l e d by t h e d a n g e r o f a v i o l e n t o v e r t h r o w , i n s u r r e c t i o n and r e b e l l i o n " j u s t i f y i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f m a r t i a l law u n d e r A r t i c l e VII o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . He went on t o s a y t h a t t h e r e is no d o u b t i n a n y b o d y ' s mind t h a t a " s t a t e of r e b e l l i o n e x i s t s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " and r e f e r r e d t o t h e Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n o f December 11, 1971 i n which s u c h a f i n d i n g had been made.

P r o c l a m a t i o n 1081 began by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t h r e a t f rom " lawless e l e m e n t s who a r e moved by a

Page 38: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

common o r s i m i l a r i d e o l o g i c a l c o n v i c t i o n , d e s i g n , s t r a t e g y and g o a l , and e n j o y i n g t h e a c t i v e m o r a l and m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t o f a f o r e i g n power . . . and (who) a r e a c t u a l l y s t a g i n g u n d e r t a k i n g and waging an armed i n s u r r e c t i o n and r e b e l l i o n . . . ( t o ) s u p p l a n t o u r e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic and l e g a l o r d e r w i t h an e n t i r e l y new o n e whose form of government . . . and whose p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic , l e g a l and m o r a l p r e c e p t s are b a s e d on t h e M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t -Mao i s t t e a c h i n g s and b e l i e f s . . .

S i n c e d e c l a r i n g m a r t i a l l aw, P r e s i d e n t Marcos h a s p u t l e s s e m p h a s i s on t h e t h r e a t f rom i n s u r g e n t g r o u p s ( w h i c h he c l a i m e d had l e d t o h i s a c t i o n ) and on t h e m e a s u r e s t o c o n t r o l t h a t t h r e a t and more e m p h a s i s on t h e r e f o r m s n e c e s s a r y t o b u i l d what he c a l l s " t h e New S o c i e t y " , a p h r a s e t h a t is t h r u s t i n t o p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s by t h e government t h r o u g h a l l a v a i l a b l e m e d i a . . .

I t is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h a t t h e few hundred w e a l t h y f a m i l i e s , r e f e r r e d t o as t h e o l i g a r c h s , have d o m i n a t e d t h e economy and p o l i t i c s o f t h e i s l a n d s s i n c e t h e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d and t h a t h e r e - t o - f o r e and P h i l i p p i n e C o n g r e s s , b u r e a u c r a c y and press have been d o m i n a t e i g b y them and o p e r a t e d p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r b e n e f i t .

The Commit tee came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t Marcos , h i s

f a m i l y and h i s f r i e n d s e n r i c h e d t h e m s e l v e s upon t h e

p r o c l a m a t i o n o f mart ial l a w .

T h e r e were s e v e r a l o t h e r f a c t o r s and s e c t o r s which

i n f l u e n c e d t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l d e c i s i o n t o impose mart ia l law.

The Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e s t u d e n t , l a b o u r .

49 A R e p o r t f o r U . S S e n a t e Commit te , np .c i t ,

Page 39: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

u r b a n p o o r and n a t i o n a l i s t s e c t o r s , l o c a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l

b u s i n e s s s e c t o r s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , e t c . , had p l a y e d key

r o l e i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o impose martial law a s

w e l l as i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f i t . The AFP had

p l a y e d a ma jo r r o l e i n t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f m a r t i a l

law. When Marcos t o o k t h e d e c i s i o n as e a r l y as s e v e r a l

months b e f o r e i t was imposed , h e r e a l i s e d t h e need t o g e t

t h e f u l l s u p p o r t and b a c k i n g o f t h e AFP. The P r e s i d e n t

r e v e a l e d h i s p l a n s t o t h e v a r i o u s h e a d s o f s e r v i c e s f i r s t ,

i n d i v i d u a l l y , making e a c h o f them f e e l t h a t t h e y were t h e

o n l y o n e s h e l d i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n f i d e n c e , and t h e n as a

g r o u p , a few weeks b e f o r e it was f i n a l l y implemented . Such

an a p p r o a c h was q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l , a t l e a s t i n g e t t i n g t h e

l o y a l t y o f t h e AFP.

T h e r e is a n o t h e r a rgumen t t h a t t h e i m p o s i t i o n of

m a r t i a l law was l a r g e l y a r e a c t i o n t o t h e F i r s t Q u a r t e r

S to rm (FQS) of 1970 o r what i t r e p r e s e n t e d . 50 T h i s was t h e

s e r i e s of m a s s i v e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , r a l l i e s and s t r i k e s

s p e a r h e a d e d by t h e s t u d e n t movement i n a l l i a n c e w i t h o t h e r

s e c t o r s s u c h as t h e l a b o u r movements, w o r k e r s , p e a s a n t s ,

50 The FQS r e f e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s h e l d i n Met roMani la and o t h e r c i t i e s i n 1970 J a n u a r y 26 , J a n : 30 & 31, F e b r u a r y 1 2 , Feb : 18 and P u b l i c m e e t i n g s and P e o p l e ' s march h e l d on F e b . 26 , March 17, e t c .

Page 40: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

e t c . Some o f t h o s e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and r a l l i e s r e s u l t e d i n

d e a t h and v i o l e n c e .

G e n e r a l Romeo E s p i n o , t h e n C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP

s a i d , a month a f t e r martial law was imposed:

P r o t e s t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , s p e a r h e a d e d m a i n l y by s t u d e n t and l a b o u r g r o u p s began e r u p t i n g p e r i o d i c a l l y , i n c r e a s i n g i n f r e q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y , a s i s s u e s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y m u l t i p l i e d , and p a s s i o n s h e i g h t e n e d . A b i t t e r round of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s t r i k e s and f u e l p r i c e d i s p u t e s p r e c i p i t a t e d by e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , a l s o d i s r u p t e d l i f e i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e 5 1 c o u n t r y , most e s p e c i a l l y i n M e t r o p o l i t a n M a n i l a .

Marcos o b s e r v e d t h e c a s e s o f v i o l e n c e t h a t e n s u e d f rom

t h e series of m a s s i v e u p r i s i n g t h a t u s h e r e d i n t h e FQS, and

he came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m was " t h e

i n e x p e r i e n c e i n r i o t and mob c o n t r o l o f t h e p o l i c e and

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , and t h e d e s i g n s of t h e l e f t i s t s and

n i h i l i s t r a d i c a l s i n t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s " . He a s s e r t e d t h a t

t h e r a n k s of t h e s e s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t o r s were r e p e a t e d l y

i n f i l t r a t e d by r a d i c a l l e f t i s t s who were t o sow v i o l e n c e and

t h u s p r o v o k e v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n f rom t h e p o l i c e and m i l i t a r y

a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r H a r c o s , t h e s e marked t h e " b e g i n n i n g s o f a

51 A s q u o t e d i n A lex Be l low B r i l l i a n t J r . andHartial (Quezon C i t y : Great Books T r a d i n g , 1987), p . 48 .

Page 41: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n s t a g e - managed by a d e t e r m i n e d

m i n o r i t y . ,052

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s d e c l a r e d t h a t he imposed m a r t i a l law

i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n two f u n d a m e n t a l o b j e c t i v e s ; name ly , (1)

s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and ( 2 ) r e f o r m s o c i e t y . I n a P r e s i d e n t i a l

s t a t e m e n t b r o a d c a s t on N a t i o n a l Rad io and T e l e v i s i o n on

September 22 , 1972 he s a i d :

I am u t i l i s i n g t h i s power . . . t o s a v e t h e R e p u b l i c and r e f o r m o u r s o c i e t y . . . We w i l l e l i m i n a t e t h e t h r e a t o f a v i o l e n t o v e r t h r o w o f o u r R e p u b l i c . B u t , a t t h e same t i m e , we m u s t now r e f o r m t h e s o c i a l , ecoxgmic and p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n o u r c o u n t r y .

P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s s p e c i a l l y i nvoked a r t i c l e V I I , s e c t i o n

10 o f t h e 1935 C o n s t i t u t i o n which p r o v i d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g :

The P r e s i d e n t s h a l l b e Commander-in-Chief of a l l Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and whenever i t h o c n m ~ n nncnnfinry, tin mny c n l l o u t s u c h ~ r m o d f o r c e s t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e , i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n . I n c a s e o f i n v a s i o n , i n s u r r e c t i o n , o r r e b e l l i o n o r imminent d a n g e r t h e r e o f , when t h e p u b l i c s a f e t y r e q u i r e s i t , he may s u s p e n d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e w r i t o f

53 " P r e s i d e n t i a l S p e e c h e s Vo l . IV, 1978 p . 13, a s q u o t e d i n A lex B e l l o B r i l l i a n t a J r . , QP.c i t , . , p . 66 .

Page 42: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

h a b e a s c o r p u s , o r p l a c e t h e h i l i p p i n e s o r any p a r t t h e r e of u n d e r m a r t i a l l a w . 5.9

One of t h e f i r s t a c t s o f H a r c o s upon d e c l a r i n g m a r t i a l

law was t o assume d i c t a t o r i a l powers . G e n e r a l O r d e r No. 1,

which Harcos i s s u e d on Sep tember 22 , 1972 c o n f e r r e d upon

h i m s e l f v a s t powers t o " g o v e r n t h e n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e g o v e r n m e n t . " The r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n

o f t h e G e n e r a l O r d e r s t a t e d as f o l l o w s ;

Now, t h e r e f o r e , I F e r d i n a n d E . H a r c o s . . . d o h e r e b y p r o c l a i m t h a t I s h a l l g o v e r n t h e n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e Government , i n c l u d i n g a l l i t s a g e n c i e s and i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s , i n my c a p a c i t y and s h a l l e x e r c i s e a l l t h e powers and p r e r o g a t i v e s a p p u r t e n a n t and i n c i d e n t t o my p o s i t i o n a s Command i n - C h i e f o f a l l armed f o r c e s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 55-

Thus , u n d e r m a r t i a l l aw , H a r c o s w a s t h e u l t i m a t e

a u t h o r i t y . P o l i t i c a l and g o v e r n m e n t a l powers were

c o n c e n t r a t e d i n h i s h a n d s . H e imposed overwhelming c o n t r o l s

on t h e a f f a i r s oP s t a t e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e . I n a s y s t e m he had t e rmed

" c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " , Harcos had t a k e n

s i g n i f i c a n t s t e p s t o p l a c e h i m s e l f , and t h e m i l i t a r y

54 Ibid.

55 G e n e r a l O r d e r No. 1, (Sep tember 22 , 1972)

Page 43: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

s t r u c t u r e t h a t s u p p o r t e d I ~ i m , above t h e l aw . The r e s u l t h a s

been a g r a d u a l , and i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r i o u s , e r o s i o n of

r e s p e c t f o r government i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e r u l e of l a w .

The p r o c e s s began i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r m a r t i a l law was

d e c l a r e d , when P r e s i d e n t Marcos suspended C o n g r e s s of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s and v e s t e d a l l o f i t s powers i n t h e

p r e s i d e n c y . The P r e s i d e n t o r d e r e d t h e AFP t o " e n f o r c e

o b e d i e n c e t o a l l t h e l aws and d e c r e e s , o r d e r s and

r e g u l a t i o n s p r o m u l g a t e d by me p e r s o n a l l y o r upon my

d i r e c t i o n . " By an e x e c u t i v e o r d e r i s s u e d t h e n e x t d a y ,

P r e s i d e n t Marcos p r o c l a i m e d t h a t he would " g o v e r n t h e

n a t i o n and d i r e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e government

i n c l u d i n g a l l i t s a g e n c i e s and i n s t r u m e n t s . .. 56

Marcos f u r t h e r c o n s o l d i a t e d h i s powers by f o r c i n g a

new C o n s t i t u t i o n t h r o u g h t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n t i o n i n

J a n u a r y 1973 u s i n g h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r p r o c e d u r e s i n d o i n g s o .

P u r s u a n t t o t h e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n s o f t h a t C o n s t i t u t i o n ,

a l l d e c r e e s , o r d e r s , i n s t i t u t i o n s and o t h e r a c t s p r o m u l g a t e d

by t h e " incumben t P r e s i d e n t " became t h e law o f t h e l a n d .

A c t i o n s t a k e n u n d e r t h e s e t r a n s i t o r y p r o v i s i o n s were t o

56 SalvartinI Human R i g h t s i n t k oolnes-, (Washington D . C: The Lawyer ' s Commit tee

f o r Human R i g h t s , 19851, p . 1 9 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d as Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t - 1 9 8 5 ) .

Page 44: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r ema in v a l i d and l e g a l l y b i n d i n g even a f t e r t h e l i f t i n g o f

m a r t i a l l aw. To g i v e h i s d i c t a t o r i a l r u l e t h e c o v e r o f

l e g i t i m a c y , Marcos s p o n s o r e d v a r i o u s r e f e r e n d a . I n J a n u a r y

1973 , he convened p e o p 1 e . s a s s e m b l i e s i n e v e r y v i l l a g e t o

v o t e on a new C o n s t i t u t i o n and a p p r o v e m a r t i a l l aw. A s a l l

o b s e r v e r s n o t e d , many of t h e c l a i m e d 35 ,000 a s s e m b l i e s n e v e r

met a t a l l and t h e ' v o t i n g ' was e a s i l y made t o d e c l a r e t h e

p e o p l e ' s overwhelming s u p p o r t f o r h i s r e g i m e . I n J u l y 1973 ,

t h e a s s e m b l i e s were convened a g a i n and t h e y approved

M a r c o s ' s r e m a i n i n g i n o f f i c e u n t i l he c o u l d c o m p l e t e h i s

" r e f o r m s " - t h a t i s , i n d e f i n i t e l y . Accord ing t o P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , even 5 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e p r i s i o n e r s i n

57 m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n c e n t r e s v o t e d ' y e s .

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n , on which P r e s i d e n t Marcos

a n c h o r e d t h e l e g a l i t y of h i s h o l d i n g on t o t h e P r e s i d e n c y

a f t e r December 30 , 1 9 7 3 ~ ~ , and of h i s o t h e r a c t s , was n o t

v a l i d l y r a t i f i e d by t h e F i l i p i n o p e o p l e . T h r e e y e a r s l a t e r

P r e s i d e n t Marcos t o o k a f u r t h e r s t e p t o e x t e n d h i s

57 "Human R i g h t s i n S o u t h Korea and t h e P h i l i p p i n e s : i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r U . S P o l i c y " , U. S House Commit tee on I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , H e a r i n g s o f 94th C o n g r e s s , 1st s e s s i o n 1975, (Washington D . C : U.S G.P .0 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 4 7 4 .

58 The Second P r e s i d e n t i a l t e r m of Marcos would have e x p i r e d on December 3 0 , 1973 , had t h e r e been no d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law.

Page 45: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

e x t r a o r d i n a r y powers on t o t h e p o s t - m a r t i a l law e r a . lle

o b t a i n e d a d o p t i o n o f t h e h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l "Amendment

S i x " t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , which p r o v i d e s t h a t , even a f t e r

t h e l i f t i n g o f martial law, "whenever i n t h e judgement o f

t h e P r e s i d e n t . . . t h e r e e x i s t s a g r a v e emergency o r a t h r e a t

o r imminence t h e r e o f , o r whenever t h e ( i n t e r i m o r r e g u a l r )

N a t i o n a l Assembly f a i l s o r is u n a b l e t o a c t a d e q u a t e l y on

any m a t t e r f o r a n y r e a s o n t h a t i n h i s judgement r e q u i r e s

immedia te a c t i o n , he may . . . i s s u e t h e n e c e s s a r y d e c r e e s ,

o r d e r s o r l e t t e r s o f i n t r o d u c t i o n , which s h a l l fo rm p a r t o f

t h e . law of t h e l a n d . - 0 5 9

Between 1976 and 1980 , Marcos t o p p e d o f f t h e

s t r u c t u r e s and m o d i f i e d i t . On t h e t o p he c r e a t e d a N a t i o n a l

L e g i s l a t i v e C o u n c i l t h a t a d v i s e d him t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendments he p r o p o s e d , s e c u r e a p p r o v a l o f

t h e amendments i n a r e f e r e n d u m , and c a l l e l e c t i o n s t o s e l e c t

members of t h e new k i n d of i n t e r i m a s s e m b l y t h e amendments

p r o v i d e d f o r . Meanwhile Marcos c r e a t e d a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ,

t h e K i l u s a n g Bagong L ipunan (New S o c i e t y Movement), o r KBL,

t o i d e n t i f y c a n d i d a t e s and c o n d u c t t h e campaign , and

r e o r g a n i s e d m i l i t a r y and p o l i c e s t r u c t u r e s s o as t o para l le l

more c l o s e l y t h e h i e r a r c h y of p o l i t i c a l o n e s .

5g 1976 Amendments, P a r a 6 .

Page 46: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

'Amendment S i x ' p r o v i d e d t h e powers f o r P r e s i d e n t

Marcos t o t r a n s f e r i m p o r t a n t j u d i c i a l f u n c t i o n s t o h i m s e l f ,

t h e r b y r e n d e r i n g t h e c o u r t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Supreme C o u r t o f

t h e R e p u b l i c , weak and o f t e n p o w e r l e s s t o c o n t r o l a b u s e s ,of

power by t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h and t h e AFP. A s e r i e s of

P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s were i n t r o d u c e d and Marcos e x e r c i s e d

h i s own a u t h o r i t y t o o r d e r d e t e n t i o n w i t h o u t t r i a l . These

P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s have b e e n , and c o n t i n u e t o b e , t h e

b a s i s f o r w i d e s p r e a d a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s by P h i l i p p i n e

m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s , o f t e n accompanied by t o r t u r e and o t h e r

p h y s i c a l a b u s e , and i n d e f e n i t e d e t e n t i o n , w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e

t o j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t m e r e l y by l a b e l l i n g t h o g e

a r r e s t e d a s " s u b v e r s i v e s " .

Under t h e 1973 C o n s t i t u t i o n which Marcos pushed

t h r o u g h s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law, t h e

c i v i l i a n j u d i c i a r y l o s t most o f its powers and t r a d i t i o n a l

autonomy. The s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e wr i t of habeRq c o r v w and

t h e s e t t i n g up of m i l i t a r y c o u r t s s i g n a l l e d t h e d e c l i n e of

c i v i l i a n c o n t r o l o f t h e j u d i c i a r y . Almost a l l t h e c a s e s

r e l a t e d t o " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y " i s s u e s were h a n d l e d by

m i l i t a r y c o u r t s and t r i b u n a l s , t h e d e c i s i o n s o f which became

f i n a l o n l y w i t h P r e s i d e n t i a l a p p r o v a l . C o n t r o l o f t h e

c o u r t s , c e n t r a l i s e d by t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment, a l l o w e d

Page 47: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Marcos t o r e p l a c e j u d g e s t o s u i t h i s i n t e r e s t s . He was

e n a b l e d by t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n t o a r b i t r a r i l y r e p l a c e

members of t h e j u d i c a r y s i m p l y by naming t h e i r s u c c e s s o r s .

