grade 10 science exam notes
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8/4/2019 Grade 10 Science Exam Notes
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Grade 9 Chemistry Review
Matter
Has mass and Volume
Divided into 3 groups
Solids have definite shape, constant volume, have
equidistance dense molecules, and slow molecule vibration
Liquids take shape of their container, have a constant
volume, their distance between molecules is close, the
speed is moderate and they flow.
Gases take shape and expand to fill container, change
volume depending on container, molecules are far apart
and they move fast and randomly
Change of state is possible with addition or removal of
energy
Solid to Gas or Vice Versa is called Sublimation
Physical vs Chemical Change
Physical Change has no new substance formed and their is
no change to the molecular structure. Ex Ripping Paper
Chemical changes produce new substances and their is a
change in the molecular structure.
Proofs of Chemical change are:
Formation of Gas
Colour
Temperature (transfer of energy)
Precipitate
Not Reversible
Classifying matter
Laboratory Techniques to Separate Mixtures
Gravity Filtration
Best for mechanical/heterogeneous mixtures.
Filter over flask and the liquid is poured over the
filter to remove the solid
Filter filters out the large particles (solids)
Vacuum Filtration
Clamp a side arm flask securely to a ring stand1.
Place the rubber adapter in the side arm flask2.
Place the Buchner funnel on the adapter3.
Place Filter Paper on funnel4.
Connect the side arm flask to a vacuum sources
(sink)
5.
6.
Separation Funnel
Used for immiscible liquids (see components)
Place flask under funnel
Add extractor SolventOpen Stopper
Close stopper once one liquid has run into the
flask
Laboratory Techniques to Separate Mixtures Cont.
Centrifugation
Best for small amounts of heterogeneous mixtures
Spins Mixture in a centrifuge
Pushes particles to the side using Gravity
It is important to balance the mixture on the opposite side or
the liquid will fly out
Decant- to pour off the liquid
Supernatant-the liquid of the mixture
Flocculation/Coagulation
Add coagulate in order to remove the negative charge of solid
particles. (clumps particles together)
Floc -is the product formed after inserting the chemicals (white
flakes)
Coagulation- is clumping together
Used in Water Treatment plants
Distillation
Used for separating solvents and solutes or 2 liquids.
Heat 2 liquids to the boiling point of one of the liquids. The
liquid will than evaporate and r un down the condenser tube,
cooled by water and collect at the bottom. The condensor tube
has 2 rings. The outer one is for water inorder to cool the
vapour, and the interior one is meant for the vapour to travel
through.
Boiling Chips are often used to stop bubbles from colliding.
The condensate is the vapour in liquid form.
The Atom
Almost the entire mass of protons ( 1u) and neutrons(1u).
The mass of the electron is so small that it is considered
0.
Atom's charge is neutral, therefore there are an equal
amount of protons and electrons
The number of protons determines the atomic number
(in the nucleus)
The total number of protons and neutrons is known as
the mass number
Mass Number is always on the top left of the symbol and
atomic number is bottom left.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic
number, but have variable amount of neutrons.
Same chemical properties but different
physical properties.
Paper Chromatography
Separate substances in a mixture on different motilities' of the components
The stationary phase is the porous paper, such as filter paper
The mobile phase is the developing solution e.x water, acetone
Samples are dotted on the stationary phase
Chromatogram is placed in developing solution and the solution will move up
As it moves it will pull the components based on the affinity.
Rf(representative fraction) is how much a certain part of the solution advanced
compared to the overall advance.
Periodic Table
Noble Gases are stable
Groups share chemical properties
Moving down the periodic table increase number of electron shells
Moving Right increases the number of electrons in valence shell
Elements closest to 1 or 7 electrons in valence shell will bond
easiest.
Gases are more reactive further up and metals are more reactive
further down.
Most Reactive Elements are Francium and Fluorine. The closer
elements are to these two the more reactive.
Lewis Dot Diagrams
Represent the number of valence electrons
Number of Valence Electrons determines Chemical Properties
Members with the same number of Valence electrons bond similarly
When bonded place square brackets around the element and mark the
electrons gained with a different mark, other than a dot such as an x.
Valence Electrons and Oxidation Numbers
Nobles gases are not reactive because of full Valence Shell
During Chemical reactions elements lose or gain electrons
Some elements have multiple valence shells hence numbers
Oxidation number is the charge after it has formed a stable
octet
Positive Oxidation numbers lose electrons and negative gain
electrons
Ionic bonds are between a metal and non metal
Metal gives electrons while Non metal takes electrons
The bond is electrostatic
High melting point, non conductive as solids highly conductive
as liquids, brittle
Writing Chemical Equations
Represent what is happening in a chemical equation
Word Equation: Represent what is occurring in words
Naming Ionic Compounds
If there is a sole valence, place the metal first and than add the gas after, remove
the ending and add -ide e.x Sodium Choloride NaCl
You can determine how much of each atom you need by the oxidation number.
Take the oxidation number of one element is how many of the other element is
required. Then reduce.
Variable valences can be named using the Stock system and the ic-ous system
Choose one of the 2 valences to fill. Choose that oxidation number. Than write it
in Roman numerals e.x. Iron (III) Chloride
Written in symbols the same as above.
The other way is the ic-ous system
Using the Latin name of the element. If you use the Valence with the higher
Covalent Bonding and Naming
Covalent Bonding is between two non-metals
The two elements share electrons e.x. H20/ Water
Always write H20 as water and NH4 as Ammonia
Hydrogen bonds with itself to be stable so do Oxygen,
Fluoride, Bromide, Iodine, Nitrogen, Chlorine
HOFBrINCl
Covalent Bonds are named by the elements adopting a prefix
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oxidation number you add the suffix -ic if you use the Valence with the lower
oxidation number you add the suffix - ous
Latin names needed to be known Copper:Cuprum, Iron: Ferrum, Lead: Plumbum
Tim Stannum, Gold: aurum EX Cupric Oxide or Ferrous Oxide
Treat Polyatomic Ions like elements, use oxidation number.
