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Glossary
Anemochory Diaspore dispersal by birds (Pijl, 1982).
Autobarochory A type of autochory, when diaspores fall off through gravity (Levina, 1967).
Autochory Diaspore dispersal, which does not require dispersal agents (Levina, 1957).
Allochory Diaspore dispersal, in which dispersal agents, such as wind, water, animals, humans, are involved (Levina, 1957).
Aril A seed appendage consisting of sappy and pulpy tissues or presenting a kind of a pellicle or a fringe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
- complex An aril of a dual origin (Werker, 1997).
- false An aril originating in the region of micropyle, chalaza or along raphe-antiraphe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
- micropylar An aril originating in the region of micropyle (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
- raphal An aril originating along raphe-antiraphe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
- true An aril originating on afunicle (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Arillode See Aril false.
Bract A somewhat modified leaf, which subtends a flower or inflorescence in its axis (Allaby, 1992a).
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«Cafeteria» experiment A type of experiment, where food objects are presented to animals to record removal rates of the objects.
Capsule A polyspermous dehiscent fruit, usually dry, only in some cases sappy (Levina, 1967).
Carnivorous ants (Brian, 1983).
Ant species that feed mainly on animal food
Caruncle See AriZ micropylar.
Carpel A structure of the flower, in which ovule(s) is (are) developed, and collectively constitute the gynoecium.
Chalaza A basal region of the ovule, where integuments arise and the funicle is attached (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Chalazal process An ariZ originating in the region of chalaza (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Clone A plant or a group of plants derived from an ancestor by asexual reproduction (by detachment of roots, stems or leaves, or their parts) and developed into a complete plant.
Coenobium A fruit that disintegrates not only along the plane of carpel accretion, but also along additional septum perpendicular to the plane (Levina, 1967).
Colony A group of ant individuals, other than a single mated pair, which constructs nests or brings up offspring in a cooperative manner (Hblldobler and Wilson, 1990).
Cotyledon, cotyledonous leaf A seed leaf, which is borne on a plant embryo (Allaby, 1992a).
Diaspore A part of a plant that serves for reproduction and dispersal (Tahtadzhjan, 1985). Diaspores have different origins: seeds, fruits, mericarps, erems, etc.
Diaspore dispersal The departure of a diaspore from the parent plant (Howe and Smallwood, 1982).
Diaspore body A diaspore without elaiosome.
Diaspore predator An animal that eats or destroys a diaspore (Howe and Smallwood, 1988).
Diplochore A plant that uses a two-phase method of dia5pore dispersal, e.g. myrmecochory follows autochory (Levina, 1957).
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Dispersal of diaspores See Diaspore dispersal.
Dispersal syndrome A complex of plant adaptations to a certain diaspore dispersal method (Pijl, 1982).
Dissemination See Diaspore dispersal.
Dominant species The species having the most influence on community composition and form; also the most abundant species in the community (Allaby, 1994).
Dropping rate of diaspores The number of diaspores dropped by ants during transport along a certain distance of the route.
Elaiosome An appendage of a myrmecochorous diaspore that consists of parenchymatous cells containing a high amount of oils (Tahtadzhjan, 1985). Elaiosomes vary greatly in origin.
Endozoochory 1982).
Diaspore dispersal through animals, internally (Pijl,
Erem A part of a disintegrating fruit of the coenobium-type (Levina, 1967).
Erem body An erem without an elaiosome.
Exocarp The outer layer of the fruit wall (Allaby, 1992a).
Epizoochory Diaspore dispersal through animals, externally (Pijl, 1982).
Flower tube A structure consisting of partly or fully accrete floral leaves.
Foot of the nest mound The wall around the nest mound composed of the soil removed from tunnels.
Forager A worker of an ant colony that goes in search of food (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).
Foraging ant See Forager.
Fruit A modified, owing to fertilisation, ripened gynoecium and its content including any other organs of a flower or inflorescence, with which it is inseparably connected (Allaby, 1992a).