These powers encompass a l l a r e a s o f gove rnmen t u n d e r a r t i c l e

X V I I , s e c t i o n 9 o f t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n which s t a t e s :

A l l o f f i c i a l s and employees i n t h e e x i s t i n g Government o f t h e R e p u b l i c of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s s h a l l c o n t i n u e i n o f f i c e u n t i l o t h e r w i s e p r o v i d e d by l a w o r d e c r e e d by t h e incumbent P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , b u t a l l o f f i c i a l s whose a p p o i n t m e n t s a r e by t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n v e s t e d i n t h e P r ime M i n i s t e r s h a l l v a c a t e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o f f i c e s upon t h e a p p o i n t m e n t

60 and q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i r

s u c c e s s o r s .

The d e c l a r a t i o n o f martial l a w t h u s , g a v e u n p r e c e d e n t e d

powers t o t h e P r e s i d e n t o v e r t h e e n t i r e g o v e r n m e n t a l

s t r u c t u r e . He d e s c r i b e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l change a s t h e

" i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " . H e a l s o w r o t e

t h a t t h e r e w a s an i n s e p a r a b l e l i n k be tween martial law and

t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n . M a r t i a l law e n a b l e d t h e c o n s t i t u e n t

body t o d r a f t a c h a r t e r a t t u n e d t o t h e demands f o r

r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a n g e . 6 1

60 " C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s - . . 1973" , i n t b L e s W k & h x & w d F e r d i n a n d E . H a r c o s , ( M a n i l a : Marcos F o u n d a t i o n I n c . , 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 185 - 227.

Page 48: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The new C o n s t i t u t i o n g a v e t h e P r e s i d e n t a l l powers ,

b o t h a s P r e s i d e n t and P r i m e M i n i s t e r , t o e n f o r c e t h e

C o n s t i t u t i o n s e l e c t i v e l y u n t i l t h e end o f m a r t i a l law o v e r

a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e gove rnmen t . S e c t i o n 3 , number 2 o f t h e

same a r t i c l e p r o v i d e s f o r t h e c o n t i n u t i o n o f " a l l C p r o c l a m a t i o n s , o r d e r s , d e c r e e s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , and a c t s

p r o m u l g a t e d , i s s u e d o r d o n e by incumbant P r e s i d e n t " a s p a r t

o f t h e " l aw of t h e l a n d " u n l e s s n u l l i f i e d by Harcos h i m s e l f

o r by t h e r e g u l a r N a t i o n a l Assembly. 62 I n o t h e r words a l l

p r o c l a m a t i o n s , o r d e r s , d e c r e e s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , and ac ts

p r o m u l g a t e d by Harcos u n d e r martial law w i l l r ema in i n

f o r c e u n t i l e i t h e r h e , o r t h e N a t i o n a l Assembly t a k e s

a c t i o n t o remove them. S i n c e Marcos h a s t h e power t o

d i s b a n d t h e i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly, t h e r e is l i t t l e

c h a n c e t h a t any c i v i l i a n c h e c k on h i s and t h e m i l i t a r y ' s

power w i l l b e p o s s i b l e u n t i l m a r t i a l law is l i f t e d . 6 3 The

r e f e rendum i n 1976 c o n c e r n i n g t o t h e ' S i x t h Amendment' g f

t h e new C o n s t i t u t i o n v e s t e d w i t h more powers f o r Marcos t o

u s e i t o v e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e by a l l o w i n g him t o

63 J i m Zwick, i o n i n t h e . . . PhlllpDlnes, Working P a p e r s e r i e s 31 , ( M o n t r e a l : Mc G i l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 28 .

Page 49: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

declare an "undefined emergency" and to legislate by decree

even after martial law is lifted.

Jim Zwick has observed that constitutional change in

the Philippines has led to the militarization of traditional

autonomous civilian governmental structures "through the

centralisation and heirarchization of control". There is no

allowance for civilian opposition to Marcos, or the

military's actions and policies, since these could lead

either to charges of subversion or prompt removal from

office through the naming of a successor. By allowing the

continuation of Marcos' decrees and orders beyond the

ending of martial law, the 1973 Constitution ensures that

any moves to reorder the government along more democratic

and less repressive lines will involve a long and arduous

legal process in the National Assembly. The

"institutionalisation of the revolution" that Marcos wrote

of represents, in fact, the institutionalisation of

militarization in the country. 64

Authoritarianism and Politico-economic Crisis

When constitutional authoritarianism replaced democracy

as the effective governmental form from 1972, President

Page 50: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Harcos c o n t i n u e d t o e n j o y t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e m i l i t a r y , and

t h e m i l i t a r y became a c h i e f p a r t n e r i n t h e management of t h e

c o u n t r y . A s C l a r k Nehur d e s c r i b e s i t , p o l i t i c s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s became " c l i e n t a l i s t " , i n which p o l i t i c a l l i f e

c e n t r e s on r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t are l a r g e l y p e r s o n t o p e r s o n ;

i n f o r m a l , h i e r a r a c h i c a l and r e c i p r o c a l . 65 T h i s c l i e n t a l i s t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s u p p l a n t e d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , l e g i s l a t u r e and

o t h e r f o r m a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of t h e government u n d e r t h e l o n g

a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e o f H a r c o s . 66 With t h e i m p o s i t i o n of

m a r t i a l l aw, H a r c o s c l a i m e d he had l a u n c h e d t h e "New S o c i e t y

P a r t y " , which was i n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t t h e o l d e l i t e and

c i v i l i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h army o f f i c e r s a s t h e key

d e c i s i o n make r s . With t h e l a u n c h i n g o f t h e "New S o c i e t y

P a r t y " , b u t i n f a c t , H a r c o s was t r y i n g t o p u t up a f a c a d e o f

a new s o c i a l o r d e r i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , s o t h a t he c o u l d

make p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t he was a " b e n e v o l e n t d i c t a t o r " .

I n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f m a r t i a l law, t h e mass media

announced t h a t t r emendous g a i n s have been a c h i e v e d by t h e

New S o c i e t y . The P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f was q u o t e d as s a y i n g :

6 5 C l a r k D . Neher , " P o l i t i c a l c l i e n t a l i s m and i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , BSFan A f f a i r s (London) , V o l . 1 2 , No. 3 , F a l l , 1985 , p . 1 .

66 Ibid., p . 2 .

Page 51: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r e tttis bean a b i g l e u p 1 1 1 t h e ecot~on~y; s p e c u l a t i v e and g r o w t h i n v e s t m e n t s were r e c o r d e d a t new l e v e l s , t o u r i s t t r a f f i c and e x p o r t r o s e , d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d , f o r e i g n l o a n s and economic a s s i s t a n c e became e a s i e r t o n e g o t i a t e , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e r v e s s t o o d a t a new p e a k , and f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , we saw o u r peop c o n v i n c e d of t h e e x i s t e n c e o f r e a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . AS-

Land r e f o r m e s c o n s i d e r e d an o u t s t a n d i n g s u c c e s s a s b i g

l a n d e d e s t a t e s , i n e x c e s s of hundred h e c t r e s , were b roken up

and d i s t r i b u t e d t o some 1 4 4 , 0 0 0 t e n a n t s and l a n d t r a n s f e r

c e r t i f i c a t e s were i s s u e d t o them. But i n 1974 t h e World

Bank n o t e d t h a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f l a n d r e f o r m programme

was becoming " e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t " and t h a t t h e p l a n s of t h e

government t o i s s u e l a n d c e r t i f i c a t e s down t o t h e 24 h e c t r e

l a n d "have f a l t e r e d " . 68 A t o p American e x p e r t on l a n d

r e f o r m , a n a l y s i n g t h e f i g u r e s p u b l i s h e d by t h e gove rnmen t ,

and c o n d u c t i n g s t u d i e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s , o b s e r v e d t h a t

" l a n d r e f o r m is less t h a n one p e r c e n t c o m p l e t e " . 69 I n t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n it is i l l u m i n a t i n g t o q u o t e William O v e r h o l t ' s

comments :

P h i l i p p i n e [ a g r a r i a n ] r e f o r m p rog rams [were ] t i e d n e i t h e r t o any i n t e g r a t e d v i ew o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy and its p r i n c i p a l t r e n d s (ee.

67 -t in T-, ( M a n i l a ) , Hay 2 1 , 1973

68 World Bank, " C u r r e n t economic p o s i t i o n and p r o s p e c t s . . o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , c i t e d i n P h l l l D o i n e Times, ( C h i c a g o ) A p r i l 1-15, 1 9 7 5 .

Page 52: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , u r b a n i z a t i o n , r i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n ) , n o r t o a n y 7 E x p l i c i t v i s i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l f u t u r e .

Ano the r team o f e x p e r t s began d o u b t i n g t h e g e n u i n e n e s s

and d e p t h of t h e commitment o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p t o l a n d

r e f o r m , and wondered w h e t h e r t h e whole programme was m e r e l y

a c o n v e n i e n t p l a n d i s g u i s e d t o p u t o f f a g r a r i a n u n r e s t and

p r o v i d e window-dres s ing f o r one-man r u l e . 71 SO it was

p r o v e d t h a t t h e ' N e w S o c i e t y ' s c l a i m s a b o u t l a n d r e f o r m

were a d i s m a l f a i l u r e .

I n t h e economic s c e n e , crisis was d e e p e n i n g . The boom

i n t h e wor ld m a r k e t f o r P h i l i p p i n e e x p o r t s was g o n e , o i l

p r i c e s were s h o o t i n g u p , i m p o r t s were e a t i n g up t h e d o l l a r

r e s e r v e s , unemployment was moun t ing e v e r y d a y , and t h e l o c a l

s t o c k m a r k e t was s l i p p i n g i n t o a l o n g and d e e p s lump . The

f r i g h t e n i n g r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n - between 40% t o 44% i n mid

1974, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s o f t h e C e n t r a l Bank

69 Roy P r o s t e r m a n , c i t e d by J a c k Raughty , Seattle P o s t -, March 3, 1975 .

70 William O v e r h a u l t , "Land r e f o r m i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s " , S u r v e y , ( C a l i f o r n i a ) , n a y 1976 , p . 4 2 8 .

71 Denn i s S h o e s m i t h , "Land Reform i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ; E m a n c i p a t i n g o r E m a c i a t i n g T e n a n t s " , q u o t e d i n A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p document . . . , wA, p . 2 3 .

Page 53: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

- was b r i n g i n g enormous s u f f e r i n g t o t h e F i l i p i n o masses.

The IMF r e p o r t f o r 1974 showed t h a t among t h e d e v e l o p i n g

c o u n t r i e s i n A s i a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s had t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t

r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n - m a i n l y t h e r e s u l t o f a deve lopmen t

s t r a t e g y which p u t undue e m p h a s i s on e x p o r t s o f raw

m a t e r i a l s , r e n d e r i n g t h e c o u n t r y v u l n e r a b l e t o t h e

f l u c t a t i o n s i n t h e wor ld n a r k e t , and on t h e i n c r e a s i n g

c o n t r o l o f P h i l i p p i n e economy by f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e g i a n t m u l t i n a t i o n q l s . 7 2

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e mos t d i s t u r b i n g a s p e c t o f t h e

'New S o c i e t y ' was t h e p r e v a l a n c e o f e x t r a v a g a n c e and

c o r r u p t i o n i n h i g h p l a c e s . T h i s is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e p r i m e

f a c t o r t h a t e r o d e d t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e martial law

r e g i m e . Key p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s were

u n b l u s h i n g l y d i s p l a y i n g t h e i r w e a l t h i n a c o u n t r y where o v e r

one m i l l i o n p e o p l e were t o t a l l y w i t h o u t work and h a l f o f t h e

c h i ldrnrt wnrn B I I ~ feriria from m a l r l u t r i t i o r l . I'oople begar1 Lo

r e a l i s e t h a t w h i l e t h e b u s i n e s s e n t e r p i s e s o f t h e

" o l i g a r c h s " o f t h e o l d s o c i e t y had been t a k e n away f rom

them, t h e s e same f i r m s a r e now c o n t r o l l e d by a n o l i g a r c h y

c l o s e t o t h e v e r y c e n t e r o f power . 7 3

72 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e g r o u p documen t , o D . c i t . , P . 23.

73 Ibid.

Page 54: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Though t h e 'New S o c i e t y ' condemned g r a f t and

e x t r a v a g a n c e i n t h e f i r s t d a y s o f martial law, t h e

p r o p e n s i t y o f t h e 'New S o c i e t y was ' t o s p e n d t h e money of

t h e c o u n t r y on f r i v o l o u s and u n p r o d u c t i v e p r o j e c t s . I n

1974 , t h e f o r e i g n media r e p o r t e d t h a t a t o t a l o f $60 m i l l i o n

was s p e n t t o f i n a n c e t h e h o l d i n g o f t h e Miss U n i v e r s e

c o n t e s t i n M a n i l a . A $10 m i l l i o n w o r t h C u l t u r a l and T r a d e

C e n t r e was opened i n New Y o r k ' s F i f t h Avenue. Then a p r e s s

d e s p a t c h d a t e l i n e d C a i r o and p u b l i s h e d i n t h e l o c a l p r e s s ,

c o n f i r m e d t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e f i r s t l a d y had d o n a t e d $1

m i l l i o n t o t h e E g y p t i a n gove rnmen t f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f i t s

museums. 74

The c e n t r a l p rob lem o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s p r i o r t o t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of martial law was t h e undue c o n c e n t r a t i o n of

w e a l t h i n t h e h a n d s of r i c h f a m i l i e s . A f t e r September 1972 ,

Harcos moved t o d i s m a n t l e t h e " o l i g a r c h i c a l f i e f d o m s " and

t o take c o n t r o l o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e s e i t h e r t h r o u g h s t a t e

m o n o p o l i e s o r p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s d o m i n a t e d by h i s c r o n i e s .

But b o t h t h e s t a t e and t h e new o l i g a r c h y have made ma jo r

e r r o r s , and have n o t u s e d r e s o u r c e s e f f e c t i v e l y . Wea l th i s

i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e h a n d s of p e r s o n s who e i t h e r

Page 55: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

e x e r c i s e m a r t i a l law a u t h o r i t y , o r a r e t h e i r r e l a t i v e s ,

a s s o c i a t e s , c r o n i e s o r p a t r o n s . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s , t h e

economy of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s unde rgone s e r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l

p r o b l e m s c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e w o r s t f i s c a l cr is is o f any o f

t h e non-communist n a t i o n s i n modern h i s t o r y . 75 T h i s s o r t o f

a cr is is was c r e a t e d by Harcos and he c o u l d monopo l i s e t h e

p o l i t i c a l power .

The open-door p o l i c y o f Harcos made t h e c o u n t r y o n e

among t h e most l u c r a t i v e c o u n t r i e s f o r i n v e s t m e n t s . T a k i n g

f u l l a d v a n t a g e o f t h e open-door p o l i c y o f t h e m a r t i a l law

r e g i m e t o w a r d s f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s , . U.S and J a p a n e s e

b u s i n e s s f i r m s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r h o l d i n key a r e a s o f

t h e economy u n d e r t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n and expanded t h e i r

o p e r a t i o n s t o t h e p r e f e r r e d a r e a s . Accord ing t o t h e f i g u r e s

r e l e a s e d by t h e Board o f I n v e s t m e n t s , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l

a c c o u n t e d f o r 28% o f t h e t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t i n 1968 . But by

t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f 1975 , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l a c c o u n t e d f o r

more t h a n 58% 76 Ano the r r e m a r k a b l e f e a t u r e o f m a r t i a l l a w

was t h a t P h i l i p p i n e b a n k s , a d m i t t e d l y t o o many and u n d e r -

c a p i t a l i s e d , were r e q u i r e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r p a i d - u p c a p i t a l

75 C l a r k D. Neher , ~ ~ . c i t . , p . 1 2 .

76 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group document , D D . c i t . , P . 26

Page 56: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t o a t l e a s t 100 m i l l i o n p e s o s . Because o f t h e r e g i m e ' s b i a s

i n f a v o u r o f f o r e i g n i n v e s t m e n t s , t h e immedia te r e s u l t was

t h a t i n s t e a d o f F i l i p i n o b a n k s , m o s t ' o f them domina ted by a

few f a m i l i e s , merg ing and combin ing t h e i r a s s e t s , t h e

b i g g e s t names i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c e and b a n k i n g came

a l m o s t a t o n e f e l l swoop and became p a r t owner s and

f i n a n c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s - s o m e t h i n g most c o u n t r i e s o f t h e wor ld

would n e i t h e r e n c o u r a g e n o r p e r m i t .

I n o r d e r t o show h i s r e g i m e ' s g r a n d i o s e schemes f o r

d e v e l o p m e n t , Ha rcos r e l i e d on t h e t a l e n t s o f c o r p s of

t e c h n o c r a t s who had t h e i r t r a i n i n g m o s t l y f rom American

i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r had e x p e r i e n c e i n p l a n n i n g o r managing

economic e n t e r p r i s e s . The programme t h a t t h e y p u t t o g e t h e r

f o r t h e " m o d e r n i s a t i o n " o f t h e c o u n t r y e n t a i l e d huge

i n v e s t m e n t s i n b u i l d i n g s , h o t e l s , r o a d s , h ighways , b r i d g e s ,

power p l a n t s , h o u s i n g schemes and o t h e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s f a r

beyond t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e d o m e s t i c economy t o a b s o r b .

These were a l s o n o t o n l y u r g e n t n e e d s o f t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y

of F i l i p i n o s who l i v e i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . The o n l y way t o

f i n a n c e t h e s e b i g schemes was t h r o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r e i g n

b o r r o w i n g s f rom i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The

" o r g y o f b o r r o w i n g s " a v e r a g e d $ 2 . 5 b i l l i o n a n n u a l l y f o r a

Page 57: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t w e l v e - y e a r p e r i o d s t a r t i n g i n 1 9 7 2 . ~ ~ By 1984, t h e

c o u n t r y ' s f o r e i g n d e b t had r e a c h e d a s t a g g e r i n g $26 b i l l i o n ,

t o o much o u t o f p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e r e s o u r c e s of an

e c o n o m i c a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d T h i r d World c o u n t r y .

A n a l y s t s f o l l o w i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

e x t e r n a l d e b t c o n t e n d t h a t it was d u r i n g t h e martial law

p e r i o d t h a t t h e H a r c o s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " d e l i b e r a t e l y l aunched

a f i s c a l p o l i c y o f d e f i c i t f i n a n c i n g . . . which was a n

i n d i s p e n s a b l e component o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t programmes

f o r m u l a t e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e and a d v i c e o f t h e World

With t h e huge amoun t s b r o u g h t i n by t h e

l o a n s , a f r e n e t i c p a c e o f economic a c t i v i t y began and

p r e q t e n t i o u s programmes f l o u r i s h e d i n t h e Me t ro M a n i l a area.