However when writing with Symbols, if multiple Polyatomic Ions are needed,
place the base in brackets and the number of ions needed outside the brackets.
Binary Acids are bonded elements with hydrogen. They are dissolved in water.
Therefore the are written as one word with the suffix -ic with the word acid right
after. Hydrogen Bromide becomes Hydrobromic acid and in symbols it is written
the same except their is (aq) at the bottom, meaning aqueous.
Peroxides are elements that are bonded with oxygen, that have an extra oxygen
atom. The easiest way to detect them is if the equation isn't reduced. Such as
H2O2 is a peroxide cause it has an extra oxygen. The prefix per- is added in front
of the oxygen. You do not reduce after the oxygen has been added.
depending on how many atoms of that element are in the
compound
Water would be called Dihyrdogen monoxide
NH3 or Nitrogen Trihydride is always ammonia
The prefixes are
Mono-1 Di-2 Tri-3 Tetra-4 Penta-5 Hexa-6 Hepta-7Octa-8
Nona-9 Deca-10
If the first element in the name only has one atom, no prefix
is needed
If the element begins in a vowel and the prefix ends in an a
remove the "a"
EX NO2 is Nitrogen Dioxide
Balancing Equations
Balancing equations is to obey the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states matter cannot be destroyed or created.
Assure that there are equal amounts of each element on both sides by adding coefficients.Look at the equation and see which elements are not balanced. In this case, there are two oxygen atoms on the lef thand side o f the equation and only one on the righthandside. Correct this by putting a coefficient of 2 in front of water:SnO2+ H2 Sn + 2 H2OThis puts the hydrogen atoms out of balance. Now there are tw o hydrogen atoms on the left and four hydrogen atoms on the righ t. To get four hydrogen atoms on the right,add a coefficient of 2 for the hydrogen gas. Remember, coefficients are multipliers, so if we write 2 H2O it denotes 2x2=4 hy drogen atoms and 2x1=2 oxygen atoms.SnO2+ 2 H2 Sn + 2 H2OThe equation is now balanced. Be sure to double -check your math! Each side of the equation has 1 atom of Sn, 2 atoms of O, and 4 atoms of H.
1.
Redox reactions are when elements gain or lose electrons during the chemical change
Determine the oxidation numbers with the help of a few rules1)
Elements alone always have a charge of 0
In a compound Fluorine is always -1
In a compound, Oxygen is always -2 except if combined with Fluroine that is it is +2 or in peroxide for it is -1
In a compound H is always +1 when combined with a non metal and -1 combined with a metal
In compounds consisting of 1 METAL and 1 NON-METAL The non metal have their normal oxidation numbers
In compounds Alkali Metals are always +1 and earth metals are always +2
After find that, find which element has changed from the left side to the right in terms of oxidation numbers2)
There should be one that has gained and one that has lost, equate the number of electrons gained and lost3)Balance the rest of the equation4) HNO3(aq)+ H3AsO3(aq) --> NO(g)+ H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)
The H and O atoms are difficult to balance in this equation. You might arrive at the correct balanced equation using a trial and error
technique, but if you do not discover the correct coefficients fairly quickly, proceed to Step #3.
Step #1: Try to balance the atoms by inspection.
The N atoms change from +5 to +2, so they are reduced. This information is enough to tell us that the reaction is redox. (The As atoms,
which change from +3 to +5, are oxidized.)
Step #3: Is the reaction redox?
As +3 to +5 Net Change = +2
N +5 to +2 Net Change = -3
Step #4: Determine the net increase in oxidation number for the element that is oxidized and the net decrease in oxidation number for the
element that is reduced.
As atoms would yield a net increase in oxidation number of +6. (Six electrons would be lost by three arsenic atoms.) 2 N atoms would yield a
net decrease of -6. (Two nitrogen atoms would gain six electrons.) Thus the ratio of As atoms to N atoms is 3:2.
Step #5: Determine a ratio of oxidized to reduced atoms that would yield a net increase in oxidation number equal to the net decrease in
oxidation number.
2HNO3(aq)+ 3H3AsO3(aq)
--> NO(g)+ H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)
Step #6: To get the ratio identified in Step 5, add coefficients to the formulas which contain the elements whose oxidation number is changing.
Solution:
2HNO3(aq)+ 3H3AsO3(aq)
--> 2NO(g) + 3H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)
Step #7: Balance the rest of the equation by inspection.
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Types of Reaction
All chemical reactions can be placed into one of six categories. Here they are, in no particular order:
1) Combustion: A combustion reaction is when oxygen combines with another compound to form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are
exothermic, meaning they produce heat. An example of this kind of reaction is the burning of napthalene:
There is always heat in added in a combustion reaction, also there must be an ample supply of oxygen as well as a Hydrocarbon(Hydrogen+Carbon)
If there is not enough oxygen Carbon Monoxide is created instead. CO
C10H8 + 12 O2 ---> 10 CO2 + 4 H2O
2) Synthesis: A synthesis reaction is when two or elements combine to form a more complicated one. These reactions come in the g eneral form of:
A + B ---> AB
One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron (II) sulfide:
8 Fe + S8 ---> 8FeS
Note: These reactions can occur with Polyatomic Ions AND Water and Carbon Dioxide acting as 1 element.HINTS: 2 Reactants= 1 Product
Reactants are not mixtures
Reactants are NOT 2 metals.
3) Decomposition: A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction - a complex molecule breaks down to make simpler ones. These
reactions come in the general form:
AB ---> A + B
Special Forms:
Metal Carbonate ---> Metal Oxide and C arbon Dioxide
Metal Hydrogen Carbonate/Bicarbonate--->Water +Carbon Dioxide + Metal Carbonate
Metal Chlorates---> Metal Chloride + Oxygen Gas
One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:
2 H2O ---> 2 H2 + O2
4) Single displacement: This is when one element trades places with another element in a compound. These reactions come in the general form of:
A + BC ---> AC + B
HINTS:
2 Reactants 2 Products
1 Reactant and 1 Product are Elements
In order to switch places or kick out an element from the compound, The element doing the kicking out must be higher on the a ctivity series or
closer to Fluorine.