Fruit body A fruit without elaiosome.
Funicle A stalk that attaches the ovule to the placenta (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Garbage dump A place of waste deposition of the ant colony.
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Geocarpy The ripening of diaspores in soil (Levina, 1967).
Gynoecium Female reproductive organs of a flower comprising one or many carpels (Allaby, 1992).
Habitat A living place of an organism or community, characterised by its physical or biotic properties (Allaby, 1994).
Harvesting ants Ant species that feed mainly on seeds and store them in their nests (H6lldobler and Wilson, 1990).
Hilum A scar on a seed that marks the point, at which it was attached to the funicle or placenta (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Hydrochory Diaspore dispersal by water (Pijl, 1982).
Inflorescence A flowering structure that consists of more than a single flower (Allaby, 1992a).
Juvenile, juvenile plant A young immature plant with true leaves, either with cotyledons or without them.
Learning A feature of ant behaviour; the process of acquisition of knowledge about food source location by an individual ant worker.
Mandibles Paired structures of ant mouth-parts commonly used for seizing and cutting food (Allaby, 1992b).
Mature plant A fully grown and developed plant.
Mericarp A monospermous closed part of a disintegrating fruit that corresponds to a carpel (Levina, 1967).
Microhabitat A precise location within a habitat, where an individual species is found (Allaby, 1994).
Micropyle A canal in the integuments on the apical part of the ovule, through which the pollen tube (a tube formed from a germinating pollen grain) passes during fertilisation (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Microsite See Microhabitat.
Myrmecochore A plant, whose diaspores are dispersed by ants (Sernander, 1906).
- facultative a plant that has another method of diaspore dispersal in addition to myrmecochory (Ulbrich, 1928) .
. - obligate a plant that uses only one method of diaspore dispersal - myrmecochory (Ulbrich, 1928).
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Myrmecochorous plant See Myrmecochore.
Myrmecochorous syndrome A complex of special morphological, anatomical, biochemical, and phenological adaptations of plants that enhance ant attraction and thus increase the effectiveness of myrmecochory.
Myrmecochory One of diaspore dispersal methods; diaspore dispersal by ants (Ulbrich, 1928).
- non-specialised A type of myrmecochory, where diaspores lack fat-containing appendages.
- specialised A type of myrmecochory, where diaspores have special fat-containing bodies - elaiosomes. Ants consume elaiosomes and disperse diaspores.
Myrmecophily Mutually beneficial interactions between ants and plants (Beattie, 1983).
Mutualism, mutualistic relations Interactions between members of two species, which benefit both (Allaby, 1994).
Nest mound A part of an ant nest that is constructed of a mound of soil and projects above the ground surface.
Niche The combined range of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and food resources, within which a species can exist and reproduce (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).
Ornithochory Diaspore dispersal by birds (Pijl, 1982).
Ovule A structure in seed plants that, after fertilisation, develops into a seed (Allaby, 1992a).
Parent plant diaspores.
A plant, which is producing or has produced
Placenta A part of the ovary (a basal part of gynoecium) wall carrying the ovules (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Pericarp A fruit wall, often with three distinct layers (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Perigonium Floral leaves that are not differentiated into sepals and petals.
Pseudoaril See Aril false.
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Raphe A part of the funicle of an anatropous ovule adnate to the integuments and forming a ridge from the hilum to chalaza (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Receptacle A part of the stem, from which all the parts of the flower arise (Allaby, 1992a).
Recruitment A special form of assemblage, in which members of an ant colony are directed to some point in space, where work is required (H611dobler and Wilson, 1990).
Redispersal of diaspores The transference of myrmecochorous diaspores by ants from nests after consumption of elaiosomes.
Redistribution of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.
Relocation of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.
Removal rate of diaspores The number of diaspores removed by ants over a certain period of time.