T h i s was p u r p o s e l y done by t h e gove rnmen t t o g i v e an

i l l u s i o n o f p r o g r e s s o r " i n s t a n t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n " . 7 9

S t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s t o t a k e c h a r g e of t h e r e g i m e ' s numerous

programmes and b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i e s g rew by t h e h u n d r e d s .

77 B e l i n d a A . Aquino , Theas . . of ~ l u m k r : T h e . . ( M a n i l a : Great Books T r a d i n g ,

1B87) , p . 2 8 .

78 Leone r M . B r i o n e s ,"The P h i l i p p i n e Debt Burden; Who . . Borrows , Who Pays?" I n t e r n a t i o n a l e b t C r i s i s : Focus a L l l l

. . , ( P h i l i p p i n e s : I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 9 8 4 ) , p . 4 .

79 B e l i n d a A . Aquino , m.cit,, p . 2 8 .

Page 58: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

T h e management and c o n t r o l o f s e v e r a l o f t h e s e c o r p o r a t i o n s

were p l a c e d i n t h e h a n d s o f M a r c o s ' s r e l a t i v e s o r c r o n i e s .

A l l t h e s e i s s u e s showed t h a t a new o l i g a r c h y -

a p p a r e n t l y more p o w e r f u l t h a n t h e o ld-assumed c o n t r o l o f a

g rowing , s e e m i n g l y e n d l e s s list of c o r p o r a t i o n and b u s i n e s s

f i r m s . The o b j e c t i v e , o b v i o u s l y , w a s maximum c o n t r o l w i t h

minimum i n v e s t m e n t .

The R e p o r t o f t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group o f C i t i z e n s

p i c t u r e s q u e l y d e s c r i b e d t h i s t h u s :

What t h e a r c h i t e c t s o f t h e new s o c i e t y have c o n s t r u c t e d is a t a l l e r py ramid , w i t h r e s e r v e d a s s o c i a t e s - and t h e f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s whose i n t e r e s t s t h e y s a f e g u a r d and d e f e n d - a t t h e v e r y t o p . Under m a r t i a l l aw, i n s t a n t w e a l t h is e a s y t o come b f o r t h e few who know t h e l e v e r s and u s e s o f power. 80

The m o n o p o l i s a t i o n o f power became e v i d e n t w i t h t h e

r e l e a s e o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e F e b r u a r y 1975 r e f e r e n d u m . The

p e o p l e "ove rwhe lming ly" g a v e t h e P r e s i d e n t b l a n k e t a u t h o r i t y

t o r e t a i n , remove o r r e p l a c e l o c a l o f f i c i a l s whose t e r m s

were t o e x p i r e a t t h e end o f 1975 . Thus e v e r y b i g o r small

o f f i c i a l i n t h e gove rnmen t knew t h a t he h o l d s h i s o f f i c e a t

t h e p l e a s u r e of t h e P r e s i d e n t -- a P r e s i d e n t who, i n h i s

80 A R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Group document , W, p . 26 .

Page 59: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

own words , had " l a u n c h e d a p e a c e f u l , d e m o c r a t i c

r e v o l u t i o n . 8 1

D e s p i t e o f a l l claims a b o u t a c h i e v e m e n t s of 'New

S o c i e t y ' , t h e whole s i t u a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o b e v e r y

d i s t u r b i n g . The S e c r e t a r y o f N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , J u a n Ponce

E n r i l e , i n a s p e e c h a t t h e N a t i o n a l Defence c o l l e g e made t h e

c a n d i d a d m i s s i o n t h a t ;

. . . t h e n a t i o n s t i l l f a c e s t h e same t h r e a t s a s i t d i d s i n c e t h e i m p o s i t i o n 'of m a r t i a l law. . . We s t i l l f a c e t h e s p e c t r e o f i n t e r n a l s u b v e r s i o n a m i d s t t h e p r e s e n t economic c r i s i s , a d o p t i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t s t r a t e g y w i t h a d e c e n t r a l i s e d l e a d e r s h i p . . . T h e r e is t h e t h r e a t o f d o m e s t i c c r i m i n a l i t y , a g g r a v a t e d b y a n i n c i p i e n t e r o s i o n o f mora l v a l u e s i n o u r s o c i e t y . We a r e s t i l l p l a g u e d by c o r r u p t i o n a n a b u s e s among some s e c t o r s o f t h e

a2 p u b l i c s e r v i c e . . .

I n t h e y e a r of 1975 t h e r e were s i g n s of s h i f t s i n t h e

r e g i m e ' s i n t e r n a l b a l a n c e o f power . I m e l d a H a r c o s was named

Mayor of H e t r o M a n i l a . T h e r e was a m a s s i v e p u r g e o f

government b u r e a u c r a t s , i n c l u d i n g Defence S e c r e t a r y E n r i l e ' s

Under S e c r e t a r y . The r e g i m e ' s c h i e f t e c h n o c r a t A l e j a n d r a

H e l c h o l w a s r e p o r t e d t o have c l a s h e d w i t h Hrs. H a r c o s a s

E x c e r p t s o f E n r i l e ' s s p e e c h , d e l i v e r e d i n J u l y 1975 a t N a t i o n a l Defence C o l l e g e , B u l l e t i n Today, ( M a n i l a ) , J u l y 1 2 , 1975.

Page 60: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

w e l l as E n r i l e and he was o u s t e d . Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e s e

d e v e l o p m e n t s p roduced b o t h p r o t e s t and p e s s i m i s m . L e l a

G a r n e r Noble commented on t h i s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way:

The p r o t e s t was p r i m a r i l y of two k i n d s : t h a t o f l a w y e r s and c h u r c h l e a d e r s who c h a l l e n g e d t h e l e g a l i t y o r e t h i c s of t h e e x i s t e n c e and p o l i c i e s of t h e m a r t i a l law r e g i m e ; and t h a t o f e t h n i c g r o u p s , a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s , u r b a n w o r k e r s , s q u a t t e r s , and t h e i r s y m p a t h i s e r s , who opposed t h e r eg ime t h r o u g h armed r e b e l l i o n ( i n Man i l a and o t h e r c i t i e s ) . The Husl im s e p a r a t i s t Movement, f u e l l e d by c e n t u r i e s of a l i e n a t i o n , s p e c i f i c g r i e v e n c e s r e s u l t i n g f rom r e c e n t C h r i s t i a n m i g r a t i o n and o u t s i d e s u p p o r t f rom Muslim s t a t e s and o r g a n i s a t i o n s , was s u c c e s s f u l i n m o b l i s i n g a b o u t t h i r t y t h o u s a n d armed c o m b a t a n t s and d o m i n a t i n g much of c e n t r a l and s o u t h w e s t e r n Uindanao and t h e s u l o A r c h i p e l a g o . I n , s o d o i n g it j u s t i f i e d , a t l e a s t f rom t h e r e g i m e s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e m i l i t a r y b u i l d - u p and t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of m a r t i a l l aw, b u t i t a l s o r e s u l t e d i n p r o g r e s s and bo t i e s f rom which a t l e a s t some Musl ims b e n e f i t e d . fl !I

O t h e r f o r m s of p r o t e s t had l e s s s u c c e s s . t h e Supreme

C o u r t c o n s i s t e n t l y r u l e d i n f a v o u r o f U a r c o s , t hough

somet imes w i t h mixed v o t e s and ambiguous r u l i n g s . A l though

many of t h o s e d e t a i n e d were s u b s e q u e n t l y r e l e a s e d , p r o m i n e n t

l e a d e r s l i k e Ben igno Aquino and two members of t h e Lopez and

Osmena f a m i l i e s r ema ined i n j a i l . R e p o r t s o f t o r t u r e o f

83 L e l a G a r n e r Nob le , " P o l i t i c s i n t h e Marcos E r a " , e s : The b r c o s Era and Bevand, John

Bresnan ( e d . ) , (New J e r s e y : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) , 1986, p . 8 3 .

Page 61: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

p r i s i o n e r s p e r s i s t e d , r a i d s o f c h u r c h p r e m i s e s c o n t i n u e d ,

t h e p r e s s r ema ined c o n t r o l l e d , and t h e n a t u r e of

r e s t r i c t i o n s s h i f t e d f rom d i r e c t c e n s o r h s i p t o s e l f -

m o n i t o r i n g by s e l e c t e d owner s who s u p p o r t e d martial l aw .

Pess imism r e s u l t e d f rom g r o w i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t i t had been

e a s i e r t o change g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s and p e r s o n n e l t h a n

t o c r e a t e a New S o c i e t y . 84 Many o f t h e p r o b l e m s of t h e o l d

s o c i e t y had s i m p l y t a k e n on new m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ; c o r r u p t i o n ,

p a t r o n a g e , e x t r a v a g a n c e , and a b u s e o f a u t h o r i t y c o n t i n u e d

somet imes w i t h d i f f e r e n t b e n e f i c i a r i e s and v i c t i m s . P a r t y

s w i t c h i n g was r e p l a c e d by d e f e c t i o n s ; p o l i c y making , once

s u b j e c t t o e x e c u t i v e l e g i s l a t i v e s t a t e m e n t , was now hampered

by b u r e a u c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s b u t be tween m i l i t a r y

o n e s . A p o l i t i c a l c y c l e t h a t had once depended on e l e c t i o n s

now depended on e x e c u t i v e i n i t i a t i v e s .

Marcos c o n t i n u e d t o s e r v e a s P r e s i d e n t and Pr ime

M i n i s t e r , and m a i n t a i n e d h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y powers . i n c l u d i n g

t h e r i g h t t o a p p r o v e any b i l l s i n t r o d u c e d and t o v e t o any he

d i s l i k e d and t o d i s s o l v e t h e Assembly i f he t h o u g h t it was

n o t d o i n g i ts j o b p r o p e r l y o r i f he d e c i d e d t h e r e was a

n a t i o n a l emergency .

Page 62: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The r e g i m e s i n i t i a t i v e s t o w a r d s a p p e a s i n g t h e Muslims

i n t h e S o u t h r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a t e

e i g h t e e s . Two KBL d o m i n a t e d ' au tonomous ' gove rnmen t s had

been c o n s t i t u t e d i n t h e two r e g i o n s , w i t h t h e c o m i s s i o n on

I s l a m i c a f f a i r s headed by Admi ra l Romulo Espa ladon

e s t a b l i s h e d t o o v e r s e e government programmes t o w a r d s

Musl ims. Funds were p r o v i d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e r e - e n t r y i n t o

c i v i l i a n l i f e o f t h o s e r e b e l s who d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e

main f o l d o f t h e l a n d . A t t h e same t i m e m i l i t a r y and

economic p o l i c i e s had d e s t r o y e d s e v e r a l o f t h e NPA's o l d

b a s e s and t h e army managed t o a r r e s t some o f i ts t o p

l e a d e r s . I n s p i t e of t h e s e , t h e NPA c o n t i n u e d t o grow and

s p r e a d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , army u n i t s were d e p l o y e d t o occupy

new a r e a s where t h e NPA s t a r t e d f u n c t i o n i n g . The m i l i t a r y

a p p e a r e d l o y a l t o t h e r e g i m e , t hough u n d i s c i p l i n e d a t lower

l e v e l s and f r a u g h t w i t h f a c t i o n a l r i v a l r i e s a t t h e t o p . I n

many a r e a s t h e m i l i t a r y c o n s t i t u t e d a g o v e r n i n g s t r u c t u r e

p a r a l l e l i n g and d o m i n a t i n g t h e c i v i l i a n , and r e t i r e d

g e n e r a l s f i l l e d p o s t s i n government a g e n c i e s . A t t h e same

t i m e , t h e t e c h n o c r a t s , t h e r e g i m e ' s main a g e n t s f o r t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t programmes, seemed i n c r e a s i n g l y i s o l a t e d . They

opposed s e v e r a l o f t h e new p r o j e c t s p r o p o s e d by Mrs. Marcos

as u n n e c e s s a r y and u n d e s i r a b l e e x t r a v a g a n c e s .

Page 63: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

On t h e o t h e r hand , b r o a d e r e f f o r t s t o o k p l a c e t o

c o n s o l i d a t e o p p o s i t i o n . But t h e r e were d i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r

l e a d e r s h i p , d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n on i s s u e s s u c h as U.S

b a s e s , t a c t i c s i n t h e e l e c t i o n s , e t c . However, i n August

1980 , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f e i g h t o p p o s i t i o n g r o u p s i s s u e d a

N a t i o n a l Covenan t o f Freedom. The c o v e n a n t denounced t h e

Marcos gove rnmen t , and p r o p o s e d t h e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s " f rom a l l f o r m s of f o r e i g n d o m i n a t i o n i n a l l

a s p e c t s o f n a t i o n a l l i f e . "

D i f f e r e n t c h u r c h g r o u p s a l s o came f o r w a r d t o oppose t h e

m a r t i a l law r e g i m e s . Most marked d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d was t h e

s h a r p n e s s and c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o f t h e c r i t i q u e o f martial

law l e v e l l e d by t h e C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s ' C o n f e r e n c e of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f J a i m e C a r d i n a l S i n .

C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s ' C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s r e sponded t o

a s e r i e s of d e v e l o p m e n t -- a wave of a r r e s t s o f p r i e s t s ,

nuns and l a y p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n c h u r c h -- s p o n s o r e d s o c i a l

a c t i o n programme, an i n c r e a s e d government t e n d e n c y t o

d i s c r e d i t t h e l e f t as s u b v e r s i v e , m i l i t a r y a b u s e s a g a i n s t

c i v i l i a n s , f r a u d , d e c e i t , and c o n n i v a n c e i n t h e 1978

e l e c t i o n s , and t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n b e t t e r i n g

s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e m a s s e s . P a s t o r a l l e t t e r s

and s t a t e m e n t s , w h e t h e r i s s u e d i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y ,

Page 64: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

moved from t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and condemnat ion o f s p e c i f i c

ac t s , and p o l i c i e s t o a c a l l f o r t h e end o f martial l a u .

Meanwhile , t h e Task F o r c e o f D e t a i n e e s s e t up by t h e

A s s o c i a t i o n o f Major R e l i g i o u s S u p e r i o r s , c o n t i n u e d t o

m o n i t o r human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s , C a t h o l i c media p r o v i d e d an

a l t e r n a t i v e t o g o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d s o u r c e s and c h u r c h

w o r k e r s h e l p e d t o o r g a n i s e and d e f e n d t h e p o o r o r

p e r s e c u t e d . 85

D e s p i t e t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g economic s i t u a t i o n , and t h e

i n c r e a s e d s c o p e and o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n s and t h e o p p o s i t i o n , t h e r e g i m e was

s u f f i c i e n t l y c o n f i d e n t o f its s t r e n g t h t o make f u r t h e r

moves t o w a r d s n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . On J a n u a r y

1 7 , 1981, P r e s i d e n t t f a r c o s announced t h e e n d i n g o f e i g h t

y e a r s o f m a r t i a l l aw . The w r i t o f habeas was

r e s t o r e d , e x c e p t i n two r e g i o n s of Hindanao m i l i t a r y t r i a l s

and m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n o f c i v i l i a n o f f e n d e r s were phased

o u t ; some p r i s o n e r s were r e l e a s e d ; and l e g i s l a t i v e powers

were f o r m a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e i n t e r i m N a t i o n a l Assembly.

Marcos r e t a i n e d , however , t h e r i g h t t o i s s u e d e c r e e s , and

a l l d e c r e e s i s s u e d u n d e r m a r t i a l law rema ined i n f o r c e .

Page 65: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

A f t e r a s h o r t p e r i o d , Harcos d e c l a r e d t h e need f o r a

c o n s t i t u t i o n a l amendment t h a t would e s t a b l i s h a F r e n c h - s t y l e

P r e s i d e n t i a l P a r l i a m e n t a r y Sys t em.

A s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e Assembly, t h e amendments p r o v i d e d

f o r a P r e s i d e n t a t l e a s t f i f t y y e a r s o l d , e l e c t e d f o r a s i x

y e a r r e n e w a b l e t e r m and empowered t o a p p o i n t and remove a

Pr ime H i n i s t e r and a four teen-member E x e c u t i v e Commit teg.

The Assembly app roved t h e amendments, which were t h u s

s u b m i t t e d t o a p l e b i s c i t e i n A p r i l , and t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l

e l e c t i o n f o l l o w e d i n J u n e 1981. Harcos r eg ime campaigned

h a r d , and n o t e n t i r e l y f a i r l y , b o t h i n t h e p l e b i s c i t e and

t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l c o n t e s t . H a r c o s was r e - e l e c t e d and

p r o c e e d e d t o a p p o i n t C e s a r V i r a t a Pr ime M i n i s t e r , r e o r g a n i s e

t h e C a b i n e t and C a b i n e t - l e v e l o f f i c e s , c o n s t i t u t e an

E x e c u t i v e Commit tee , and name new l e a d e r s h i p f o r government

c o n t r o l l e d f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e m i l i t a r y . The U.S

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l s o w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y s u p p o r t e d t h i s k i n d of a

move. U.S S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e H a i g , who was i n M a n i l a f o r a n

ASEAN m e e t i n g c o n g r a t u l a t e d H a r c o s f o r a " w o n d e r f u l v i c t o r y "

and v i c e - p r e s i d e n t Bush, who a t t e n d e d t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n of

t h e New R e p u b l i c , p r a i s e d h i s a d h e r e n c e t o d e m o c r a t i c

p r i n c i p l e s and t o t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s . n a r c o s and Reagan

r e p o r t e d l y had a c o r d i a l m e e t i n g a t t h e Cancum ( H e x i c o )

Page 66: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

North-South C o n f e r e n c e , d u r i n g which Reagan i n v i t e d t h e

Marcoses f o r a s t a t e v i s i t , e v e n t u a l l y s c h e d u l e d f o r

September 1982 , t h e v i s i t p roduced a few a g r e e m e n t s ,

i n c l u d i n g m i l l i o n s of d o l l a r s f rom t h e U.S E x p o r t - I m p o r t

Bank f o r t h e B a t t a n n u c l e a r power p l a n t p r o j e c t and a

commitment t o r e n e g o t i a t e t h e terms f o r U.S b a s e s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s no l a t e r t h a n December 1983 . 8 6

Between 1981 and 1983, w h i l e Marcos a p p e a r e d t o have

t o t a l c o n t r o l o f p o l i t i c a l i n i t i a t i v e s , he had c o n s i d e r a b l y

l e s s s u c c e s s w i t h economic f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e

r e g i m e ' s p o l i t i c a l b a s e and s t a b i l i t y . I n 1981 J a n u a r y t h e

As ian Wall S t r e e t J o u r n a l p u b l i s h e d a summory o f a World

Bank s t u d y o f p o v e r t y i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 87 Economic

f i g u r e s f o r 1981 and 1982 d i d n o t a l l e v i a t e t h e B a n k ' s

c o n c e r n s o r t h o s e o f o t h e r l e n d e r s . Growth r a t e s d e c r e a s e d ,

e x p o r t s d e c l i n e d i n v a l u e , i m p o r t s i n c r e a s e d , and d e b t

s e r v i c i n g c o s t s e s c a l a t e d . Whereas t h e c o n c o n u t , b a n a n a ,

s u g a r and c o p p e r i n d u s t r i e s were a l l a f f e c t e d by marked

d e c l i n e i n p r i c e s o r demands, t h e c o c o n u t i n d u s t r y , on which

o n e - t h i r d of t h e p o p u l a t i o n and t w o - t h i r d s o f t h o s e i n

Page 67: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

c e r t a i n a r e a s o f Hindanao , were d e p e n d e n t , was p a r t i c u l a r l y

h a r d h i t . Unemployed r a t e s f o r u r b a n w o r k e r s r e a c h e d 2 5

p e r c e n t o r more i n M a n i l a and o t h e r c i t i e s , even w i t h a n

e s t i m a t e d 500,000 F i l i p i n o s work ing o v e r s e a s . The g rowing

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o f Xarcos and t h e m i s e r i e s f a c e d by t h e

p e o p l e i n a l l w a l k s of l i f e g a v e more i m p e t u s t o p o p u l a r

d i s c o n t e n t and t h i s s u p p o r t b a s e s h r a n k t o a l i m i t e d number

o f c r o n i e s .