Compound is always (aq)
One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hy drogen gas:
Mg + 2 H2O ---> Mg(OH)2 + H2
5) Double displacement: This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two entirely diffe rent compounds.
These reactions are in the general form:
AB + CD ---> AD + CB
HINTS:
2 Reactants 2 Products
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Both Reactants must be (aq)
1 Product is (aq) the other is a precipitate.
Check table of solubilities to see if it is precipitate or not.
One example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead (II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead (II) io dide and potassium
nitrate:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI ---> PbI2 + 2 KNO3
6) Acid-base: This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when an acid and base react with each other. Th eH+ ion in the acid reacts with the OH-ion in the base, causing the formation of water. Generally, the product of this reaction is some ionicsalt and water:HA + BOH ---> H2O + BANOTES:Always Dissolved in Water:Acid+Base---> Water +Ionic CompoundHydroxide Ions form Base combine with Hydrogen atom from Acid and for water leaving metal +Non Metal.If Carbonate is present in the base CO2 will be formedEX HCl +NaHCO3 ---> H20 + NaCl + CO2One example of an acid-base reaction is the reaction of hydrobromic acid (HBr) with sodium hydroxide:HBr + NaOH ---> NaBr + H2O
Practical uses of Acid-Base Reaction areCleaning up acids or base spillsNeutralize Fish OilHelping Baked goods rise ---> due to CO2Antacids Neutralize stomach acids.
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Acids vs Bases
Acids
Taste Sour
Soluble in Water
Reacts with anything higher than hydrogen on
Activity Series
Reacts with Carbonates
Good Conductor of electricity
Releases Hydrogen Ions when in water
Corrosive
Bases
Taste bitter
Soluble in Water
Reacts with anything higher than hydrogen on
Activity Series
Reacts with Protein
Good conductor of electricity
Release Hydroxide atoms when in water
Corrosive
Ph
Symbolizes the concentration of Hydrogen ions
Meaning every 1 unit on the scale is 10x more than the one
before
It is by a logarithmic scale
The scale is from 0-14
7 is Neutral
Lower on the scale means more acidic
Higher on the Scale means more basic
Acids and Bases in Water
Hydrogen is slightly Posoitive
Oxygen is negative
This polarity allows the parts of a compound to be attracted
to different parts of water
These forces can tear compounds apart.
Water
Hydrogen end is posotive
Oxygen attracts the hydrogen and the gas is attracted to the
hydrogen in water
Non Metal Part is negative
Ionization occurs and the acid is separated in the solution.
Acids
Ionic Compounds
Metallic End is Positive and attracted to oxygen
Hydroxide is pulled by hydrogen because it is negative.
Bases
Writing Chemical Equations
Always write the state of the element or compound, if
known.
(S)-Solid
(L)-Liquid
(G)-Gas
(aq) Dissolved in Water
Remember Diatomic Molecules must have a subscript of 2.
Counting Atoms
The Symbol of an element represents one atom of the element
A subscript can indicate the number of atoms
Subscript outside of brackets multiplies the number of atoms in the brackets
Coefficients in front of the element represent the number of atoms in that element or Formula
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Cell PartsNucleus- Controls the cell. Is like the brain. Directs the activities of the cell.Endoplasmic reticulum- Transports things throughout the cell.Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- synthesises proteins; transports protein; large Surface Area forreactions.Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Transfers phospholipids (Fat) and macro mloeculesMitochondria- Produces ATP (a chemical energy store) for the cell. Is often called the "powerhouse"of the cell.Vacuoles- Store things for the cell like water and waste.Golgi bodies/apparatus- sorts proteins, processes them, synthesizes carbohydrates for plant cell
walls.Vesicle-part of the Golgi Apparatus; Store ProteinCell membrane- Protects the cell and gives it shape and structure. Also controls what passes into thecell and what stays out, and recognizes signal molecules such as growth factors and hormones.Consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.Lysosome- Filled with enzymes that destroy waste in a cell.Chloroplasts (plant cells only)- Contain chlorophyll, which converts light energy into chemical
energy, which it uses to synthesize glucose from the simple, inorganic substances carbon dioxide andwater.Ribosomes- synthesize (make) protiens that are used to make amino acids.
Chromatin-The Combination of DNA in a cell
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Cytoplasm-Holds organelles in place; environment for chemical reactions to occur; nutrients
Cell Wall-tough rigid structure supporting the plant cell
Nucleolus-Creates ribosomes (protein)
Nuclear Membrane-Protects Nucleus controls movement of material in and out (micromolecules)
Nuclear Pores- Allows macromolecules in and out of the cell
Chromatin- Contains the genetic information
Cytoskeleton-filaments and tubes which provide framework for the cell.
Centrioles-Involved in Cell Division
Cilia and Flagella(Animal)-Move cell through the environment.
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Microscope
DNA
Contains genes which create proteins
Genes create protein
Different combinations of 4 genes leads to thousands of
possibilites
DNA testing is possible at an early age thanks to blood tests
Genetic flaws could occur with an extra or missing g ene, thuscreating over or under growth of protein.
Universal Gene code allows different organisms to read gene
code
Beneficial to help humans cure diseases such as heart, liver etc.
Mitosis
Reproduction of single celled organisms
Replacing damaged cells
Growth
Mitosis is useful for
Cytokenesis is the division of cytoplasm and other organelles
The Cell Cycle
Continuous sequence of growth and division
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokenesis
Cell Division
Life Cycle is divided into
G1: the Cell grows and prepares for division
Single stranded --> Double Stranded
S:Cell duplicates genetic information
G2: Cell continues to grow and prepare for cell
division.