Sarcotesta The outer and usually soft and sappy part of the seed cover (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Secondary relocation of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.
Seed A dispersal unit of seed plants. It is formed on the parent plant from a fertilised and ripened ovule and contains an embryo and a food store enclosed in a protective outer coat (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).
Seed body A seed without elaiosome.
Seed flow Diaspore movement from the parent plant to the germination site. It can be caused either by the plant itself or by dispersal agents, such as wind, water, animals, and humans.
Seed producing capacity during one season.
The number of seeds produced by a plant
Seedling A young immature plant grown and developed from a seed, with cotyledons.
Selective advantages of myrmecochory Advantages, which are promoted by natural selection and used by plants dispersed by ants.
Soil seed bank Ungerminated but viable seeds that lie in the soil (Allaby, 1994).
Spermoderm 1985).
A protective outer coat of the seed (Tahtadzhjan,
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Strophiole See Aril raphal.
Style An extension of the carpel that connects the ovary to the stigma (a part of the female reproductive organs on which pollen grains germinate) (Allaby, 1992a).
Time of half removal of diaspores The time, in which half of the diaspores are removed from the complete diaspore depot.
Worker, working individual A member of the non-reproductive labouring caste of the ant colony that are engaged in brood care, forage, building of nests etc. (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).
Zoochory Diaspore dispersal by animals (Levina, 1957).
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Appendix
201
202
A
Fig. I. Longitudinal (A) and cross (B) sections of Gagea sp. elaiosome (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). DC, distinct cortex of elaiosome; EP, epidermis; VB, vascular bundle. Scale bar: A - 500 flm, B - 100 flm.
203
A
Fig. II. Longitudinal sections of Mercurialis perennis sarcotesta and caruncle (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. Combination of sarcotesta and caruncle. B. Sarcotesta. C. Caruncle. CRN, caruncle; DC, distinct cortex of elaiosome; ED, epidermis; PL, protective layer; SCT, sarcotesta. Scale bar: A - 500 11m, B - 100 11m, C - 200 11m.
204
Fig. III. Longitudinal sections of Ficaria verna fruit (A) and Lamium maculatum elaiosome (A, B) (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. General view. B. Peripheral part. C. Central part. FT, fundamental tissue; PFL, peripheral layer; PT, protective tissue; ST, supporting tissue (vascular bundle). Scale bar: A - 500 /lm, B - 100 /lm, C - 50 /lm.
205
A
Fig. IV. Longitudinal sections of Anemone ranunculoides elaiosome (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. General view. B. Central part. C. Apical part. FT, fundamental tissue; PFL, peripheral layer; PT, protective tissue; ST, supporting tissue (vascular bundle). Scale bar: A - 500 /lm, B -200 /lm, C - 100 )lm.
206
Fig. V. Elaiosome cells of Chelidonium majus (A) and Viola reichenbachiana (B) (light microscope, Sudan Black stain). Lipids are connected with cell walls (arrows), appear in spherosomes (SPH) or in an extemallayer of the elaiosome (stars). Scale bar: 50 ~m.
207
Fig. VI. Semi-thin sections of elaiosome cells of Pulmonaria obscura (A), Lamium maculatum (B) and Mercurialis perennis (C) in scanning electron microscope (after Maxwell method (Maxwell, 1978)). CW, cell walls; NC, nuclei; VS, places of lipid localisation. Scale bar: 5 !lm.
208
Fig. VII. Semi-thin sections of elaiosome cells of Lamium maculatum in scanning electron microscope (after Maxwell method (Maxwell, 1978)). CU, cuticle; CW, cell walls; NC, nuclei; OL, external lipid layer. Scale bar: A - 2 /lm, B -20 /lm.
209
Fig. VIII. Vegetation of Formica polyctena nest mounds. ap, Alliaria petiolata; as, Anthriscus sylvestris; ga, Galium aparine; in, Impatiens nolitangere; 1m, Lamium maculatum; os, Omphalodes scorpioides; sh, Stella ria holostea; YO, Viola odorata.