A l e s s o b v i o u s b e n e f i c i a r y o f t h e economic c r i s i s was

t h e m i l i t a r y , whose power grew as a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s were

r e q u i r e d t o cope w i t h d i s s e n t . G e n e r a l Ver , p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

was g i v e n i n c r e a s e d s t a t u s . The M i l i t a r y became s o p o w e r f u l

t h a t some t imes t h e y went o u t o f c o n t r o l . Marcos c o n t i n u e d

t o e n j o y t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e m i l i t a r y i n d i f f e r e n t ways even

a f t e r l i f t i n g t h e m a r t i a l l a w . Benigno Aquino, t h e l ong-

t i m e p o l i t i c a l opponen t of Marcos, and t h e man who eve rybody

t h o u g h t would become t h e n e x t p r e s i d e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y , was

a s s a s s i n a t e d by Marcos ' men on 2 1 s t August 1983 a t t h e

M a n i l a I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r P o r t w h i l e he was r e t u r n i n g home

f rom t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

A f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of M a r t i a l Law, Aquino was u n d e r

m i l i t a r y d e t e n t i o n and was a c c u s e d o f a v a r i e t y o f c r i m e s ,

i n c l u d i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a p o l i t i c a l k i l l i n g . L a t e r ,

Page 68: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r e l e a s e d f rom j a i l t h r o u h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o u n d e r g o h e a r t s u r g e r y i n t h e U.S Aquino

q u i c k l y d i s p l a c e d l e s s c h a r i s m a t i c f i g u r e s t o become t h e

p r i n c i p a l l e a d e r of t h e e x i l e d o p p o s i t i o n . I n 1981 , w h i l e

Aquino was s t i l l a b r o a d , Marcos h e l d P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n ,

b u t n o t b e f o r e amending t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n t o r a i s e t h e

minimum P r e s i d e n t i a l a g e t o f i f t y , t h e r e b y e x c l u d i n g t h e

f o r t y - e i g h t - y e a r o l d Aquino . By 1983, t a u n t e d by Marcos '

spokesmen f o r h i s f a i l u r e t o r e t u r n hone t o j a i l a s he had

p r o m i s e d , i m p a t i e n t w i t h t h e new American a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s

P h i l i p p i n e p o l i c y , and w o r r i e d by r e p o r t s o f M a r c o s ' s

u n c e r t a i n h e a l t h , Aquino d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h e hope o f p e r s u a d i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t t o

, a r r a n g e f o r a p e a c e f u l t r a n s f e r o f power t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n ,

o r f a i l i n g t h a t , t o assume l e a d e r s h i p o f t h a t o p p o s i t i o n

h i m s e l f . He had been p r e v i o u s l y warned by I l r s .Marcos and

othnrn t.lint. t i in l i e n migh t t ~ o nndarlgored by ~ u c h n r o t u r r l . 8 8

Aqu ino ' s a s s a s i n a t i o n t r i g g e r e d w i d e s p r e a d p u b l i c

demands f o r P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s ' s r e s i g n a t i o n . T h a t e v e n t

p r o v i d e d t h e f i l l i p f o r t h e s u r f a c i n g of p e o p l e ' s l o n g - f e l t

88 C a r l H.Lande , "The P o l i t i c a l C r i s i s " , i n John B r e s n a n , ( e d . ) , ~ ~ . c i t - , p . 1 1 5 .

Page 69: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

a n g u i s h and g r i e v a n c e s i n t h e fo rm o f open p r o t e s t a t i o n s

a g a i n s t t h e r e g i m e . S e v e r a l h u n d r e d s of t h o u s a n d p e o p l e who

a t t e n d e d t h e f u n e r a l p r o c e s s i o n t u r n e d t h e i r g r i e f i n t o

a n g e r and p r o t e s t aimed a t P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s , h i s w i f e

I m e l d a , and t h e m i l i t a r y , whom t h e y h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f b r

t h e murde r . Accord ing t o Williams O v e r h o l t :

... a f t e r t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f Benigno Aquino, t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s b a s e o f s u p p o r t became s t i l l n a r r o w e r . The c rowds a t Aqu ino ' s f u n e r a l were t h e l a r g e s t i n modern P h i l i p p i n e ' s h i s t o r y , e x c e e d i n g t h o s e a t P o p e ' s v i s i t , H c A h u r ' s s e n t i m e n t a l r e t u r n and H a g s a y s a y ' s f u n e r a l . sQ

Many w r i t e r s s e e A q u i n o ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n a s t h e pace -

s e t t e r f o r t h e d o w n f a l l o f H a r c o s . Wolden B e l l o r emarked :

S u r p r i s i n g i r o n i e s o f h i s t o r y t h a t Benigno Aquino a c c o m p l i s h e d i n h i s d e a t h t h e d o w n f a l l o f H a r c o s ' s d i c t a t o r s h i p . The murder i o r t a l i s e s t h e murdered and d e s t r o y s t h e m u r d e r e r . ..Be3

A p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s e r u p t e d s p e c t a c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e

a s s a s s i n a t i o n of f o r m e r P h i l i p p i n e s e n a t o r Aquino . I n t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n Carl H.Lande o b s e r v e d :

89 William H . O v e r h o l t , " R i s e and f a l l o f F e r d i n a n d Marcos" , S u r v e v ( C a l i f o r n i a ) , Vo l . 26 , No. 1 1 , November 1986 , p . 1 1 5 7 .

g0 Walden B e l l o , "Benigno Aquino: Between D i c t a t o r s h i p and Democracy i n P h i l i p p i n e s " , Third World (London) , Vo1.6 , No.2, A p r i l 1987 , p . 2 8 3 .

Page 70: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

I t s e t o f f a r a p i d d e c l i n e i n b u s i n e s s c o n f i d e n c e , l e a d i n g t o a m a s s i v e f l i g h t o f c a p i t a l and t o t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s government t o s e r v i c e its f o r e i g n d e b t . I t s t i m u l a t e d an o u t b u r s t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a c t i v i t y by t h e d e m o c r a t i c o p p o s i t i o n and an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e s c a l e of m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n by t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y o p p o s i t i o n . F o r P r e s i d e n t Marcos, it b r o u g h t a p r e c i p i t o u s d e c l i n e i n l e g i t i m a c y and a u t h o r i t y , and i n h i s a b i l i t y t o s h a p e t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s . I t l e d a l s o t o e f f o r t s on t h e p a r t o f i m p o r t a n t f r i e n d s , b o t h d o m e s t i c and f o r e i # p , t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f rom t h e Marcos r e g i m e .

More and more F i l i p i n o s were c o n v i n c e d o f t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e r e was no a l t e r n a t i v e commit ted by Marcos r e g i m e . The

r e g i m e ' s c o r r u p t i o n , f a i l u r e o f i ts economic p o l i c i e s , i ts

r e p r e s s i v e n e s s and m i l i t a r y a b u s e s , and its s u p p o r t f rom t h e

U . S , e t c . v i r t u a l l y c a u s e d v i o l e n t p o p u l a r d i s c o n t e n t . o n e

of t h e ma jo r c a u s e s o f d i s c o n t e n t was t h e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y o v e r t h e y e a r s . The C a t h o l i c Church

became more o u t s p o k e n , u r g i n g Marcos t o r e s i g n b e c a u s e he

had l o s t t h e r e s p e c t and s u p p o r t o f t h e p e o p l e . They

c r i t i c i s e d t h e r o l e o f U . S b a s e s i n t h e P h i l i p i n e , i n

s u p p o r t i n g t h e Marcos r e g i m e . The CBCP denounced t h e

r e g i m e s a b u s e s o f human r i g h t s .

The U . S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l s o seemed l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c

a b o u t t h e r e g i m e a f t e r t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , a n o p i n i o n i n

Carl H.Lande , i n J o h n B r e s n a n ( e d . ), a m , p . 114.

Page 71: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

l i n e w i t h t h a t o f U.S. C o n g r e s s and t h e House of

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . U.S i n t e l l i g e n c e a g e n c i e s a p p a r e n t l y

s h a r e d t h e World B a n k ' s v iew t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n was

" p r e c a r i o u s " , and t h e y had l i t t l e hope t h a t t h e reg ime had

s u f f i c i e n t i n s i g h t o r w i l l t o r e c o v e r . An a i d e t o S e c r e t a r y

o f S t a t e , George S h u l t z , r e p o r t e d l y s t a t e d t h a t "The Harcos

r eg ime is e n t e r i n g its t w i l i g h t zone and we d o n ' t want t o

f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n t h e same p o s i t i o n as we d i d i n I r a n when

t h e Shah was o v e r t h r o w n . ..92

C o n t i n u e d d e c l i n e i n P h i l i p p i n e economy, t h e

u n r e l e n t i n g g r o w t h o f t h e communist i n s u r g e n c y , and

i n c r e a s e d American p r e s s u r e f o r r e f o r m s had l e d Harcos t o

c a l l a "Snap" p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n f o r F e b r u a r y 7 , 1986 .

I n t h i s e l e c t i o n , momentous e v e n t s changed t h e P h i l i p p i n e

p o l i t i c a l l a n d s c a p e . The murdered Benigno Aquino a c h i e v e d

a v i c t o r y d e n i e d him i n l i f e : h i s widow Corozon Aquino

became P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , w h i l e h e r r i v a l ,

F e r d i n a n d Marcos , t o o k r e f u g e i n d i s g r a c e i n t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s . Hr s .Aqun io r e c e i v e d wide s u p p o r t f rom a l l w a l k s of

l i f e . Among them were l a r g e numbers of men and women of t h e

m i d d l e and u p p e r c l a s s e s who had been p o l i t i c i z e d by t h e

92 S h e i l a h Ocampo-Kal fe rs , "No more I r a n s " , F a r Eastern (Hong Kong), J u l y 2 1 , 1983, p . 1 6 .

Page 72: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Aquino a s s a s s i n a t i o n . I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t a b o u t 40,000

p e o p l e worked on e l e c t i o n d a y a s v o l u n t e e r s i n t h e n o m i n a l l y

n o n - p a r t i s a n b u t c l e a r l y p r o - o p p o s i t i o n NAHFREL. They were

s u c c e s s f u l i n g u a r d i n g t h e b a l l o t t i n g p r o c e s s a g a i n s t

m a s s i v e p r o - H a r c o s f r a u d . NAHFREL won w i d e s p r e a d d o m e s t i c

and f o r e i g n r e c o g n i t i o n f o r t h e a c c u r a c y of i t s c o u n t and

f o r t h e d e t a i l e d n a t u r e of i ts r e p o r t s o f f r a u d . The

C a t h o l i c Church a l s o p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e a s an ill-

d i s g u i s e d a l l y o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n c a n d i d a t e s . I t was C a r d i n a l

S i n , t h e A r c h b i s h o p of H a n i l a , h i m s e l f who p e r s u a d e d Corozon

Aquino t o j o i n f o r c e s w i t h S a l v a d o r L a u r e l and a l s o

p e r s u a d e d L a u r e l t o a c c e p t t h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t c a n d i d a t u r e on

t h e i r j o i n t t i c k e t . C a t h o l i c Church members, i n c l u d i n g

p r i e s t s and n u n s , p r o v i d e d t h e b u l k o f NAHFREL'S v o l u n t e e r s

and l e a d e r s . I t was t h e c h u r c h ' s r a d i o s t a t i o n V e r i t a s and

t h e B i s h o p s ' p a s t o r a l l e t t e r s , r e a d i n a l l P h i l l i p p i n e

C a t h o l i c c h u r c h e s , t h a t b r o k e t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s monopoly of

mass c o r n r n ~ n i c a t i o n . ~ ~ F i n a l l y , i t was C a r d i n a l S i n who

m o b i l i z e d " p e o p l e power" - t h e human b a r r i e r t h a t p r o t e c t e d

t h e m i l i t a r y i n s u r g e n t s f rom t h e s u p e r i o r f i r e p o w e r of t h e

P r e s i d e n t ' s l o y a l i s t armed f o r c e s .

9 3 C a r l H Lande , n o . c i t L , p . 1 4 3 .

Page 73: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

- 214 -

The m i l i t a r y s o f a v o u r e d by Marcos, p roved i n t h e end

t o be u n d e p e n d a b l e . The g r o w i n g r i f t w i t h i n t h e armed

f o r c e s between d e f e n d e r s o f t h e r e g i m e and p r o t e c t o r s of t h e

n a t i o n came t o b e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s u n d o i n g . Marcos ' p o s t -

e l e c t i o n move t o a r r e s t members of t h e r e f o r m movement -

i n c l u d i n g t h e i r p a t r o n s - Defence H i n i s t e r J u a n Ponce

E n r i l e and G e n e r a l F i d e l Ramos - provoked a p r e e m p t i v e and

s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l t . H a r c o s ' l o y a l i s t s , f a c e d w i t h a c h o i c e

be tween c r u s h i n g t h e b a r r i e r o f " p e o p l e power " and d e f y i n g

t h e o r d e r s o f t h e i r C h i e f , c h o s e n o t t o move. Wi th in f o u r

d a y s , Marcos ' m i l i t a r y d e f e n s e s had c rumbled and he was on

h i s way t o Guam.

R o l e o f t h e AFP i n martial l a w and a f te r

When t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s e t up t h e P h i l i p p i n e army i n

1936, it c r e a t e d , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , a f o r c e v e r y much i n t h e

imnde CJF i t s own n r m y ; i t . W R R c m n l l , p r o f c s s i n n a l nnd

commi t t ed , above a l l , t o t h e n o t i o n o f c i v i l i a n sup remacy .

F o r many y e a r s a f t e r t h e g r a n t i n g o f i ndependence i n 1946,

t h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) r ema ined t h e v e r y

model o f a w e s t e r n army. I t had n o t been o b l i g e d t o f i g h t

f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e , and i t s s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e

Huk g u e r i l l a s i n Luzon n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , had n o t t o c o n t e n d

w i t h a n a t i o n w i d e i n s u r g e n c y .

Page 74: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Most s e n i o r o f f i c e r s had s e r v e d i n t h e U.S army -

P r e s i d e n t F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t o r d e r e d t h e i n d u c t i o n of a l l

P h i l i p p i n e s e r v i c e m e n i n t o t h e U.S army on t h e e v e of P e a r l

Harbour - , a t t e n d e d U.S m i l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s and g e n e r a l l y

had a h i g h r e g a r d f o r t h e American a p p r o a c h . t h e most

p o p u l a r h e r o f i g u r e f o r n o t F i l i p i n o o f f i c e r s was n o t , a s i n

o t h e r newly i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , a l o c a l p a t r i o t b u t an

American - Gen. Doug la s Mac A r t h u r .

I n t h e y e a r a f t e r World War I1 i t was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t

t h e a r m y ' s r o l e encompassed t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e s t a t e and no

more . Over t h e s u c c e e d i n g d e c a d e s , however , c h a n g e s had

t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e AFP. The most o b v i o u s o f t h i s had been

t h e d r a m a t i c i n c r e a s e i n t h e s i z e of t h e m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t . S i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law i n

September 1972 , t h e AFP had s e e n i t s r a n k s s w o l l e n

t h r e e f o l d , l a r g e l y on a c c o u n t o f t h e b i t t e r war a g a i n s t

Muslim s e p e r a t e s i n Mindanao and t h e c o n t i n u i n g war a g a i n s t

t h e g u e r i l l a s o f t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army (NPA), t h e m i l i t a r y

wing o f t h e o u t l a w e d Communist P a r t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

When m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , AFP was a f o r c e of 5 8 , 0 0 0

men. I n 1982 , a f t e r t e n y e a r s l a t e r , i t was a round 146 ,000

w i t h 6 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e Army ( p l u s a r e s e r v e of 9 0 , 0 0 0 ) , 1 6 , 0 0 0

i n t h e Air F o r c e , 28 ,000 i n t h e Navy ( i n c l u d i n g 9 t o 10

Page 75: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t h o u s a n d m a r i n e s ) and 4 2 , 0 0 0 i n t h e P a r a m i l i t a r y P h i l i p p i n e

C o n s t a b u l a r y ( P C ) . And t h o u g h t h e P h i l i p p i n e s s p e n d s a

c o n s i d e r a b l y lower p e r c e n t a g e o f i t s g r o s s n a t i o n a l

p r o d u c t on d e f e n c e t h a n any o t h e r ASEAN n a t i o n , its d e f e n c e

b u d g e t b a l l o o n e d f rom U.S $1 b i l l i o n i n 1981.94 T h i s is a

h i g h e r r a t e o f e x p a n s i o n t h a n i n any o t h e r c o u n t r y .