Interphase
Chromosomes have attacked to spindle fibres
DNA is damaged or not replicated
Not Enough nutrients or DNA is damaged
Checkpoints before cell division in order to prevent
defects are:
DNA is not duplicated
DNA is damaged
Not enough nutrients
Cell Division will not occur if:
Stop Dividing due to damage
Nerve Cells
Some cells are naturally like this
These cells commit suicide
Not being in the Cell Cycle is the Non-dividing stage
Cancer Cells
Grow much faster than normal cells
The more cells that usually reproduce the faster cancer grows.
Cancer cells can enter the bloodstream and spread
around the body.
Several Layers and different types of tumour and cancers
Cell Specialization and Types of Cell
Cell Specialization is the process by which cells develop into cells with specific functions, within multicellular organisms (organs/tissue)
Cell Differentiation is the stage when living organisms create specialized cells
Groups of specialized cells are called tissue.
Groups of tissue form organs, which are working together
Multicelleular organisms start on of a s ingle cell(zygote)Animal Cells that an differentiate are stem cells. The most diverse are Totipotent, than Pluipotent and finally Adult Stem Ce lls
Plants Cells which differentiate are called Meristematic cells, which can divide into Dermal/Vascular and Ground Tissue
Plant Organs
Large surface area allows it absorb more sunlight
Photosynthesis
Stored in root
Stores product of photosynthesis (glucose) as starch
The Leaf
The Stem
Physical Support for the plant
Transportation of water and other nutrients
Hollow to allow the transport of water(pipe)
Dead cells
Xylem
Transports Nutrients and waste (sugars)
Live cells which is porous
Phloem
Xylem is in the middle Phloem surrounds it
The Root
Anchors the plant to the soil
Takes water and nutrients from the soil into the plant
Root hairs are where water and nutrients are absorbed
Cotex Cells stores starch
Endodermis controls the transport of materials
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Water evaporation =Transpiration
Reduces Water loss because it prevents evaporation
Creates the cuticle(waxy)
Epidermis is a sheet of dermal tissue
Long poles used to meet sun head on
Lots of chloroplast
Performs photosynthesis
Pallisade
Contains water and gases
Spongy
Mesophyll Tissue
Note: Epidermal cells are found on upper and lower and are classified by
upper epidermal cells and lower epidermal cells.
Delivers water and sugar
Connects plant organs
Vascular Tissue
Open and close stoma to allow the exchange of water
Guard Cells
Stacks called grana made of thylakoid
Liquid within is called stroma
Occurs in the Chloroplast
Light Energy, Carbon Dioxide and Water are required to create
Glucose C6H12O6 and Oxygen gas
Photosynthesis
Hollow to allow the transport of water(pipe)
Dead cells
Xylem
Transports Nutrients and waste (sugars)
Live cells which is porous
Phloem
Xylem is in the middle Phloem surrounds it
The Root
Anchors the plant to the soil
Takes water and nutrients from the soil into the plant
Root hairs are where water and nutrients are absorbed
Cotex Cells stores starch
Endodermis controls the transport of materials
Tap Root anchors the plant and reaches down
Stabilizes soil
Fibrous roots provide large surface area
The Flower
Reproductive organ of the flower
Not all plants have flowers
The flower creates pollen/eggs
Flowering Animals (Bees) spread the pollen and help plants
reproduce
Plant Tissue
Covers plant
Controls exchange of water and gas
Protection
Dermal Tissue
Photosynthesis
Supports plant
Ground
Xylem
Phloem
Transports water and nutrients
Vascular
Types of Animal Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Lines the surface of the body (covering)
Cell membrane is connectedMade of strongly connected cells forms a barrier
Made of thin, flat cells that form sheet
Semi permeable
Barrier between inside and outside
Fits tightly
Skin Epithelia
Made of columns of cells that line glands, stomach, intestines
May secrete mucus
Cilia projected to absorb nutrients
Columnar
Muscle Tissue
Shortening and lengthening in order to moveDesigned to change shape
Made of cells that line up in same direction
Attaches to bone allowing body to move
Skeletal Muscle
Made of cells which are tapered at each endBlood Vessels
Contracts Slowly and by itself
Smooth Muscle
Plant Organ System
Takes water and mineals in
Anchors plant
Stores nutrients
Constantly growing
Below Ground(All Organs)Root System
Photosynthesis
Transport
Reproduction
Maintain a constant flow of fluid (water)
Above Ground
Shoot System
Water, absorbed by the root needs to be
distributed.
Movement of Water
When the concentration of minerals in the xylem is
high water flows in by osmosis
Only works for a few metres
As water flows in water pressure pushes water
upward
Root Pressure
This pulls up water
When stoma opens up water vapour is lost
Water molecules stick to one anotherCohesive
Stick to other cells
Adhesive
This relies on 2 properties of water
Transpiration
Sucrose can later be dissolved in water and
redistributed through the plant.
Photosynthesis produces glucose, which is either
used or used to make sucrose to store
Food is also moved through the system in a similar
manner
Replacing and Repairing Specialized Cells
Photosynthesis
Leaves need to be replaced
Find more Nutrients
Roots need to grow
Plants grow quickly due to rapidly dividing meristetmatic
(stem cells)
Auxin controls the growth of the cells below them
Slows down lateral growthTerminal buds are located at the end of branches
In rapidly growing areas auxin(hormone) hormone is
released from the terminal bud
Therefore cutting off terminal buds removes the auxin
(temporarily) and allows plants to branch out
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Found in heart
Nuclei appears near the edge of the cells
Contracts as one unit (heart)
Cardiac Muscle
Send relay signals from brain to the muscles and organs
Nervous Tissue
Connective Tissue
Cells Surrounded by hard calcium
Movement
Supports and protects body
Bone
Large tightly packed cells for storage
Fat
RBC, WBC and Platlets
Transports Oxygen and other nutrients
Helps defend the body
Helps clot to prevent major blood loss
Blood
(temporarily) and allows plants to branch out
Movement of Molecules
Area of high concentration to low concentration
Spreading out of a liquid evenly
Diffusion
Special type of diffusion which is through a semi
permeable membrane
Low concentration of solute results in a hig h
concentration of water and in order to fix it water
is ejected from the cell, same vice versa
Osmosis
Human Body Organs
Outline of the Body and its Major organs
Human Body Systems
Transports Blood Nutrients Gases and Wastes
Heart, Blood Vessels and Blood
Circulatory
Takes in food, breaks it down absorbs the nutrients
and excretes solid waste
Mouth, Esophogus, stomach, pancreas, gall bladder,
liver, intestines.