210
,tl'" . ~ " ..
~"
Fig. IX. A. Study site. B. Guilds of myrmecochores in the deciduous forest. C. Germination success of seeds of Viola odorata collected from garbage dump on the territory borders of Formica polyctena ants (n=238) and seeds taken directly from the fruit (n=238). D. Diaspores collected from soil samples from various forest microsites. E. Experimental set-up in study on seedling survival of Coridalis bulbosa. F. Typical set-up for «cafeteria» experiments. ae, Asarum europaeum; 1m, Lamium maculatum; mp, mature plants; po, Pulmonaria obscura; sd, seedlings; sds, seeds; tb, wooden table; vh, V. hirta; vo, V. odorata; wk, ant workers.
211
Fig. X. Garbage dump of Formica polyctena ants on the new border between territories of Lasius fuliginosus and Formica polyctena in late Summer (A, B) and late Spring (C). Note presence of diaspores among insect remains. cc, Corydalis cava; os, Omphalodes scorpioides; sb, Scilla bifolia; YO, Viola odorata.
212
Fig. XI. Association of seedlings and juvenile plants on the old border between territories of Lasius fuliginosus and Formica polyctena. ae, Asarum europaeum; cb, Corydalis bulbosa; 1m, Lamium maculatum; as, Omphalodes scorpioides; sh, Stellaria holostea; va, Viola odorata.
213
Fig. XII. Ant -related associations of plants in the deciduous forest. A. Border between Formica polyctena and Lasiusfuliginosus. B, C. A high concentration of Lamium maculatum in surroundings of L. fuliginosus nest (B) and on the border between F. polyctena and L. fuliginosus territories (C). D. A high concentration of Chelidonium majus on the L. niger nest. E. A high concentration of Omphalodes scorpio ides on the border between F. polyctena and L. fuliginosus territories. ae, Asarum europaeum; cm, C. majus; 1m, L. maculatum; os, O. scorpioides; po, Pulmonaria obscura; YO,
Viola odorata.
214
Fig. XIII. Fate of seeds of myrmecochorous plants. A. Juvenile plants of Lamium macula tum growing in a Myrmica rubra nest located in the hollow of a tree. B. Formica polyctena worker removing seeds from the opened fruit of Scilla bifolia. C. F. polyctena workers removing seeds from the opened fruit of V. odorata. D. Juvenile plant of Chelidonium majus growing in a Lasius niger nest located on the tree bark. E. Elaiosome-bearing seeds of early-spring myrmecochores: Gagea lutea (gl), S. bifolia (sb), S. sibirica (ss).
215
Fig. XIV. Fruits and seeds of myrmecochorous plants from the deciduous forest. A. Viola mirabilis. B. Chelidonium majus. C, E. Scilla sibirica. D. V. odorata. F. Pulmonaria obscura.
216
Fig. xv. Fruits and seeds of myrmecochorous plants from the deciduous forest. A. Anemone ranunculoides. B. Mercurialis perennis. C. Corydalis cava. D. Omphalodes scorpioides. E. Asarum europaeum. F. Ficaria verna.