The r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e AFP c r e a t e d p r o b l e m s of

o r g a n i s a t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e . One p rob lem c e n t r e d on s o -

c a l l e d o v e r s t a y i n g G e n e r a l s . H a r c o s k e p t s e n i o r men i n

p l a c e w e l l beyond t h e u s u a l r o t a t i o n p e r i o d c a u s i n g m o r a l e

p r o b l e m s . Ano the r p rob lem c e n t r e d on l a c k of d i s c i p l i n e and

p o o r m o r a l e b o t h of which were e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e b i t t e r

f i g h t i n g i n Hindanao and o t h e r p l a c e s . S t a n d a r d s f e l l a s a

l a r g e number o f y o u n g e r o f f i c e r s were i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e army

and thrown i n t o a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Musl ims . I n t e r - s e r v i c e

r i v a l r y was a l s o a p rob lem and p o o r m o r a l e i n army and P.C

u n i t s l e d a t t i m e s t o s h o o t - o u t s be tween g r o u p s o f o p p o s i n g

s o l d i e r s s t a t i o n e d i n t h e S o u t h . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of

m a r t i a l l aw, t h e r e were i n c i d e n t s o f wide a b u s e o f power,

s u p p r e s s i o n o f human r i g h t s and t o r t u r e . T r o o p s were

a c c u s e d o f l o o t i n g , ' r a p i n g and " s a l v a g i n g " , a euphemism

g4 David J e n k i n s , " A l l t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s Hen", R e v h i , (Hong Kong) , March 1 0 , 1883, p . 1 5 .

Page 76: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

employed by army men t o d e s c r i b e t h e murder o f c i v i l i a n

s u s p e c t s . The army had c r e a t e d an image t h a t " t h e y a r e gun-

With t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l l a w , t h e AFP was n o t

o n l y g i v e n an expanded r o l e i n t h e c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y f i e l d

b u t a l s o a g r e a t l y expanded b a n k r o l l . A f t e r 1972 ,

P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y a s a whole came u n d e r much g r e a t e r

m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l . R e t i r e d m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l were p l a c e d i n

key government p o s i t i o n s and t h e armed f o r c e s were

r e o r g a n i s e d u n d e r a u n i f i e d command s t r u c t u r e which s t r i p p e d

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e r v i c e h e a d q u a r t e r s o f t h e i r power.

The p r o c l a m a t i o n of m a r t i a l l a w g a v e t h e Armed F o r c e s

o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (AFP) e x t e n s i v e new powers . P r o c l a m a t i o n

No. 1081 r e a d s :

Now, t h e r e f o r e , I , F e r d i n a n d E . Marcos , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , by v i r t u e o f t h e powers v e s t e d upon me by A r t i c l e VII, s e c t i o n 1 0 , p a r a g r a p h ( 2 ) o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , d o h e r e b y command t h e Armed F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o m a i n t a i n law and o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s of l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e a s w e l l a s any a c t of i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n and t o e n f o r c e o b e d i e n c e t o a l l l aws and d e c r e e s , o r d e r s and r e g u l a t i o n s r o m u l g a t e d by me p e r s o n a l l y o r upon my d i r e c t i o n . 9 5

95 P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081 , (Sep tember 21 , 1971)

Page 77: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Subsequen t g e n e r a l o r d e r s i s s u e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t

a u t h o r i s e d t h e armed f o r c e s t o a r r e s t p e o p l e s u s p e c t e d o f

s p e c i f i e d o f f e n c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o p u b l i c

o r d e r . The C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP was empowered t o

e s t a b l i s h s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s t o t r y c a s e s of p e o p l e

c h a r g e d w i t h t h e s e o f f e n c e s . T h e i r d e t e n t i o n u n d e r t h e

t e r m s of m a r t i a l law was t o b e a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e AFP. The

l i f t i n g of m a r t i a l law h a s l e d t o a r e d u c t i o n of t h e r o l e of

t h e armed f o r c e s o n l y i n s o f a r a s new c a s e s were removed

f rom t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s . E a r l i e r , on

Armed F o r c e s Day, P r e s i d e n t Marcos t o l d t h e t r o o p s t h a t when

mart ia l law had been l i f t e d t h e armed f o r c e s s h o u l d " s t a y i n

p l a c e , c o n t i n u e w i t h your o p e r a t i o n s and a t t a i n y o u r

o b j e c t i v e s . 9 6

While j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t y had s u f f e r e d f rom P r e s i d e n t

H a r c o s ' i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s a t i o n o f m a r t i a l l aw, t h e m i l i t a r y

had become an i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e r f u l f o r c e i n t h e gove rnmen t .

When m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , P r e s i d e n t Harcos had

c a l l e d on t h e armed f o r c e s t o " p r e s e n t o r s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s

of l a w l e s s v i o l e n c e , a s w e l l a s any a c t o f i n s u r r e c t i o n o r

96 Repor t o f an Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e R e p u b l i c of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 11-28 November, 1981 , (London: Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1 8 8 2 ) , p . 1 5 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981)

Page 78: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r e b e l l i o n " . 97 I n l i f t i n g m a r t i a l law he n o t e d t h a t a l t h o u g h

t h e communist i n s u r g e n c y had been " s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d " ,

t h e p u b l i c s a f e t y " c o n t i n u e t o t z q u i r e a d e g r e e of c a p a b i l i t y

t o d e a l a d e q u a t e l y w i t h e l e m e n t s who p e r s i s t i n e n d e a v o u r i n g

t o o v e r t h r o w t h e government by v i o l e n t means . . . 98

A c c o r d i n g l y , he p r o c l a i m e d t h a t " t h e c a l l t o t h e Armed

F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s

v i o l e n c e , i n s u r r e c t i o n , r e b e l l i o n and s u b v e r s i o n " was t o

r ema in i n f o r c e . 99 A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s F i l i p i n o s c o n t i n u e d

t o l i v e u n d e r t h e e f f e c t o f e x t e n d e d m i l i t a r y r u l e .

Over t h e 13 y e a r s f rom 1972 t h e AFP grew t o i n c l u d e

more t h a n 200 ,000 a c t i v e s o l d i e r s , w i t h more t h a n 70 ,080

a d d i t i o n a l armed s o l d i e r s u n d e r its c o n t r o l t h r o u g h a

c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a known as t h e C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e

(CHDF) . The g r o w t h was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e i n c r e a s e d s t r e n g t h o f a g u e r i l l a movement,

t h e New P e o p l e ' s Army (NPA), and i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s f o r

e x p a n s i o n g e n e r a t e d by c o r r u p t and i n e f f i c i e n t m i l i t a r y

comnande r s . The d r a m a t i c g r o w t h of t h e AFP had o c c u r r e d

d u r i n g a p e r i o d when t h e r e h a s been no t h r e a t o f e x t e r n a l

97 P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 1081 (Sep tember 2 1 , 1972)

P r o c l a m a t i o n No. 2045 ( J a n u a r y 1 7 , 1985)

89

Page 79: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

a g g r e s s i o n and t h e c r i s i s was home-grown and s e l f - imposed .

The U.S i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t s a l s o a f f i r m e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

NPA r e c e i v e d no m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t f rom o u t s i d e c o u t r i e s o r

f o r c e s , s u c h a s t h e S o v i e t Union , C h i n a , L i b y a t h e P a l e s t i n e - L i b e r a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n o r Vie tnam. lBO Though t h e

P h i l i p p i n e Armed F o r c e s have s w e l l e d i n l a r g e p a r t i n

r e s p o n s e t o t h e NPA t h r e a t , t h e y had o f t e n s e r v e d t o f u e l

t h e i n s u r g e n t s ' g r o w t h , r a t h e r t h a n s t e m i t . I n many p a r t s

o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , a s u b s t a n t i a l m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e had come

t o b e synonymous w i t h p e r v a s i v e m i l i t a r y a b u s e . Though

c h a r g e d , i n P r e s i d e n t H a r c o s ' s words , t o " s u p p r e s s l a w l e s s

v i o l e n c e " , t h e armed f o r c e s have been r e s p o n s i b l e f b r

t h o u s a n d s of a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t s o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n t s of

t h e gove rnmen t . t h e s e a r r e s t s were o f t e n accompanied by

t o r t u r e and o t h e r f o r m s o f i l l - t r e a t m e n t , a s w e l l a s l o n g

p e r i o d s o f incommunicado d e t e n t i o n w i t h o u t f o r m a l c h a r g e o r

t r i a l .

The phenomenon o f " m i l i t a r i z a t i o n " was i n c r e a s i n g i n '

e a c h and e v e r y f i e l d and i ts c o n s e q u e n c e s were d e p l o r e d by

i n f l u e n t i a l l e a d e r s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i n c l u d i n g s e n i o r

c h u r c h o f f i c i a l s , j u r i s t s and l a w y e r s , e t c . , as well as by

lBO A s q u o t e d i n The Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t - 1985, - . c i t , , p . 2 3 .

Page 80: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

i n t e r n a t i o n a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s . J a i m e s C a r d i n a l

S i n , Roman C a t h o l i c Archb i shop of Man i l a o b s e r v e d :

D a i l y we e x p e r i e n c e t h e i n c r e a s i n g m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of o u r l i v e s : t h e p e r v a s i v e s u r v e i l l a n c e of c i t i z e n s who e x p r e s s d i s s e n t d e m o c r a t i c a l l y by m i l i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e ; t h e l a c k of mercy and p r u d e n c e shown by s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y u n i t s a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d c r i m i n a l s ; The u s e of t o r t u r e t o e x t r a c t i n f o r m a t i o n ' t h e u n e x p e c t e d w e a l t h o f many m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s . i0l

The m i l i t a r y was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l a r g e number of c a s e s

of m i l t a r y a b u s e s . D e s p i t e o f f i c i a l g u i d e l i n e s and

d i r e c t i v e s g i v e n t o t h e m i l i t a r y men, human r i g h t s

v i o l a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t by government a g e n t s .

I n August 1979 , t h e H i n i s t e r o f N a t i o n a l Defence , Juan

Ponce E n r i l e , app roved t h e recommendat ion o f t h e B a r b e r o

Commission a f t e r i t s h e a r i n g i n Davao c i t y , r e q u i r i n g t h e

C h i e f o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP and t h e C h i e f o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

C o n s t a b u l a r y

. . . t o remind a l l s u b o r d i a n t e m i l t a r y / p o l i c e u n i t s t o o b s e r v e a t a l l t i m e s t h e human r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e i r o p e r a t i o n even a s a g a i n s t e n e m i e s of t h e s t a t e ; t h a t p e r s o n s who a r e a r r e s t e d / c a p t u r e d i n o p e r a t i o n s must b e t r e a t e d

lol L e t t e r w r i t t e n by Arch B i s h o p James C a r d i n a l S i n t o Archb i shop John R . Roach, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e of C a t h o l i c B i s h o p s , U n i t e d S t a t e s , (Sep tember 4 , 1 9 8 1 ) .

Page 81: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

w i t h d i g n i t y and i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n s of t h e n o b l e p r o f e s s i o n of arms and t h a t any v i o l a t i o n t h e r e o f w i l l b e a g round f o r d i s m i s s a l from t h e s e r v i c e of t h e o f f e n d i n g p e r s o n n e l w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e t o t h e i 6 2 c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n a s t h e e v i d e n c e may w a r r a n t .

I n A p r i l 1981 t h e C h i e f o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y ,

G e n e r a l F i d e l V . Ramos, was r e p o r t e d t o have i s s u e d

g u i d e l i n e s t o law e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c i a l s on s e l f - d e f e n c e i n

r e s p o n s e t o w i d e s p r e a d r e p o r t s o f a r b i t r a r y k i l l i n g s by s u c h

o f f i c i a l s . A summary of t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s r e a d s :

1. The o n l y j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r law e n f o r c e s t o k i l l c r i m i n a l s is s e l f d e f e n c e which can o n l y be , r e s o r t e d t o when t h e r i s k of s u b d u i n g them p e a c e f u l l y w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e d e a t h of law e n f o r c e s o r c i t i z e n s ;

2 . The p r i m a r y d u t y u n d e r t h e c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e s y s t e m is t o a r r e s t o f f e n d e r s and i n i t i a t e c o u r t a c t i o n a g a i n s t them . . . The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y w i l l n o t t e l e r a t e lawmen becoming p r o s e c u t o r s , j u d g e s and e x e c u t o r s of o f f e n d e r s ;

3 . A l l c a s e s of e n c o u n t e r s w i t h c r i m i n a l s b e i n g a r r e s t e d o r e s c a p i n g p r i s o n e r s a s a m a t t e r o f s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e , sha]bgbe c o v e r e d by a u t o p s y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e p o r t s .

lo2 Q u o t e d i n Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on P h i l i p p i n e s 1981 , ~ ~ ~ c i t , , P . 1 8 .

Page 82: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

- 2 2 3 -

D e s p i t e s u c h o f f i c i a l g u i d e l i n e s and d i r e c t i v e s ,

m i l i t a r i z a t i o n was i n c r e a s i n g . Human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s s u c h

~ : ~ ~ m m n r y s x ~ c ~ t t i o n n , m n s s n c r e s nnd " d i s p p e n r ~ ~ i c e s " w h e r e

t h e v i c t i m s a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e d e a d , a l l a l l e g e d l y c a r r i e d

o u t by m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l . The r o l e o f t h e armed f o r c e s i n

w h a t had t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n c i v i l i a n matters was e x p a n d e d

w i t h t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f m a r t i a l law.

S t r u c t u r e of t h e AFP

The AFP c o n s i s t o f f o u r m a j o r s e r v i c e s : t h e Army,

Navy, A i r F o r c e a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y . A large

c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a , known a s t h e C i v i l a i n Home D e f e n c e F o r c e

a l s o o p e r a t e d u n d e r t h e o s t e n s i b l e command o f o f t h e AFP.

A l l o f t h e s e f o r c e s w e r e i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r t h e M i n i s t r y o f

D e f e n c e , a n d a l l were i n v o l v e d i n c o m b a t o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t

t h e N e w P e o p l e ' s Army, Muslim i n s u r g e n t s , a n d o t h e r g r o u p s

i n t h e c o u n t r y o p p o s i n g a u t h o r i t a r i a n r e g i m e o f M a r c o s .

(a) T h e P h i l i p p i n e s C o n s t a b u l a r y (PC)

The PC, o r i g i n a l l y named t h e I n s u l a r P o l i c e F o r c e was

f o u n d e d by t h e U.S c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n 1901 as a law

e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c y t o m a i n t a i n p e a c e a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . A s s u c h , i t r a t h e r t h a n t h e l o c a l p o l i c e ,

o v e r w h i c h t h e PC t h e n had s u p e r v i s o r y p o w e r s , u n d e r t o o k a l l

Page 83: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

STRUCTURE OF ARMED FORCES OF THE PHIL1 PPINE.5 : 1984

J . , I

1 PHlU WINES PHIL1 PPlNES PHILIPPINES PHILI PPINES COWTA~ULARY * m y N4vy A I R fbPLE

I o r 'i

I b n s t a b ~ l a r ~ Skurity Units (CSU S) - Criminal lnvesti atim Services (CIS) a

Sprid 1 O p r a t i c ~ s Groups (SO-) Constabulary An&- narr&cs uwi ts CCANU)

U.S. PHILIPPINE MILI THKY PSSISTM~ 'rrilin,n A61REEMENT (MA& A4viLe PRESIOENT14L SECURITY

- I - ~ o n ~ ~ l b u b v q &-shore Anti-Crime L4rrl.t-s 1

I

PRESIDENT -0s

Souwe: Philippine k t i w , Lppo* &mupi Documents : Ausballiu, ,q&.

COMMAND C P S ~

- Civic A c t i o n P3rammes I (CAP)

Page 84: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

b u t r o u t i n e law e n f o r c e m e n t d u t i e s i n c l u d i n g t h e s u p p r e s s i o n

o f d i s s i d e n t movements . A l t h o u g h c h a r g e d w i t h c i v i l i a n

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

t h e i n t e r i o r , i t was o r g a h i s e d a l o n g m i l i t a r y l i n e s and i ts

members s u b j e c t t o m i l i t a r y d i s c i p l i n e .

Between 1 9 3 5 a n d 1 9 5 0 , t h e PC u n d e r w e n t s e v e r a l p h a s e s

o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m a n d i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h p o l i c e a n d m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . I n J u l y 1 9 5 0 , i t was f u l l y merged w i t h t h e

AFP a n d p l a c e d u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e , a s t a t u s w h i c h i t h a d r e t a i n e d e v e r s i n c e .

I n 1 9 7 5 , by P r e s i d e n t i a l Decree (PD) No. 7 6 5 , t h e I n t e g r a t e d

N a t i o n a l P o l i c e ( I N P ) was e s t a b l i s h e d , c o m p r i s i n g t h e PC as

i ts n u c l e u s a n d t h e i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c e f o r c e s a s c o m p o n e n t s ,

t o f u n c t i o n d i r e c t l y u n d e r t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f N a t i o n a l

D e f e n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e INP was n o t p a r t o f t h e AFP, PD No.

7 6 5 p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e PC would r e m a i n a m a j o r s e r v i c e o f

t h e AFP. T h e d u t i e s o f t h e PC u n d e r mar t ia l law w e r e

o f f i c i a l l y d e f i n e d as c o m p r i s i n g " g e n e r a l p o l i c e d u t i e s " ;

" m i s c e l l a n e o u s p o l i c e d u t i e s " a s a s s i g n e d b y e x p l i c i t

p r o v i s i o n o f l a w , by d i r e c t i o n o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , by

d e p u t a t i o n a n d b y r e q u e s t w h i c h i n c l u d e e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e

A n t i - S u b v e r s i o n law; " s p e c i a l d u t i e s " , i n c l u d i n g g e n e r a l

s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e p o l i c e f o r c e s ; " n a t i o n a l d e f e n c e

Page 85: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

d u t i e s " , i n c l u d i n g p r o v i d i n g " r e a r a r e a s e c u r i t y and damage

c o n t r o l d u r i n g war" and b u i l d i n g up i t s R e s e r v e F o r c e d u r i n g

p e a c e t i m e " ; and " m a r t i a l law d u t i e s : , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e

" e n f o r c e m e n t and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c r e e s ,

" I n t h e 13 G e n e r a l o r d e r s and l e t t e r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

y e a r s p e r i o d s i n c e m a r t i a l law was d e c l a r e d , t h e PC had been

d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y d u t i e s ; combat

d u t i e s i n s u p p r e s s i n g movements a i m i n g a t t h e armed

o v e r t h r o w of t h e gove rnmen t ; t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of d e t a i n e e s

a r r e s t e d by members of t h e armed f o r c e s , t h e p o l i c e and

o f f i c i a l s d e s i g n e d t o make a r r e s t s u n d e r t h e m a r t i a l law

p r o v i s i o n s ; S u p e r v i s i o n of t h e I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home

Defence F o r c e (ICHDF), t h e c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a which had

g r e a t l y expanded s i n c e 1972 t o a s s i s t t h e AFP i n its law

e n f o r c e m e n t r o l e ; and t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of m u n i c i p a l and l o c a l

f o r c e s . The w i d e - r a n g i n g powers of t h e PC s i n c e t h e

p r o c l a m a t i o n of m a r t i a l law t h e r e f o r e spanned m i l i t a r y ,

i n t e l l i g e n c e and p o l i c i n g r o l e s o s t e n s i b l y d i r e c t e d a t

s u p p r e s s i n g t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n which o c c a s i o n e d m a r t i a l l aw.