Digestive
Controls breathing and the exchange of gas
Nose, Mouth, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Aveoli,
Diagphram
Respirtory
Removes liquid waste from the body
Skin Kidney, bladder, urethra, ureter
Excretory
Defends body against infection
WBC, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Lymph Vessels
Immune
Works with bones to move parts of the body
Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac Muscle, Tendons,
Ligaments
Muscular
Manufactures and releases hormones that act, along
with the nervous system to keep various body systems
in balance
Endocrine
Includes reproductive organs used to produce
offspring
Ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, testes,
epididymis, vas deferens, penis, urethra
Reproductive
Creates a waterproof barrier around the body
Skin, hair nails and glands
Integumentary
Detects changes in the environment and signals these
changes to the body for a response and help control
body temperature
Brain Nerves, Spinal Cord
Nervous
Supports, protects and works with muscles to move
parts of the body
Bone, Cartilage
Skeletal
Organ Systems Intredependence
Nervous: Excretory, Immune, Endocrine, Respiratory, Integumentary,
Muscular, Circulatory, Digestive, Skeletal, Reproductive.
Excretory: Nervous, Digestive
Immune: Circulatory, Skeletal, Nervous
Endocrine: Nervous, Circulatory, Reproductive
Respiratory: Circulatory
Integumentary: Muscular, Nervous
Muscular: Nervous, Skeletal, Integumentary
Circulatory: Digestive, Endocrine, Nervous, Respiratory, Immune
Digestive: Circulatory, Excretory, Nervous
Skeletal: Muscular, Nervous, Immune
Reproductive: Endocrine, Nervous
Dissection: Frog
Types of Respiratory System
Examples: Protists, algae, fungi, bacteria
Environment: moist, aquatic, in host
O2 diffuses through cell membrane and
CO2 diffuses out the system is also
moist and larger SA (cell membrane)
Diffusion
Examples: Earthworm, leeches
Environment: water, deep earth
O2 diffuses into and out of circulatory
vessels near the surface of the skin
Skin
Example: Mollusks, Crayfish, Tadpoles,
Fish
Environment: Water
gills that are feathery tissue structure with
many branches (increase S.A.)
gases are exchanged across the membranes
water flows one way over the gills as blood
Gills
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Medical Imaging Technology
Produced by transmitting a wavelength of
radiation through the body
Meant for hard tissue such as bone
X Ray
Very thin slices of X Ray to create 3D
image
CAT Scan
Produced by high frequency sound waves
Picked up by microphone
Shows real time movements
Used to see organs function
Ultrasound
Produced radio signals in magnetic field to
create images
MRI Scan
Public Health Strategies
A coordinated effort to track, research and
reduce the incidence of a specific health
problem in a population
Prevent the virus from occuring in the
population
Vaccinations
Make it harder for people to get it
Educated people on how to protect
themselves
Containing the spread of disease
Dissection: Worm
Dissection: Flower
Dissection: Grammar
Dissection: Grasshopper Mouth
Dissection: Bean
s pump n t oppos t r ct on p c n
up O2 and dropping off CO2 (countercurrent
exchange)
Example: Insects, Non-vertebrate
Environment: Terrestrial
internals respiratory system with external
spiracles that lead to tracheae
abdomen expands drawing in air through
anterior spiracles
abdomen contracts push air out through
posterior spiracles
tracheal tubes deliver O2 to cells
Tracheal
Example: Vertebrates
Environment: Terrestrial, Aquatic
one or two lungs
method of bringing in the aircirculatory system
Lungs
Digestive System
Blue Whale, Clams, Scale, Oysters,
Mussels
Engulfs strains of water by pushing up
its tongue, Krill is captured and
swallowed
Filter Feeding
Insects
Bites and uses anticoagulants to keep
blood flowing, digestive enzymes break
down the blood
Fluid Feeding
Large Multicellular organisms
Digestion occurs in a small isolated area,
Closed Tube have one opening Open
tube has two (mouth, anus)
Tube Arrangement
Amoeba
Engulfs food particles using phagocytes
and dissolve it using enzymes
Intracellular Digestion
Circulatory System
NO Organization
Materials are transported across the cell
membrane and distributed via cytoplasm
Waste is released through membrane
Unicellular
Fluid is taken through the mouth to the
body and then materials are exchanged to
the cavity
Multi Cellular
Open
Aorta carries blood to the body; materials
are exchanged; muscles help move the
blood around the cavity and back to aorta
No vessels, goes directly to muscles
Grasshopper
Closed
5 aortic hearts pump into ventral vessels ;
oxygen is exchanged via the skin. Oxygen
is carried around by a pigment
Annelids
1-2 chambered heart
Blood flows through the heart and is
pumped out into capillaries to gill where
gas exchange takes place. Then tr avels to
muscles
Fish
1-3 chambered heart
Blood is pumped to the lungs and mixes
with deoxygenated blood, then is pumped
out to body and back to heart
Amphibians
1-4 chambered heart
Heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs where gas is exchanged and
pumped to the rest of the body,
distributing oxygen
Birds and Mammals
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Brain
Levels of Biological Organization
From Smallest to Largest
Sub Atomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons1.
Atoms: Basic Building blocks2.
Small Molecules: Amino Acids, Glucose, Fatty Acid3.
Macro Molecules:: Large molecules (carbohydrates)4.
Molecular Assemblies: Groups of molecules that
distribute molecules (cell membrane)
5.
Organelle: Parts of the cell which perform specific
function
6.