I n a r e a s where t h e armed f o r c e s were engaged i n

r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l s o f combat w i t h t h e NPA o r t h e HNLF,

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981, w . c i L , p . 2 0 .

Page 86: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t h e y were o r g a n i s e d i n t o s p e c i a l m i l i t a r y commands: I n

a d d i t i o n s p e c i a l u n i t s were a c t i v e which a l t h o u g h somet imes

a c t i n g i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h r e g u l a r p r o v i n c i a l commands,

were d i r e c t l y a c c o u n t a b l e t o r e g i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n p r o v i n c i a l

commanders o r d i r e c t l y t o c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s i n M a n i l a .

These u n i t s were ; I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s : S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s ,

s u c h a s t h e Long Range P a t r o l o f t h e PC and A i r b o r n e U n i t s

o f t h e army; and Task F o r c e s c o m p r i s i n g PC and army

p e r s o n n e l .

Over t h e y e a r s PC had come t o be r e g a r d e d a s one of t h e

a b u s i v e p a r t n e r s o f AFP. T e s t i m o n i e s f rom v i c t i m s o f human

r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s f rom a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y , s h a r e t h e PC

f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n a c c o u n t s of b r u t a l i t y and o f f i c i a l

v i o l e n c e , o f t e n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s . 105

(b) I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s

S i n c e t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l l aw, t h e r e had been a

p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y u n i t s empowered

t o a r r e s t and d e t a i n p e o p l e s u s p e c t e d of o f f e n c e s r e l a t i n g

t o n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . The main c o - o r d i n a t i n g body o f t h i s

The r e s e a r c h e r had o b t a i n e d f i r s t hand i n f o r m a t i o n f rom d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n .

Page 87: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

d e p a r t m e n t was t h e N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y

A u t h o r i t y (NISA); I t s D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l was t h e t h e n C h i e f

o f S t a f f o f t h e AFP, G e n e r a l F a b i a n . When F a b i a n was t h e

D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l o f NISA, t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d of h i s t r i a l

i n c o n n e c t i n w i t h t h e Aquino murder c a s e he was o f f i c i a l l y

on l e a v e and r e p o r t e d l y c o n t i n u e d t o e x e r t c o n s i d e r a b l e

i n f l u e c n e o v e r d a y - t o - d a y a f f a i r s i n NISA. P r e s i d e n t i a l

D i r e c t i v e No. 1498 , d e s c r i b e d NISA a s " t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r

d i r e c t i o n , c o - o r d i a n t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n of government

.. 107 a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v i n g n a t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e and s e c u r i t y .

I n a d d i t i o n t o i t s c o - o r d i n a t i n g f u n c t i o n , NISA h a s i t s own

a g e n t s i n t h e f i e l d who a r r e s t , d e t a i n and i n t e r r o g a t e

a l l e g e d p o l i t i c a l o f f e n d e r s . NISA was f o r m a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e

t o t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and i ts

Chai rman, P r e s i d e n t Marcos . 108

Under NISA t h e r e a r e t h e AFP i n t e l l i g e n c e u n i t s and

t h e C i v i l I n t e l l i g e n c e S e c u r i t y A u t h o r i t y (CISA) -

c o m p r i s i n g v a s t i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n t h e m s e l v e s . These

were made up of t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n t h e m s e l v e s .

L a w y e r s , Commit tee R e p o r t , oo.cit., p . 2 8 .

P .D.No.1498, ( N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code)

108 bid.

Page 88: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

These were made up o f t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s of t h e AFP

(ISAFP) w i t h a l l i t s f i e l d u n i t s , and t h e H i l i t a r y

I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIG) , u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l e y e s of

JUSHAG.

The P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y a l s o h a s i ts i n t e l l i g e n c e

network-CSUS ( C o n s t a b u l a r y S e c u r i t y U n i t s ) , CIS ( C r i m i n a l

I n v e s t i g a t i o n S e r v i c e ) , SOGS ( S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s G r o u p s ) ,

CANU ( C o n s t a b u l a r y A n t i - N a r c o t i c s U n i t s ) COSAC ( C o n s t a b u l a r y

O f f - S h a r e Ant i -Cr ime U n i t s ) , e t c . The army, navy and

a i r f o r c e a l l have t h e i r own a d d i t i o n a l n e t w o r k s and f i e l d

u n i t s . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e v e r y l i f e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t

h i m s e l f i s t h e PSU - P r e s i d e n t i a l S e c u r i t y U n i t .

The i n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s were c o - o r d i a n t e d by NISA,

which had been most f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d were t o have

a r r e s t e d d e t a i n e d and i n t e r r o g a t e d s u s p e c t s engaged i n

p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . I n 1985 t h e U.S b a s e d Lawyers

Commit tee f o r Human R i g h t s d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e y had r e c e i v e d

r e p o r t s o f human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s commit ted by a number of

o t h e r i n t e l l e g e n c e u n i t s t h a t o p e r a t e u n d e r t h e co-

o r d i a n t i o n of NISA, w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e I n t e l l e g e n c e S e r v i c e

of t h e AFP, whose o p e r a t i n g u n i t s a r e known a s H i l i t a r y

I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIGS); t h e P C ' s & I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e

( C 2 ) , whose o p e r a t i n g u n i t s c a l l e d R e g i o n a l S e c u r i t y U n i t s

Page 89: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

(HSUS o r HZ5), i n c l u d e t h e P C ' s Metro Man i l a Command .-

Metrocom I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y G r a s p (MISG); o t h e r PC

u n i t s , i n c l u d i n g i t s C r i m i n a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n S e r v i c e ( C I S ) ;

and Army I n t e l l i g e n c e U n i t s r e f e r r e d t o a s G2, whose

o p e r a t i n g g r o u p s a r e c a l l e d M i l i t a r y S e c u r i t y U n i t s

(MSUs). 109

A l l o f t h e s e f o r c e s a r e empowered t o a r r e s t and d e t a i n

p e r s o n s s u s p e c t e d o f i n v o l v e m e n t i n n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y

o f f e n c e s . I t is i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u c h c a s e s t h a t a l a r g e

number of v i o l a t i o n s o c c u r r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e i n i t i a l

p e r i o d a f t e r a r r e s t when s o - c a l l e d " t a c t i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n "

is c o n d u c t e d . I n a number of i n s t a n c e s , p e o p l e have

d i s a p p e a r e d a f t e r b e i n g a b d u c t e d by i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s ,

l a t e r t o r e a p p e a r i n t h e c u s t o d y of m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s .

( c ) S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s .

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f rom

11 t o 28 November 1981 l e a r n e d of t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a number

of S p e c i a l Combat U n i t s o n l y l o o s e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e

r e g u l a r c h a i r o f command whose a c t i v i t i e s had g i v e n ground

Lawyer s ' Commit tee R e p o r t , m . c i t . , p . 2 9 .

Page 90: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

f o r c o n c e r n . 'I0 These i n c l u d e d t h e PC, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Army ( P A ) and Compos i t e Task F o r c e s a s s i g n e d t o p r o v i n c i a l ,

r e g i o n a l o r S p e c i a l Commands, whose u n i t s o f t e n a p p r e a r e d t o

be a c c o u n t a b l e o n l y t o t h e i r commanders. O t h e r g r o u p s s u c h

a s Task F o r c e Kan laon , Task F o r c e L o r r o , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

Army Task F o r c e Agusan, F i r s t Composi t I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n ,

e t c . a l s o were f u n c t i o n i n g from d i f f e r e n t a r e a s and

i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e p r o c e s s of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n .

(d) The I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e ( I D H D F )

The ICHDF o p e r a t e d a s a c i v i l i a n m i l i t i a t h r o u g h o u t

t h e c o u n t r y u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e o f f i c e of t h e

I n t e g r a t e d C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s

C o n s t a b u l a r y . The members o f t h e ICHDF were r e c r u i t e d

m o s t l y f rom c r i m i n a l s and t h e p e r s o n a l b o d y g u a r d s o f l o c a l l y

p o w e r f u l p e o p l e . Ano the r s o u r c e of r e c r u i t m e n t was f rom t h e

members oP i r r e g u a l r q u a s i - m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s

o r c r i m i n a l g r o u p s . T h e r e were d i s t u r b i n g a l l e g a t i o n s

a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of ICHDF r e c r u i t s and t h e i r l a c k of

t r a i n i n g s and i n a d e q u a t e d i s c i p l i n a r y m e a s u r e s e x a c e r b a t e d

t h e p rob lem. Once r e c r u i t e d , ICHDF members were g i v e n arms

and were e s s e n t i a l l y l e t l o o s e t o o p e r a t e a s a f r o n t - l i n e

'I0 Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t on t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981 , p . 2 3 .

Page 91: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

f i g h t i n g a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e . ICHDF members were m o s t l y

l o c a l r e s i d e n t s i n a r e a s w h e r e t h e i n s u r g e n c y was s t r o n g .

T h e y were o f t e n u s e d as i n f o r m a n t s t o i d e n t i f y

" s u b v e r s i v e s " . B e c a u s e t h e ICHDF is a n " i n t e g r a t e d " f o r c e ,

h o w e v e r , i t s u n i t s may b e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m o n e area t o

a n o t h e r . When c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n s t a p r r t i c u l a r u n i t s t a r t e d

t o m o u n t , t h a t u n i t was o f t e n s i m p l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n o t h e r

a r ea . 11 1

The ICHDF was m o d e l l e d a f t e r t h e C i v i l i a n G u a r d s u s e d

b y t h e P h i l i p p i n e m i l i t a r y t o s u p p r e s s t h e "Huk" r e b e l l i o n

i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s . I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e s e c o u n t e r -

i n s u r g e n c y e f f o r t t h e C i v i l i a n G u a r d s were known f o r t h e i r

b r u t a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n . T h e ICHDF

a g a i n s t a r t e d d u r i n g t h e mar t i a l law p e r i o d , h a d g rown

i m m e n s e l y a n d o p e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . On a

n a t i o n a l l e v e l t h e r e was a n o f f i c e o f t h e ICHDF w i t h i n t h e

c o n s t a b u l a r y . A t t h e l o c a l l e v e l ICHDF g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e d

u n d e r t h e d i r e c t command o f t h e l o c a l PC d e t a c h m e n t

commander . O f t e n ICHDF u n i t s work c l o s e l y w i t h o t h e r

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r e g u l a r a r m y . T h e r e are a l s o

r e p o r t s t h a t ICHDF u n i t s c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h some o t h e r

L a w y e r s ' C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t , n o . c i t . , p . 3 2 .

Page 92: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

g r ~ v o r r ~ m e r ~ L a l o f f i c e s , s u c h a s t.he o t ' f i r r o f t . 1 1 ~ I ' r e s i d e r ~ t i ~ l

A s s i s t a n t on N a t i o n a l M i n o r i t i e s (PANAMIN). PANAMIN

e s t a b l i s h e d t r i b a l s e t t l e m e n t s i n a r e a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e NPA i n s u r g e n c y was

s t r o n g . 112

I n some c a s e s ICHDF members commit ted random v i o l e n c e i n

r e s p o n s e t o v i o l e n c e commit ted by New P e o p l e ' s Army. On

numerous o c c a s i o n s ICHDF i n s e a r c h o f s u s p e c t e d s u b v e r s i v e s

had l e f t non-combatan t c i v i l i a n s d e a d i n t h e i r wake. But

t h e m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s j u s t i f i e d t h e a c t i o n of t h e ICHDF a s

" s e l f - d e f e n c e " .

A g r o u p o f o p p o s i t i o n members o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e

N a t i o n a l Assembly ( B a t a s a n g Pambansa) f i l e d a r e s o l u t i o n on

A p r i l 27 , 1985 c a l l i n g f o r t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e ICHDF.

C i t i n g what t h e y te rmed " g r a v e a c t s o f i n j u s t i c e " , t h e

r e s o l u t i o n c h a r g e d :

The ICHDFs, o r g a n i s e d by v a r i o u s u n i t s o f t h e AFP have c a u s e d u n t o l d m i s e r i e s t o t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n Qy t h e i r a b u s e s and c o n t i n u i n g a c t s o f i n j u s t i c e . 11

Ibid., p . 3 8 .

Halava, ( M a n i l a ) , A p r i l 28, 1985

Page 93: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

A s a r e s u l t o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n move t h e Defence M i n i s t e r

E n r i l e had o r d e r e d n e x t d a y a " t o p - l e v e l - commit tee" t o

r e a s s e s s t h e o v e r a l l c o n c e p t o f ICHDF a c t i v i t i e s . The

c o m m i t t e e , headed by t h e t h e n Deputy Defence M i n i s t e r J o s e

C r i s o l , is t o examine t h e r e c r u i t m e n t , t r a i n i n g , d i s c i p l i n e ,

o p e r a t i o n a l u t i l i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e ICHDF programme.

C r i s o l a s p e c i a l i s t i n c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s , had

d e s c r i b e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e ICHDF a s " v e r y s o u n d " . 114

On t h e same d a y , P r e s i d e n t Harcos d e l i v e r e d a s p e e c h

a t t a c k i n g t h e p r o p o s a l t o a b o l i s h t h e ICHDF and he warned

o p p o s i t i o n l e a d e r s t h a t he viewed t h e p r o p o s a l a s "an

i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e New p e o p l e ' s Army, t h e m i l i t a r y arm of

t h e CPP, was g o i n g t o be u s e d i n t h e coming e l e c t i o n s . 115

P r e s i d e n t Harcos d i d n o t r e s p o n d t o c r i t i c i s m s o f ICHDF

a b u s e s , n o r d i d he e x p r e s s any c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e need t o

improve r e c r u i t m e n t o r t r a i n i n g o f t h e s e f o r c e s . .

T h e r e were t r emendous p u b l i c o u t c r y o v e r t h e inhuman

a c t i v i t i e s of ICHDF and r e s p o n s i b l e human r i g h t s

o r g a n i s a t i o n s c h a r g e d t h a t t h e ICHDF became " i n s t r u m e n t s of

U e t i n w, ( M a n i l a ) , A p r i l 29 , 1985

Page 94: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t e r r o r r a t h e r t h a n p e a c e " , t h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e ICHDF be

a b o l i s h e d .

(e) I r r e g u l a r P a r a m i l i a t a r y F a n a t i c g r o u p s

C e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s were a l l e g e d l y

a c t i n g w i t h o f f i c i a l a p p r o v a l o f AFP. The Army was a r m i n g ,

m o t i v a t i n g and s u p p o r t i n g r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s f o r

c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y p u r p o s e s . D e s p i t e s t r o n g p r o t e s t a g a i n s t

i n t e g r a t i n g n o t o r i o u s g r o u p s i n t o t h e p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e s

and a rming i r r e g u a l r armed g r o u p s by t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e

p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u e d i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , Many of t h e g r o u p s

have f i g u r e d i n some s i g n i f i c a n t c a s e s of k i l l i n g s and

m a s s a c r e s and had n o t o r i o u s r e c o r d s of m u t i l a t i o n of dead

b o d i e s . The I l a g a s ( R a t s ) , a f a n a t i c a l g r o u p armed and

t r a n i n e d by t h e m i l i t a r y a g a i n s t t h e MNLF i n mid 7 0 ' s were

r e p o r t e d l y a c t i v e a g a i n i n many p a r t s o f C o t a t i a t o and

Zamboanga d e l S u r . The P e o p l e ' s L i b e r a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n

(PLO) was a g r o u p of f o r m e r MNLF r e b e l s who s u r r e n d e r e d t o

t h e government and i t s members were a l l o w e d a g a i n t o c a r r y

a rms and o p e r a t e a s a g r o u p . U n l i k e o t h e r r e l i g i o u s

f a n a t i c a l g r o u p s , t h e PLO was a p a r a m i l i t a r y g r o u p armed and

s p o n s o r e d by t h e m i l i t a r y . 116

116 ~,imer on -, . . ( M a n i l a : Ecumenica l

Movement f o r J u s t i c e and P e a c e ) , p.16.

Page 95: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

S i m i l a r t o t h e PLO is t h e ' L o s t Command', a n o t o r i o u s

p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e which o p e r a t e d as a c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y

t eam. T h i s ' L o s t Command' f i g u r e d i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c o n t r o v e r s y when i t was employed by a B r i t i s h - f u n d e d

a g r i b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e ( t h e NDC - G u t h r i e C o r p o r a t i o n ) i n 1983

a s i t s s e c u r i t y u n i t . The . L o s t Command, had been

engaged i n e x t o r t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , k i l l i n g s o f t r a d e u n i o n i s t s

and r e b e l s y m p a t h i s e r s , e t c .

Some of t h e f a n a t i c a l r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s s u p p o r t e d by t h e

m i l i t a r y were i d e n t i f i e d a s I I a g a ( R a t s ) , Four Ks, P a t i k s of

Bukiduon, R u r a l R e f o r m i s t Movement, Rock C h r i s t , P h i l i p p i n e s

B e n e v e l e n t M i s s i o n a r i e s A s s o c i a t i o n , Bagong J e r u s a l e m ,

P i n i l i n g Nasud ( c h o s e n p e o p l e ) , P a t a n y Buhi ( P i e and L i v e ) ,

Alpha Omega, L i k u s - L i k o s , Ka tyaan , S a n t a Lana , Doce P a r e s

( 1 2 p a i r s ) , P c i n g y a p a l k ( B a r e f o o t e d P C ) , e t c . 11* These

g r o u p s were r e p o r t e d t o be r e l i g i o u s p o l i t i c a l o r c r i m i n a l

i n c h a r a c t e r an i n some c a s e s e x h i b i t e d a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They o p e r a t e d w i t h t h e s a n c t i o n of

gove rnmen t .

Page 96: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

P h i l i p p i n e s : a N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y S t a t e

S e c u r i t y can b e u n d e r s t o o d e i t h e r as t h e c a p a c i t y o f a

s t a t e t o c o n f r o n t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s t o i ts o r d e r

o r a s " p r o t e c t i n g t h e p e o p l e s f rom t h r e a t " . The f i r s t

p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e s t a t e and t h e

s econd on t h e s e c u r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s . 119 From t h e

P h i l i p p i n e e x p e r i e n c e we can c l e a r l y come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n

t h a t P r e s i d e n t Marcos imposed m a r t i a l law and p r o p a g a t e d t h e

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i s s u e s m a i n l y t o j u s t i f y h i s a c t i o n s . I n

o r d e r t o s u p p r e s s w i d e s p r e a d o p p o s i t o n t o g r o w i n g

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , c o r r u p t i o n , t h e p r e s e n c e o f U.S b a s e s .

i n c r e a s i n g f o r e i g n c o n t r o l o f t h e economy and o t h e r f o r m s

o f o p p o s i t i o n , Marcos used t h e m i l i t a r y . M a r t i a l l aw, and

t h e m a s s i v e m i l t a r y c a n p a i g n s which f o l l o w e d , were j u s t i f i e d

l a r g e l y b e c a u s e t h e government p e r c e i v e d t h e Communist P a r t y

of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , i t s m i l i t a r y wing New P e o p l e ' s Army

(NPA) and t h e Muslim s e c e s s i o n i s t g r o u p Moro N a t i o n a l

L i b e r a t i o n F r o n t (MNLF), a s p r i m e t h r e a t t o n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y a v e r y s m a l l

p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n . Dur ing t h e p e r i o d between t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of m a r t i a l law and i ts " l i f t i n g " i n 1981 , more

J . A . V i e r a - G a l l o , " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y D o c t r i n e s and t h e i r impac t on M i l i t a r i s m and Human R i g h t s " ,

R i m , (Geneva : World C o u n c i l o f C h u r c h e s , 1 9 8 2 ) , p . 2 9 .