Cell: Basic form of life of biological organization with a
specific job. Bacteria
7.
Tissue: groups of cells with the same specialized job8.
Organs: group of tissues gr ouped together; the
grouping allows the organ to performs specific jobs
9.
Organ System: groups of organ with one broad job10.
Organism: Any form of life, a group of cells;
functioning as one
11.
Color Mixing
Also called the RGB color model
All light receptors in the eye rely on this process
This applies to light
Red+Green= Yellow
Green+Blue = Cyan
Blue + Red = Magenta
Primary Colours are Red Green and Blue
Black is made by the absence of light in the area.
White is made by the combination of the three primary colours.
Colours we do not see are not reflected by the surface, but absorbed.
Pigments absorb and reflect these rays of light, allowing us to see colour
Additive Process
Also called the CMYK model
This model applies for pigments and the mixing of pigments to make new
colours.
Magenta+ Yellow= red
Yellow + Cyan = Green
Cyan + magenta = blue
Primary Colours are Magenta, Yellow and Cyan
Black is made of pure black pigment
White is made by absence of
pigment.
Used for printers
Subtractice Process
Significant Digits, Rounding Scientific Notation
Estimates
Used to represent uncertainty in measurement.
Used to show that the numbers are only precise to a certain degree.
Rules
Non-zero digits are always significant. Thus, 22 has two
significant digits, and 22.3 has three significant digits.
Zeroes placed before other digits are not significant;
0.046 has two significant digits.
a.
Zeroes placed between other digits are always
significant; 4009 kg has four significant digits.
b.
Zeroes placed after other digits but behind a decimal
point are significant; 7.90 has three significant digits.
c.
Zeroes at the end of a number are significant only if
they are behind a decimal point as in (c). Otherwise, it
is impossible to tell if they are significant. For
example, in the number 8200, it is not clear if the
zeroes are significant or not. The number of
significant digits in 8200 is at least two, but could be
three or four. To avoid uncertainty, use scientific
notation to place significant zeroes behind a decimal
point:
d.
With zeroes, the situation is more complicated:
Pasted from
Significant Digits
When Adding or subtracting , round the answer to the value having
the fewest decimal places in the calculation.
When multiplying or dividing round the answer to the least number
of significant digits in the calculation.
One looks at the trailing digit of the string
If the number is great than 5 round up
If the number is less than 5 round down.
There are digits after it, round up
Round down if it is even
If there are no digits after it, round up if the next digit is odd
If the number is 5
Rounding
1.23 x 1011
Pasted from
Numbers are broken down into decimals multiplied by 10
The leading number must be between 1-10
Negative exponents are possible
Scientific Notation
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Different waves have different frequencies and wavelengths
As frequency rises wavelength drops and vice versa.
In a vacuum all of the waves travel at the speed of light
Different colours have varying frequencies allowing us to distinguish them.
Frequency is measured in Hz while Wavelength is measured in meters.
c = f
Pasted from
Where c is the speed of light and f is the f requency and is the wavelength
The Nature of Light
Light Travels as a wave through a vacuum
Movement of energy from one point to another
Moves in a wave form similar to water
Light waves are invisible
3.00 x 10^8 m/s
Types of Light Emission
Fusion reaction (Hydrogen fuses to become helium)
Releases huge amount of energy which excites atoms which form light
Light from the Sun
Running an electric charge through a thin metal wire.
Resistance causes heat to increase creating light
Only 95% of energy is for light
Light from Incandescence (Light Bulbs)
Producing light by passing an electric charge through a gas
Releases energy as light, colour depends on metal
Excited atoms release energy
Light from Electric Discharge (neon signs)
Visible light that is emitted as a result of the absorption of ultraviolet
light.
Fluorite glows when exposed to UV light (produces light)
Fluorescence (Fluorescent Lights)
Luminescence
Visible light that is emitted due to exposeure to UV light and continues tobe emitted even without UV light.
Glow in the dark
Store the UV light and releases it later
Phosphoerescence (Glow in the dark objects)
The production of light by a biological organisim because of a chemical
reaction going on
Bioluminescence (Firefly)
Light is produced by a chemical reaction
Chemiluminescence(Light Stick)
Reflection
Law of reflection states the angle of
incidence is the same as the angle of
reflection.
The normal and the mirror intersect
at 90 degrees
The angle of incidence and reflection
are measured from the normal.
Ray Diagrams
Draw an incident ray to the mirror at 90
degrees. Since it impacts the mirror at
90 degrees it bounces back
Draw another incident ray from A to
any angle. Reflect the ray at an equal
angle.
Extend the dashed line from the 90
degree line and the reflected ray.
The point of intersection is where the
image of the point is located.
Concave Mirror
Principal Axis: On a concave mirror
the line that passes through the
centre of curvature and is normal
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8/4/2019 Grade 10 Science Exam Notes
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No heat is produced
Light produced by friction as a result of scartching, curshing or rubbing
certain crystals
Hammering a sugar cube
Triboluminescence
to the centre of the mrror.
Focal Point: The point on the
principal axis through which
reflected rays pass when the
incident rays are parallel to and
near the principal axis
Focal length: distance between the
mirrors and focal point
A ray parallel to the principal
axis is reflect through focal
point
A ray through Centre of
Curvature reflects back on
itself
A ray through the focal point
is reflected parallel to thenormal.
Imaging Rule:
Convex Mirror
Mirror whose reflecting surface is
curved outward
Focal point behind mirror
Imaging Rules: Any incident ray
travelling parallel to normal will
reflect so that the extended ray will
pass through the normal.
Any incident ray whose extension
will pass through the focal point will
reflect parallel to the normal
Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors
Draw a ray parallel to the normal
draw the reflected ray back through
the focal point
Draw a ray from the top of the object
through the focal point in the mirror
reflect the ray parallel to the normal
The point where all lines meet
is where the top of the object
is. The bottom of the object
rests on the normal.
Draw a ray towards C. This ray is
reflected on the same line
If the object is between F and C the
ray reflected from the centre of
curvature goes behind the object.
If the object is on the focal point no
clear image can be produced.
If the object is between the focal
point and the mirror then the object
is virtual and is on the other side of
the mirror and the rays must be
extended.
Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors
Draw a line parallel to the normal, the
reflected ray should be able to extend to
reach the focal point.
Draw a line to centre of curvature extendthe line past the mirror.
Draw a line towards the focal point and
reflect it parallel to the normal. Extend it
past the mirror
Where it intersects past the mirror is the
virtual image.
Mirror and Magnification Equations
Mirror Equation:
Where f= Focal Length
Di=distance of image
Do=Distance of object
If the image distance is negative , the
image is behind the mirror
If the focal point is negative it is
behind the mirror
Magnification Equation:
Where M= Magnification (_x)
Hi= Height of image
Ho=Height of object
Di= Distance of Image
Do= Distance of Object
If hi is negative or magnification is
negative the image is inverted relative
to the object.
Refraction
Travels through different material at
different speeds
Change in angle is called refraction
Is a property of light
The refracted ray is the ray upon entering
the new median
Angle of refraction is between the reflected
ray and the normal.
If light is moving faster in the second
median then the light bends away from the
normal, however if it is moving slower it
bends towards the normal.
The amount light bends depends on the
difference in the index of refraction
This leads to objects having distorted
positions in water. (fish)
Index of refraction is the speed of a light in
a vacuum divided by the speed of light in a
material
N=c/v
Snell's Law is the formula that uses values
for the index of refraction to calculate the
new angle that ray will take as a beam of
light strikes the interface between the two
medians
where O is the angle and N i s the index of
refraction
Characteristic of Lenses
A lens is a transparent object with at least one curved side that causes light to refr act
Lenses have surfaces that can be defines as concave or convex
There are 2 classes of lenses, converging and diverging
Bring Parallel light ray toward a common point
Have one or two convex surfaces that are THICKED IN THE CENTRE than on the
edge
Converging Lenses
Spread parallel light rays away from a common point
Have one or two concave surfaces and are THINNER IN THE CENTRE than on the
edges
Diverging lenses
When ray that are parallel to the principal axis pass through a converging lens,
the rays intersect at the focal point.
When rays that are parallel to the principal axis pass through a diverging lens
the rays diverge and by tracing the r ays backwards to the point of intersection is
the focal point
Lenses have two focal points because light can pass through both ways.
Focal Point and Focal Length of Lenses
Lenses produce spherical aberration-which are irregularities that result when
rays on the outer edges don't travel through the focal point
In thin lenses the effect is not noticeable
In thick lenses only rays near the principal axis produce a clear image because
they meet at the focal point.
Edges of think lenses can act like prism and separate light into colour
It is partially corrected by using multiple lenses and materials with different
refractive indices
Thick and Thin Lenses
Converging lens
Diverging Lens
Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lens
Draw a line vertically through the
middle of the lens (all rays movethrough there then change)
Draw a first ray parallel to the
normal, This line refracts so that it
can extend and touch the first focal
point. Extend the line by a dotted
line
Draw a second ray through the
intersection of the normal and the
principal axis. This line refracts
horizontally, there is no change in
angle.
Draw a third ray towards the
second focal point and refract it
parallel to the normal
Ray Diagrams for Converging Lenses
Draw the principal axis in the middle of the lens
Draw the first ray parallel to the normal, the line refracts
through the second focal point
Draw the second line through the intersection of the
normal and the (axis of symmetry) This line continues at
the same angle of refraction
The third ray moves through the first focal point, once it
reaches the axis of symmetry it refracts parallel to the
normal
Total Internal Reflection/Critical
Angle/Partial Reflection and
Refraction
Partial Reflection and refraction is
when some light is reflected and some
refracted
At the critical angle(produces refracted
ray of 90) all light is reflect rather than
reflection. This is called Total internal
reflection( where things reflect within
the object)
Total Internal Reflection only occurs
when light moves faster from one
medium to another and the angle of is
greater than the critical angle.
Dispersion
Since white light is composed of all
colours when it is dispersed after
leaving a prism. The colour on top is the
fastest speed. (Red)
Practical Uses of Reflection/Refraction
Optical fibres are line with mirrors which allow
light to bend and move forward through a wire.
The more light refracts(the more a medium
slows it down) results in more refraction
More faces result in more refraction
Car mirrors change angle at night in order to
divert different amounts of light into the drivers
eyes. At nights light is not directly reflected
(contrast) towards the driver, however during
the day light goes directly into the drivers eyes.
Changing the Direction of a Light Ray
Impacting a normal at 45 degrees will result in light turning 180 degr ees.
Optical Phenomena in Nature
Same as rainbows except with ice
Sun Dogs
When light is behind you and in front of you is a cloud of water then light
refracts in different colours.
Creates a rainbow
Rainbows
In water since light travels slower, objects appear shallower than they
are.
Apparent Depth
Human Vision
Parts of the Eye
Transparent layer where light enters
and is directed into the eye
Light is refracted by the cornea
Cornea
Dark circle (hole) when you look at
the eye
Light enters but does not leave
Pupil
Circular band of muscle
Determines colour of eye
Controls size of pupil
Iris
Back lining of eye
Acts as projector screen
All things are projected upside down.
Retina
Lens
Can change shape/Change focal
Converging Lens
Detecting Light
Cells that are sensetive to light
Rods: Low Light (don't sense colour)
Cones: Regular ones sense colour)
Once light reaches the retina it is absorbed by
photoreceptors
One spot on retina where there are no
photoreceptors.(location of optical nerve)
Brain fills in the image
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When hot air is caught between cold air, since they have different indices
of refraction it causes a different range of refraction.
This creates shimmering
Shimmer
Large scale shimmer. (hot highway or desert)
Brain interprets light travels in a straight line, but mirages cause light to
bend.