Page 97: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

L ha11 tiUU,UUU F i 1 i p i r ~ o c i L i z e n s w e r e n r r e s L e d a r ~ d

i m p r i s i o n e d w i t h o u t t r i a l o r c h a r g e s - u s u a l l y o n l y on

s u s p i c i o n o f s u b v e r s i v e a c t i v i t i e s - a w i d e l y i n t e r p r e t e d

120 n o t i o n , commonly c o n n e c t e d w i t h " N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y

T h e o r y . "

Marcos j u s t i f i e d h i s c a l l i n g o n t h e m i l i t a r y t o

m a i n t a i n law a n d o r d e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t o

p r e v e n t a n d s u p p r e s s a l l f o r m s o f lawless v i o l e n c e as wel l

a s a n y a c t o f i n s u r r e c t i o n o r r e b e l l i o n , a n d t o e n f o r c e

o b e d i e n c e t o a l l t h e l a w s , d e c r e e s , o r d e r s a n d r e g u a l a t i o n s ,

p r o m u l g a t e d by h i m . To c a r r y t h e s e o u t , a programme o f

r a p i d e x p a n s i o n o f t h e AFP was i n i t i a t e d , t h e g r e a t e r

p r o p o r t i o n o f f u n d s f o r w h i c h came f r o m U.S m i l i t a r y

a s s i s t a n c e . Under t h e U.S - R.P M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e

Agreement (MAA) 1 9 4 7 , t h e U . S f u r n i s h e s :

. . . m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s i n t h e t r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e armed f o r c e s a n d i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o t h e r s e r v i c e s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s w h i c h may d e v o l v e upon t h e R e p u b l i c o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s u n d e r i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s i n c l u d i n g c o m m i t m e n t s

120 . . . RePr- , (London:

KSP, 1 9 8 1 ) , p . 9 . ( M o n o g r a p h ) .

Page 98: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

I I ! I ! I I I~ I ( * (~ I I I N 1111(1 t o t . t ~ n mn 1 oItnll(on 011

p e a c e and s e c u r i t y of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . 111

The p r o v i s i o n s s p e c i f y t h e p r o c u r e m e n t of arms and

ammunit ion and o t h e r s u p p l i e s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , t r a i n i n g and

i n s t r u c t i o n o f s e l e c t e d s t u d e n t s i n t h e U . S , and

d i s c l o s u r e and e x c h a n g e s of c l a s s i f i e d m i l i t a r y equipment

and i n f o r m a t i o n o f s e c u r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s . The M i l i t a r y

A s s i s t a n c e Agreement a l s o g o v e r n e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s of JUSMAG,

t h e J o i n t U.S M i l i t a r y Adv i so ry Group which e x t e n d e d

s t r a t e g i c s t a f f d i r e c t i o n , l o g i s t i c s , t r a i n i n g and

i n t e l l i g e n c e c o - o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e Armed F o r c e s of t h e

P h i l i p p i n e s - t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e AFP . . . 122

A t t h e t i m e o f t h e 1972 e x p a n s i o n programme, U.S M i l i t a r y

a s s i s t a n c e s t o o d a t U.S $20 m i l l i o n . I t jumped s e v e n t i m e s

s i n c e t h e n t o U.S $ 1 4 0 . 1 m i l l i o n i n 1982 . 1 2 3

P r i o r t o 1972 t h e r e were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 32 ,000 men

a c t i v e i n t h e AFP. The r e g u l a r f o r c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e

P h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y and t h e I n t e g r a t e d N a t i o n a l P o l i c e

(INP) numbered 230 ,000 i n 1977 . The e x p a n s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d

M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e Agreement ( P r e a m b l e ) i n T r e a t y S e r i e s , Vol.1, p . 1 6 1 , c i t e d i n Roland S imbu lan , our, (Quezon C i t y : BALAI F e l l o w s h i p , I n c . , 1 9 8 5 . )

Roland S imbu lan , U, p . 8 2

L b i . L , p . 2 3 2 .

Page 99: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

an a p p r o x i m a t e 700 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e f rom p r e - m a r t i a l law

s t r e n g t h . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e 1 2 4 , 0 0 0 R e s e r v e F o r c e s of

t h e army, navy and a i r f o r c e . The p a r a m i l i t a r y , I n t e g r a t e d

C i v i l i a n Home Defence F o r c e (ICHDF) was 7 5 , 4 9 9 and y o u t h s

who had unde rgone o r who were u n d e r g o i n g b a s i c and advanced

m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s and b a r a n g a y b r i g a d e s e m i n a r s ,

numbered 3 9 2 , 4 0 0 . 124

Defence m i n i s t e r J u a n Ponce E n r i l e made it more c l e a r

t h a t " . . . i t now c o s t s t h e government&' 5 p e r b u l l e t f i r e d by

a s o l d i e r , P 1 5 , 0 0 0 p e r hour f o r g a s o l i n e t o s e n d one p l a n e

on a m i s s i o n , and P 300 ,000 m i l l i o n t o buy one f i g h t e r

p l a n e . . . " 125 P u t i t a n o t h e r way, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was

s p e n d i n g on d e f e n c e U.S $ 17 p e r c i t i z e n p e r y e a r o r 14

p e r c e n t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t s t o t a l b u d g e t . The a p p r o p r i a t i o n

f o r t h e m i l i t a r y was 4' 8 . 3 b i l l i o n i n 1 9 8 3 . 126 T h a t was

a d d i t i o n a l t o U . S m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e , and complementary

l o g i s t i c a l m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t f rom A u s t r a l i a and some o t h e r

European g o v e r n m e n t s .

A s q u o t e d i n . .

s M i l i t a r v Aid t o t h e . . v, ( C a n b e r r a : ACFOA, 1 9 8 6 ) , p . 5 .

S imbu lan , a ~ . c i t . , p . 2 4 6 .

Page 100: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

The AFP was f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by P h i l i p p i n e s e c u r i t y

a g e n c i e s u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f t h e F e d e r a t i o n of I n d u s t r i a l

S e c u r i t y O r g a n i s a t i o n s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . And a l s o t h e r e

were t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s . The U.S invo lvemen t i n

P h i l i p p i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e o p e r a t i o n s had been e x t e n s i v e .

P o s t - m a r t i a l law c a s e s o f d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t

i n t e r f e r e n c e have been r e g u l a r s i n c e 1972 . S p e c i a l F o r c e s

(Green B e r e t s ) have c o n d u c t e d m i s s i o n i n d i s s i d e n t a r e a s .

C I A a g e n t s , v e t e r a n s of t h e Indo-China campa ign , had been

a s s i g n e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s as USAID p r o v i n c i a l a d v i s e r s .

U.S F o r c e s s t a t i o n e d i n t h e U.S B a s e s have a l s o been u s e d

i n c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y programmes d i s g u i s e d as ' C i v i l A c t i o n

Programmes' (CAP) and ' P r o f e s s i o n a l Development Programmes'

(PDP) - c o - o r d i n a t i n g c l o s e l y w i t h P h i l i p p i n e i n t e l l i g e n c e

and AFP. The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code (NSC) was s i g n e d i n

1978 and i t s s u p p l e m e n t , t h e P u b l i c O r d e r Act (POA) i n 1980 ,

but, n0i t .h - r w p r p ~ u b l i r ~ l y announced u n t i l t h ~ ' l i f t i n d ' of

m a r t i a l l aw , on 17 J a n u a r y , 1 9 8 1 . lZ8 The J u r i s d i c t i o n o f

t h e s e laws was f a r - r e a c h i n g . Under t h e NSC, a n y t h i n g

127 ACFOA documen t , w . c i t ,, p . 5 .

128 B o n i f a c i o H . G i l l e g o , "The i n v i s i b l e army o f Marcos d i c t a t o r s h i p " , JsUhy~, J u n e 5, 1981 , p . 1 .

Page 101: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

c r i t i c a l o f and i n i m i c a l t o t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t , f rom

rumour - monger ing t o s u b v e r s i o n as s u b j e c t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d

o r d e f i n e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t , was c o n s i d e r e d a c r i m e a g a i n s t

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and p u b l i c o r d e r . I n p r a c t i c e , t h e

d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h c r i m e s i n c l u d e d p r e v e n t i v e d e t e n t i o n ,

t a c t i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n ( a euphemism f o r t o r t u r e ) i n a

' s a f e h o u s e ' and ' s a l v a g i n g ' . The N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y Code

p r o v i d e d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s w i t h immunity f rom law

s u i t s .

G e n e r a l F a b i a n Ver , was e n t r u s t e d w i t h t h e

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and he was a p p o i n t e d a s t h e D i r e c t o r - G e n e r a l

o f N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y A u t h o r i t y . NISA was

t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e d i r e c t i o n , c o - o r d i n a t i o n and

i n t e g r a t i o n of a l l t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r c e s , u n d e r t h e

w a t c h f u l e y e of JUSHAG. 12' Under NISA, t h e r e were t h e AFP

i n t e l l i g e n c e u n i t s and t h e C i v i l I n t e l l i g e n c e S e c u r i t y

A u t h o r i t y (CISA) - c o m p r i s i n g v a s t i n t e l l i g e n c e complexes i n

t h e m s e l v e s . These were made up o f t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s

of t h e AFP (ISAFP) w i t h a l l i t s f i e l d u n i t s , and t h e

M i l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e Groups (HIG).

ACFOA documen t , ~ ~ . c i t . , p . 5

Page 102: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

About t h e M i l i t a r y o f f i c e r e n t r u s t e d w i t h s u c h

f o r m i d a b l e a u t h o r i t y one w r i t e r h a s commented,

Even d u r i n g t h e d a y o f h i s power , H i t l e r was n o t a b l e t o c e n t r a l i s e and p u t u n d e r one c o n t r o l , a s H a r c o s h a s done i n t h e c a s e of v e r , a l l o f germ any.^ i n t e l l e g e n c e and s e c u r i t y a g e n c i e s l i k e t h e SA, t h e SS, t h e G e s t a p o , t h e ABWEHR and Admira l C a n a r i s ' e s p i o n a g e . . . " I n a l l l o c a l and n a t i o n a l government o f f i c e s , i n a l l s c h o o l s , i n a l l c r i t i c a l s e c t o r s o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y , i n t h e b a r r a n g a y s , t h i s s e c r e t army h a s i ts p e n e t r a t i o n a g e n t s , o p e r a t i v e s and i n f o r m a n t s , v i r t u a l l y s e r v i n g a s t h e e y e s and ears of t h e d i c t a t o r . . . t h e y have e n v e l o p e d o u r h a p l e s s and i n an a t m o s p h e r e of t e r r o r , a c l i m a t e o f f e a r , cowigg o u r p e o p l e i n t o a s t a t e o f a b j e c t s u b m i s s i o n . . .

Groups s u c h as t h e in famous ' L o s t Command', compr i sed of

e x - c r i m i n a l s and demoted army o f f i c e r s , c a r r i e d o u t

l i q u i d a t i o n campa igns o r ' s p e c i a l m i s s i o n s ' w i t h which t h e

AFP would p r e f e r n o t t o be p u b l i c l y c o n n e c t e d . The L o s t

Command u n l e a s h e d a r e i g n o f t e r r o r i n t h e Mindanao p r o v i n c e

of Aguson d e l s u r . I t a s s i s t e d t h e i n c u r s i o n o f a g r i -

b u s i n e s s ( t h e NDC/Guthrie P a l m - o i l p l a n t a t i o n ) f o r c i b l y

p u s h i n g f a r m e r s o f f t h e i r l a n d and p r o v i d i n g ' s e c u r i t y ' f o r

t h e p l a n t a t i o n management. 131 P r o v i n c i a l and l o c a l m i l i t a r y

commands had e f f e c t i v e l y s u p p l a n t e d g o v e r n o r s and ma jo r a s

130 q u o t e d i n Ibid.

Ibid., p . 7 .

Page 103: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

I.llo rrrn I Ir~vttrt oI' c lnv i r r I r ~ r t snk lrld pownr I t 1 lor-n 1 n r n n n .

T h e r e was a t r e n d t o w a r d s h i g h r a n k i n g o f f i c e r s , c l o s e t o

t h e P r e s i d e n t , a s suming i n f l u e n t i a l a d v i s o r y r o l e s i n t h e

P h i l i p p i n e ' s p o l i t i c a l and economic a r e a s . Even t h e

s m a l l e s t u n i t o f P h i l i p p i n e s o c i e t y - t h e barannap - had

f e a t u r e s of m i l i t a r y invovement i n c i v i l i a n a f f a i r s .

I n t h e j u d i c i a l f i e l d , PD 39 c r e a t e d 20 m i l i t a r y

t r i b u n a l s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y . I n a d d i t i o n , 48 P r o v o s t

c o u r t s were e s t a b l i s h e d . The m i l i t a r y t r i b u n a l s had

j u r i s d i c t i o n i n c a s e s which t h e government deemed t o be

r e l a t e d t o s u b v e r s i o n , r e b e l l i o n and o t h e r m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n g

' n a t i o n a l - s e c u r i t y ' . Very c l e a r l y , more t h a n one d e c a d e

o f t h e Marcos e r a had s e e n t h e emergence o f a n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y s t a t e i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

U a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f H i l i t a r i z a t i o n .

The m a r t i a l law p e r i o d , P r e s i d e n t Marcos c l a i m e d ,

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f u s e d t h e t h r e a t s o f s u b v e r s i o n , s e d i t i o n

and r e b e l l i o n . Yet he c o n t i n u e d t o j u s t i f y t h e m a s s i v e

132 ~ i ~ h t ~ s i t u a t i o n i o n . . in a ~ l n e s : T r e n d s ~ ~ ~ S L Y S ~ S 1984, A S t u d y r e p o r t

o f 13 human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , p . 1 . ( H e r e a f t e r c i t e d a s s t u d y r e p o r t on Human r i g h t s and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n ) .

Page 104: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

m i l t a r y b u i l d u p , c i t i n g t h e problem of i n s u r g e n c y . The NPA

known t o have a m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h of t e n t o t w e n t y thousand

armed r e g u l a r s and o p e r a t i n g i n same 62 o u t o f 73133

p r o v i n c e s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ; and t h e BMA, number ing some

s i x t o t e n t h o u s a n d armed r e g u l a r s c o n c e n t r a t e d ma in ly i n

Muslim-dominated a r e a s i n Mindanao, were t h e f a c t o r s c i t e d

by t h e Harcos a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n AFP

p e r s o n n e l f rom 6 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1972 t o 300 ,000 i n 1983 , 134

i n c l u d i n g some 221 ,000 men composed of p a r a m i l i t a r y u n i t s ,

i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p s and armed r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c s d i r e c t l y

and o r i n d i r e c t l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e m i l i t a r y . 135

s i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e armed f o r c e s was d e p l o y e d i n

Mindanao, where l e s s t h a n one f o u r t h of t h e p o p u l a t i o n was

r e s i d i n g . Mindanao became t h e most h i g h l y m i l i a r i z e d r e g i o n

n o t o n l y i n t h e c o u n t r y b u t i n t h e whole ASEAN r e g i o n a s

w e l l . Mindanao had one s o l d i e r f o r 100 p e r s o n s d u r i n g t h e

Marcos e r a . The n a t i o n a l r a t i o was one t o 250 w h i l e t h e

133 The P-ooines. . . A sim - r t , S t a f f R e p o r t t o t h e U.S S e n a t e S e l e c t Commit te on I n t e l l i g e n c e , (Washington D . C : U.S S e n a t e , 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 1-8.

135 S t u d y R e p o r t on Human R i g h t s s i t u a t i o n and M i l i t a r i z a t i o n , n p . c i t . , p . 1 .

Page 105: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

A: : I~AN rnL l o wtr!: unr t o 3 4 5 . "0 so ~ t l i l i p p i r l c m i l i t a r y

budge t had grown t o 1 0 , 5 0 0 m i l l i o n p e s o s i n 1986 . 137

Under m a r t i a l law t h e AFP have a c q u i r e d a dominan t

r o l e i n t h e s t a t e . Both army and t h e c o n s t a b u l a r y became

t h e p r ime P o l i c e a g e n c i e s i n t h e c o u n t r y , w i t h l o c a l P o l i c e

a c t i v i t y h a v i n g v i r t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r d i n i n s u r g e n c y z o n e s and

p l a y i n g a s e c o n d a r y r o l e e l s e w h e r e . P o l i t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e

and s e c u r i t y f u n c t i o n s have been c e n t r a l i z e d t o a d e g r e e

u n p a r a l l e l e d i n P h i l i p p i n e h i s t o r y , w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y -

domina ted N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y Agency (NISA)

f o r m i n g t h e a p e x of a s t r u c t u r e of i n t e r l o c k i n g army and

c o n s t a b u l a r y a g e n c i e s . 138 A l l l e v e l s o f t h e c r i m i n a l

j u s t i c e s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a of " p o l i t i c a l

c r i s i s " , were e f f e c t i v e l y d o m i n a t e d by t h e m i l i t a r y .

S u s p e c t s a r e app rehended by m i l i t r a r y s e c u r i t y a g e n c i e s ,

immprisoned and t o r t u r e d a t m i l i t a r y camps, p r o s e c u t e d by

m i l i a t r y l a w y e r s and judged by m i l t a r y commiss ions . I n t h e

words of Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l :

136 P r i m e r on M i l i t a r i z a t i o n , w . c i t , , p . 3.

137 -our Year Book N88, V o l . 1 1 , ( E n g l a n d : Europa P u b l i c a t i o n s L t d ) , p . 2 1 5 .

13' Walden B e l l o and S e v e r i n a R i v e r a , T h e w oaf -,(Washington D . C : F r i e n d s of t h e F i l i p i n o P e o p l e , 1977) , pp .41 -42 .