Depending on temperature images can appear inverted.(due to atemperature inversion) Hot air above cold air.
Mirage
Acts as projector screen
All things are projected upside down.
Lens
Can change shape/Change focal
length
Attached to cillary muscles which
hold and change the lens
Converging Lens
Muscles contract for closer objects (vice
versa)
Problems in Eyesight
Myopia (Near Sighted Vision): Eye is too long. This eye cannot focus on far things. Use
a diverging lens to correct it
Hyperopia (Far Sighted Vision): Eye is too short; This eye cannot focus on nearby
objects. Use a converging lens to fix it.
Prebyopia: Cant focus on nearby objects; Eye muscles are too stiff. Use a bifocal lens
(Top is diverging; bottom is converging
Astigmatism: Cornea is incorrectly shaped; no solution
Parts of A Camera (Eye)
Aperture: Pupil
Lens: RetinaRim : Cillary Muscles
Film: Lens
Factors that Affect Climate Change
Atmosphere is a layer of gases covering the earth
Climate is the patterns in weather conditions in an area
Climates have changed many times
Earth and Sun
Energy from the sun is the largest factor in our climate
The amount of energy produced from the sun changes over time
Earth rotates once every 24 hours around the axis (day) In 365 days the earth rotates once around the sun (year)
Axis of the earth is 23.5 Orbit+Tilt make seasons
Eccentricity is the orbit pattern Earth orbits in either a circular or elliptical pattern(More energy,
intense seasons) Tilt is the change in the axis, the greater the tilt the greater
difference between summer and winter Wobble(precision) affects amount of energy received and
difference in the temperature during the s easons Sun strikes earth perpendicular to the equator and poles at
different angles causing poles to be cooler
Atmosphere
Composed of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Water Vapour and
other gases/solids
Uneven heating of the earth(sun) causes warm air to
move to cooler areas (wind)
Winds create ocean currents by blowing them,
oceans also absorb and transfer heat.
When two air masses meet one rises, cools and
condenses to form precipitation. Jet streams (fast moving winds) carry air greater
distances; Polar Jet stream affects Canada
Hydrosphere
Mass of Water on the earth
Water has a high heat capacity (lot of heat to changetemperature) allows it to hold more heat then air, thus becoming
a reservoir.
Ice and Snow reflect solar radiation due to light colour (fraction of
energy reflected is called albedo; affects global temperature
Natural Disasters
Natural Disasters and Climate change affect many things affecting
humans
Food Supply would be affected due to loss of fisheries and crops.
Greater Disease Risk in areas which are tropical. Deforestation will
also come into affect due to dry climate leading to fires. Seal
levels rising will cause a loss of land and water conflicts will be in
effect everywhere currently lacking freshwater. Also the amount
and intensity of Tropical storms will increase, killing more people
Moving Continents
Tectonics are massive pieces of solid rock which
move a bit every year. Cause changes in circulation
and shape of continents and wind
Volcanoes release particles which reflect solar
radiation, decreasing the amount of heat; however
some may release greenhouse gases increasing
temperature
Human Activity
Burning of Fossil Fuels releases gases (greenhouse) and pollutants.
Greenhouse Effect
Natural process where gases
and clouds absorbed infrared
radiation emitted from the
earth.
Nitrogen and Oxygen are not
greenhouse gases( do not
absorb radiation)
Heating the Planet
Radiation is the transfer of energy via a
wave from the sun, factors affecting it are
latitude, tilt, albedo, heat capacity
Conduction is the transfer of thermal
energy, through particle collision (similar to
a stove)
Convection is the transfer of energy by the
mass movement of liquids or bases (warm
air rising)
Energy Transfer in the Ocean
As Water moves towards the poles it gets
colder and saltier, this is due to when salt
water freezes at the the poles the salt is
ejected from the ice and sent to the
bottom.
Cold salty Water is dense and sinks,
allowing warmer water to take its place
This is called Thermohaline circulation.
Other factors include other currents,
surface winds, shapes of coast, rotation,
convection, heat capacity of water.
Greenhouse Gases
Carbon Dioxide makes up 0.36% of the atmosphere and contributes to 1/4 of the natural greenhouse gases. It is
produced by burning fossil fuels, volcanoes, burning material, and cellular respiration. Risen after Industrial
Water Vapour makes up 2/3 of the greenhouse effect and is 1-4% of the atmosphere. Water evaporates
regularly in warm climates causing heat to increase causing more water to evaporate. (Positive Feedback Loop)
Methane (CH4) is 23 times more potent then CO2 and has risen since industrial revolution. Natural sources are
swamps, digestion, decomposition
Ozone varies frequently in atmosphere. Traps in thermal heat
Nitrous Oxide exists scarcer then even CH4 however is 300 times more potent. More after industrial age; natural
sources include bacteria and soil
Indicators of Climate Change
Largest indicator of change is global warming. Some areas are experiencing cooling, however there is an
overall warming of the earth, which has accelerated in the past 5 years
Polar and Glacial Ice has been melting in Greenland and Antarctica, which is in turn causing rising sea levels.
This destroys the habitat of aquatic animals, ruining food supply and the Inuit lifestyle.
Rising Seal level has occured due to melting glacial ice and thermal expansion( water molecules are more
excited in warmer climates and take up more space. Land is being covered in water and most major cities are
costal, proving to be a large problem.
The oceans are becoming more acidic because it is absorbing more CO2 producing carbonic acid. This
Climate and Health Risks
Increased chance of disease and infection, particularly of waterborne diseases during
flooding.
Increased temperature also causes an increase in dust , which can cause respiratory
problems
Changing wind patterns causes changing in heating distribution, which mostly causes
glacial ice to melt
Hi her tem eratures has increased eva oration causin more reci itation causin
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threatens the neutralization reaction of coral (acid-base reaction) and shelled animals. Destroying habitats and
the lives of animals
, ,
flooding. However in some areas this can lead to desertification, which can cause
famines
Biomes are being changed due to deforestation and rapidly changing environment and
habitat changes
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