Page 106: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

ARUED FORCES OF THE PHILIPPINES : MAN POWER AND HILITARY EXPENDITURES (1972 - 1986)

Year Han Power Military ( in Thousands) Expenditure

(Hillion dollars)

. . Source : Cimpiled Form World Ex~emijLures and

ers : 1967 - 76. _and 1977 - . . 987, ( U . S Arms Control and Disarmament Agency), W v B-e 1976 - M.ZI, (London : International Institute for Strategic . . Studies) and P v and Social Exoenditures 1985 - l.&B, (Washington D.C : World Priorities).

Page 107: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

[ T l h e r e h a s been . . . a m a s s i v e s h i f t o f j u r i s d i c t i o n f rom c i v i l c o u r t s t o m i l i t a r y commiss ions , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r o f f e n c e s which a r e p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r e . The o n l y a p p e a l f o r j udgemen t s o f m i l i t a r y commiss ions is t h r o u g h t h e s e c r e t a r y of N a t i o n a l D e f e n c e t o t h e P r e s i d e n t . Thus , t h e Supreme C o u r t ' s t h e o r e t i c a l a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l check on a r b i t r a r y e x e c u t i v e a c t i o n h a s been d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d .

I n sum, s t r i p p e d o f i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n and i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e j u d i c i a r y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a s become t o t a l l y i n e f f e c t i v e i n p r e v e n t i n g v i o l a t i o n s o f human r i g h t s . . . The r u l e of law is a u t h o r i t a r i a n p r e s i d e n t i a l - m i l i t a r y r u l e , unchef$gd by c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g u r a r e n t e e o r l i m i t a t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a s suming enormous p o l i c e and j u d i c i a l

f u n c t i o n s , t h e m i l i t a r y had a l s o been d e l e g a t e d

a d m i n s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y a t t h e m u n i c i p a l , p r o v i n c i a l , and

n a t i o n a l l e v e l s o f g o v e r n m e n t . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M a r c o s ' s

model o f " c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m " , p r o v i n c i a l

g o v e r n o r s and town m a j o r s have been d e p r i v e d o f any

i n d e p e n d e n t l e g a l b a s e of a u t h o r i t y . " P r o v i n c i a l m i l i t a r y

commands of t e n t i m e s have t h e f i n a l s a y i n t h e r u n n i n g o f

l o c a l a f f a i r s , making t h e g o v e r n o r a mere f i g u r e - h e a d of t h e

n o n - e x i s t e n t " c i v i l i a n a u t h o r i t y " . 140 I n a d d i t i o n , s i n c e

139 kDor t of an ~mnestv to to 1 i c of t h e -, (London: am nest,^

. . I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1976), p . 5 4 .

140 -ion . . in our y e a r s of 1 Law i n t h e

. . , ( O a k l a n d , CA: Union of

D e m o c r a t i c F i l i p i n o s , 1976). p . 8 . (Monograph) .

Page 108: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t h e m i l i t a r y is t h e o n l y o r g a n i s e d power b a s e of t h e Marcos

r e g i m e , i t h a s d e f a c t 0 been t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e n a t i o n ' s

o n l y l e g i t i m a t e p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . l4' The m i l i t a r y command

had become t h e a r e n a of p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t be tween d i f f e r e n t

g r o u p s b a c k i n g t h e r e g i m e .

The c o m b i n a t i o n of economic and p o l i t i c a l power would

i n e v i t a b l y b r e e d c o r r u p t i o n . M i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l have been

a l l o w e d t o t a k e o v e r t h e r a c k e t s o f members o f C o n g r e s s and

t h e p r o t e c t i o n r a c k e t s run by l o c a l po l i cemen a t s o a r i n g

r a t e s of i n t e r e s t s . Lower l e v e l m i l i t a r y g r o u p s , " u n a b l e t o

s h a r e i n t h e g r a f t o f t h e i r commanders, engage t h e m s e l v e s i n

s y n d i c a t e d k i d n a p p i n g f o r ransom, a r s o n , m u r d e r , c a r n a p p i n g

and r o b b e r y h o l d u p " . 14' The m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l had been

a c c u s e d of g r a b b i n g l a n d from t h e t r i b e s - f o l k . C o r r u p t i o n

e x t e n d e d t o t h e b a t t l e f i e l d i t s e l f . The g u n , p o l i t i c a l

power and economic p r e v i l e g e were an e x p l o s i v e c o m b i n a t i o n .

So t h e m i l t a r y were a b l e t o s p i n a web of c o r r u p t i o n ,

r e p r e s s i o n and human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t r y .

The m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s which e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e

e a r l y y e a r s o f m a r t i a l law y e a r s was i t s e l f t h e l o g i c a l

l4' Walden B e l l o and S e v e r i n a R i v e r a , n ~ . c i t , , p . 4 2 .

142 Ibid., p.43.

Page 109: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i v e e f f o r t t o s t a m p o u t t h e

p o l i t i c a l . . . o p p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h a s p e e d y m i l i t a r y a c t i o n .

I nt I 1 I I 111 y I F I n ln r lnR t .~ l t r> b r r n k t armccl

r e s i s t a n c e , b o t h i n t h e c i t i e s a n d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , b u t

o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y . 143 By 1 9 7 5 , t h e n a t i o n a l d e m o c r a t i c

movement had w e a t h e r e d t h e i m p a c t o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n a n d

s t a r t e d t o r e b u i l d i t s c r i p p l e d o r g a n i s a t i o n s , b e g i n n i n g s o f

a n e l a b o r a t e u n d e r g r o u n d s y s t e m were t a k i n g f o r m among

w o r k e r s , u r b a n p o o r a n d s t u d e n t s , w h i l e new g u e r i l l a f r o n t s

were o p e n e d b y t h e NPA i n N o r t h e r n L u z o n , t h e V i s a y a s a n d

S o u t h e r n Mindanao . 144

M e a n w h i l e , i n M i n d a n a o , t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e r e g i m e

a n d M N L F f o r c e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o s e e k n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r a

s o l u t i o n t o t h e Mus l im p r o b l e m . W i t h t h e i n i t i a t i v e of t h e

Islamic c o n f e r e n c e , t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d MNLF o p e n e d

n e g o t a i a t i o n i n 1 9 7 6 l e a d i n g t o a c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t .

T h i s a g r e e e m e n t p r o v i d e d f o r a c e a s e - f i r e t o g e t h e r w i t h

m u t u a l moves b y b o t h s i d e s t o e s t a b l i s h p o l i t i c a l a u t o n o m y

i n t h e Mus l im a reas . T h e a g r e e m e n t b r o k e dowm a f t e r t h e

143 J o e l Rocamora , " T h e S t r u c t u r a l I m p e r a t i v e o f A u t h o r i t a r i a n R u l e " , Southeast, ( W a s h i n g t o n D . C . ) I s s u e N o . 6 5 , 1 9 8 3 , p . 6 .

Page 110: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

MNLF accused Harcos of d u p l i c i t y and by mid-1977 war , a l b e i t

on a l e s s e r s c a l e , b r o k e o u t once more . 145 The HNLF was

f a c t i o n a l i s e d and d e m o r a l i s e d , p a r t l y d u e t o H a r c o s ' s a s t u t e

p o l i t i c a l manoeuve r ing d u r i n g t h e m i d - s e v e n t i e s and p a r t l y

d u e t o t h e m a s s i v e m i l i t a r y campa igns of t h e AFP, k i l l i n g

t h o u s n a d s and t h o u s a n d s of Musl ims . But t h e y r e g a i n e d power

and became more a c t i v e i n open c o n f r o n t a t i o n . HNLF was a b l e

t o show o c c a s i o n a l f l a s h e s of i ts l o g i s t i c a l c a p a b a b i l i a t y

and t h e NPA was c o n d u c t i n g a s e r i e s of ambuscades more

f r e q u e n t l y t h a n e v e r . 146

The e a r l y y e a r s of t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n r u l e of Harcos

were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m i l t a r i z a t i o n t h r o u g h a r r e s t s ,

d e t e n t i o n and d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e

c o u n t r y s i d e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s , human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s

were i n c r e a s i n g . L o c a l i t i e s s u s p e c t e d of b e i n g

' s y m p a t h e t i c ' t o t h e ' r e b e l s ' became t a r g e t s f o r i n t e n s i f i e d

m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y . The k i n d s of t a c t i c s employed by t h e

government m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n a t t e m p t s t o c o n t a i n t h e

g rowing s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e b e l s c a u s e , r a n g e f rom t h e

d e c l a r a t i o n of ' f r e e - f i r e z o n e s ' t o e s t a b l i s h i n g ' s t r a t e g i c

145 A b i n a l e s , n ~ . c i t ,, p . 13.

Page 111: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

h a m l e t s ' t o ' s a l v a g i n g - ( t h e a r b i t r a r y e x e c u t i o n o f

i n d i v i d u a l s s u s p e c t e d of s u b v e r s i o n ) .

The ' F r e e - F i r e z o n e ' t a c t i c was i n t e n d e d t o i s o l a t e

p o p u l a r l y s u p p o r t e d g u e r i l l a s f rom t h e p e a s a n t r y , and is one

o f t h e most b r u t a l and i n d i s c r i m i n a t e t a c t i c s d e v i s e d i n

modern w a r f a r e . T h i s t e c h n i c i n v o l v e d t h e f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n

o f p e o p l e f rom t h e i r a n c e s t r a l p e o p e r t y and t h e c o n v e r s i o n

of t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a i n t o a zone where a n y t h i n g t h a t moves

is f a i r game f o r t h e m i l t a r y .

I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t a f t e r t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of

m a r t i a l law i n 1972 , 50 ,000 p e a s a n t s were f o r c i b l y e j e c t e d

f rom a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150 v i l l a g e s i n I s a b e l l a p r o v i n c e i n a

manoeuvre t o i s o l a t e t h e NPA g u e r i l l a s f rom t h e p e o p l e . 147

T h i s k ind o f r e l o c a t i o n h a s been c a r r i e d o u t i n d i f f e r e n t

p a r t s o f Luzon, V i s a y a s and Hindanao r e g i o n s . 148 AS many a s

t e n f a m i l i e s crammed i n t o a room i n t h e t e m p o r a r y s h a n t i e s

was a common s c e n e i n most o f t h e s e p l a c e s . T h i s was r e a l l y

a d d i n g t o t h e a l r e a d y d e s p a r a t e food s h o r t a g e , and t o

t h e p r e v a l e n t d i s e a s e s s u c h a s d y s e n t e r y , pneumonia and

148 The P h i l i p p i n e s is d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e r e g i o n s f rom N o r t h t o S o u t h a s Luzon, V i s a y a s and Hindanao .

Page 112: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

b r o n c h i t i s . Those who r e f u s e d t o l e a v e t h e i r homes and

f a r m s f a c e d h a r a s s m e n t and i n t i m i d a t i o n f rom t h e m i l t a r y by

way of e x t o r t i o n , t h e b u r n i n g of h u t s and c r o p s , t h e

c o n f i s c a t i o n and k i l l i n g o f a n i m a l s , r a p e , i l l e g a l

d e t e n t i o n , t o r t u r e and economic b l o c k a d e s . T h i s k i n d of

m a s s i v e ' s e a r c h and d e s t r o y ' campaign by t h e m i l i t a r y

a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d d i s s i d e n t s f o l l o w e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of

m a r t i a l l aw . Task F o r c e D e t a i n e e s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . a

human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n , r e p o r t e d t h a t c o m p l a i n t s a g a i n ' s t

t h e m i l t a r y a v e r a g e 54 ,000 e v e r y y e a r . 14' G e n e r a l Ramos

h i m s e l f h a s been f o r c e d t o a d m i t t h a t c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t

m i l i t a r y a b u s e p o u r e d i n a t t h e r a t e o f 150 p e r d a y . 150

S y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n of m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s h a s

c h a r a t e r i s e d AFP campa igns i n Mindanao, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e

Muslim a r e a s . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s i n Lebak o f

C o t a b a t o p r o v i n c e , 500 c i v i l i a n s were k i l l e d f rom F e b r u a r y

1 . 1 . J I I ~ I ~ LR73. I t . wnn onCimnt.od t h ~ t b y t l ~ n ond of 19'79

a round 9 0 , 0 0 0 i n n o c e n t Muslim c i v i l i a n s had d i e d d u e t o

m i l i t a r i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , w h i l e no l e s s t h a n 250 ,000 h o u s e s

14' TFDP r e p o r t q u o t e d i n . . R e ~ r u

PP C L , P . 4 1 .

150 H o r a c i o V. P a r a d e s , "Oplan S a g i t a r u s : A Decade A f t e r " , WHO, ( M a n i l a ) , Vol .V, No.39, December 28 1983, p . 8 .

Page 113: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

and t h o u s a n d s of Mosques were b u r n e d . 151 These f i g u r e s

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e murder of c i v i l i a n s was i n g e n o c i d a l

p r o p o r t i o n s . A s e a r l y as 1974, t h e P h i l i p p i n e s government

a d m i t t e d t o h a v i n g c r e a t e d more t h a n one m i l l i o n r e f u g e e s a s

a r e s u l t o f i ts m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y aimed a t w i p i n g o u t t h e

HNLF o p p o s i t i o n . 152 The r e p r e s s i v e m e a s u r e s u sed by t h e

m i l i t a r y have t a k e n on new d i s t u r b i n g d i m e n s i o n s .

' S t r a t e g i c h a m l e t t i n g ' t a c t i c u s e d by t h e a r m i e s o f U.S

and S o u t h Vietnam a g a i n s t t h e Vie tnamese p e o p l e d u r i n g t h e

I n d o c h i n e s e war was implemented i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a s a

r e l o c a t i o n s t r a t e g y . I t h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t 300,000

c i v i l i a n s have been a f f e c t e d i n 11 p r o v i n c e s o f Hindanao i n

a t l e a s t 225 h a m l e t c e n t r e s s i n c e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h i s

t a c t i c . 153 L o c a l human r i g h t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s c l a i m e d t h a t

random k i l l i n g s , t o r t u r e , h a r a s s m e n t and d e s t r u c t i o n

of p r o p e r t i e s have been an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f m i l i t a r i z a t i o n

p r o c e s s i n v a r i o u s ways.

151 R e s i s t a n c e , oo.cit., p . 5 8 .

152 H o r a c i o V . P a r e d e s , o o . c i t ,, p . 8 .

153 l 3 ~ s t r g t e e i c h a m l e t s o f K i u h u ~ , (Hindanao : M i n d a n a o Documenta t ion Commit tee f o r Re fugees , 1 9 8 2 ) , Monograph.

Page 114: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i s s i o n t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s (1981)

o b s e r v e d t h a t :

. . . t h e S e c u r i t y F o r c e s o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s h a v e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n g a g e d i n p r a c t i c e s w h i c h v i o l a t e f u n d a n e n t a l human r i g h t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t t o l i f e , t h e r i g h t t o s e c u r i t y o f p e r s o n , and t h e r i g 9 8 2 a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y a r r e s t and d e t e n t i o n .

The AFP was i n v o l v e d i n m a s s i v e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y

o p e r a t i o n s w i t h , t h e s u p p o r t o f U.S m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t s .

The l a r g e s t c o u n t e r - i n s u r g e n c y programme e v e r u n d e r t a k e n i n

t h e P h i l i p p i n e s was l a u n c h e d i n e a r l y 1983 - e n t i t l e d

' O p l a n K a t a t a g a n ' . T h i s was d e s i g n e d t o "win t h e h e a r t s and

m i n d s o f t h e p e o p l e t h r o u g h m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a n d c i v i l

r e l a t i o n s " . B u t t h e AFP d i d n o t g a i n a n y s u p p o r t f r o m t h e

e i g h t y p e r c e n t i m p o v e r i s h e d F i l i p i n o s , b e c a u s e t h e AFP

was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n c r u s h i n g s t r i k i n g w o r k e r s who

r e f u s e d t o work 16-24 h o u r s h i f t s , f i x i n g on p i c k e t l i n e s o f

t h o s e i n d e s p e r a t e n e e d o f b e t t e r w a g e s , s h o o t i n g a t 3,000

lulrhgry c u c c ~ t l u l I ' u ra le r s p r u ~ a u t i r l g a Lax of t 'esos li0 t'er 100

Kg o f C o p r a , t h e m a s s a c r e o f 45 men, woman a n d c h i l d r e n ,

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y f i r i n g on b o y c o t t m a r c h e r s , o r m u r d e r i n g a

r e s p e c t e d t r i b a l l e a d e r who h e l p s h i s p e o p l e r es i s t a

154 Amnesty I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e p o r t o n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s 1981, o ~ . c i t . , P . 10.

Page 115: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

rlovelnpmrr~t. protinct wt~ictr t.hrent,onn 1C1C1.800 tribal 1 iven. 155

The escalation of militarization in the Philippines

under President Harcos was primarily a response to political

threats to the unpopular authoritarian regime. ( The

deployment of armed forces in areas where popular opposition

is represented by the armed groups of the NPA and MNLF, and

the subsequent, systematic militarization, abuse of civilian

pnpulations reaching RenOCidal proportions, etc are the

manifestations of repression and human rights violations in

a military dominated civilian rule.) The dominating

presence of the miltary everywhere became an integral part

of Philippine politics. There was, more importantly, a

conscious policy to instill military values among the people

as part of the effort to create, a new culture under the new

political order. 156

The principal legacy of the martial law period and the

period after the lifting of martial law was the massive

increase in the size and role of the Armed Forces and the

consequent militarization of the Philippine society. Task

Force Detainees of the Philippines (TFDP) has estimated

155 ACFOA document, nc-.cit,, P.5

15' Abinalas, oo.cit., p. 18.

Page 116: HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 -86shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/329/10/10...HILITARIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 1972 - -86 The Land and the People The Philippines

t h a t , s i n c e m a r t i a l law t h e r i g h t s o f n e a r l y a m i l l i o n

F i l i p i n o s had been v i o l a t e d d i r e c t l y . The v i o l a t i o n s

t o o k v a r i o u s f o r m s . The p a t t e r n of m i l i t a r y a b u s e s t h u s

began t o t a k e s h a p e u n d e r t h e c a t c h - a l l p h r a s e " n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i t y " , whole r a n g e of a c t i v i t i e s , f rom l o o t i n g t o

a r r e s t , t o r t u r e and murder was g i v e n e f f e c t i v e s a n c t i o n .

Most v i c t i m s of human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s , a b o u t 70 t o 80

p e r c e n t , were f a r m e r s . O t h e r v i c t i m s were w o r k e r s ,

s t u d e n t s , human r i g h t s a c t i v i s t s , e t c . Under t h e Marcos

r eg ime m i l i t a r i z a t i o n became rampant and human r i g h t s

v i o l a t i o n s were g r o s s and s y s t e m a t i c .

157 The " S t a t e o f human r i g h t s " , T h e a C h r o n i c l e . ( M a n i l a ) , December 1 4 , 1986.

*