Index
A
Acacia 13,17,23,28,126,185,188,
196,198
- linifolia 28
- myrtifolia 13
- terminalis 126
Acalypha 11, 194
Acer
- platanoides 101, 104, 153, 154
- negundo 154
adaptation xi, xiii, xiv, 2-6, 16, l7, 21-24,
40,44,50,77,95,153,155,173,179,
181,188
Aegopodium podagraria 86,89, 154
Africa 126
aggregation of seeds vi, 35-37, 46-50,
154, 161, 191
Alliariapetiolata 86,89,90,93,101,
143,209
allochory 6, 177
anatomy vi, ix, 1,2,5,6,9, 11,24-26,38,
40,42-44,50,123,153,157,158,170,
173,181,198,199
anemochory 22,27,155,177
Anemone 12,21,104,205,216
217
- hepatica 12
ants v-ix, xi-xv, 1-6,9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19-
26,28-34,36,37,39-47,49,50,53-
55,58-65,67-69,71-78,80,81,83-95,
97-99, 101, 102, 104, 106-108, 111-
113,115,118,121-131,135,137,138,
140,143-151,155,157-167,169,173-
176,178-183,186-199,210
Anthriscus sylvestris 86,87, 89, 90, 93,
99-101, 103, 104, 106, 143, 153,209
ant-plants v, xi, xii, xiv, 1, 15, 22, 25,
175,186,188,189,192,194
Aphaenogaster 13
aphids 20
aril 9, 10, 11,40, 177, 178, 194, 197
arillode 177
Aristolochiaceae 155, 190
Asarum viii, 15, 17,26,27,32,33,36,
37,40,71,81,86,87,91,92,98-101,
103-106,121,130,136-139,141,153-
155,167,168,190,192,210,212,
213,216
- europaeum viii, 15, 17,26- 29, 32-
34,36,37,71,73-76,81,86,87,91,
92,98,99, 100, 101, 103-106, 121,
218
130, 136-141, 153-155, 159, 164, 167,
168, 190,210,212,213,216
assimilating organs v, 16,21
Atriplex 101
attractants 14,15,189,195
attractiveness v, xiv, 15,22,33,36,37,
44,45,50,62,174,191
Australia 2, 17, 125, 126, 185, 188, 193,
196
autobarochory 27,131,136,141,155,
177
autochory 6,22,27,49,50,75,125,136,
155, 156, 161, 177, 178
automechanochory 27, 155
B
Ballota nigra 8,86,88,98,99, 101, 103-
106, 153
behaviour vii, xi, xii, xiv, 1,5, 13,21,
24,26,39,45,47,53,64,67,68,80,
91,93,95,97,106,107,111,118,
122, 125, 127, 130, 14~ 157, 163,
173-175,180,186,187,193
Besleria 23,199
biochemistry 5,6,24,45, 173, 181
birds 22,124,163,169,177,181
Bocconia 7,9
Boraginaceae 42, 155, 191
Borago 21
Bossiaea obcordata 28
Brachychilum 7
bract 177
brood emergence 19
Buxus 7
c cafeteria experiments vi, ix, 25, 26, 27,
28,31,38,39,47,143,144,159,160,
161, 168, 170, 178, 210
Calathea 7, 126, 193
calcium oxalate 12
California 125
Camponotus obscripes 29
capsules 21,22,83, 127-129, 155, 156,
178
carbohydrates 13
Carex 124
- pi/osa 154
- pilulifera 47,107,119,194
Carica papaya 13, 194
carpel 178
Carpinus betulus 154
caruncle 9, 11, 178, 194, 203
Cecropia 23,188
cell 7, 10-13,38,40-42,44,45, 158, 179,
206-208
- wall 11-13, 38, 40, 206-208
Centaurea
- cyanus 12
- montana 12
chalaza 178
chaparral 125, 187
chasmogamous flowers 127, 156
Chelidonium 7,15,17,26,27,32,33,
36,3~47-5~ 71,81, 10~ 101, 104,
106,120,136,153,156,188,191,
198,206,213-215
- majus 15, 17,26-29,32-34,36,37,
47-50,71,73-76,81,100,101,104,
106,120,121,136,153,156,159,161
164,188,191,198,206,213-215
chemical content 2,13,15,33,37,45,
50,83,90,120,130,150,173
cleaning behaviour 127
c1eistogamous flowers 156, 188
clone 130, 137, 138-141, 155, 156, 168,
178
coat of the fruit 42,44,45, 182
coenobium 7,41,155,178,179
collar 41,42,44,45,50
colony vii, 19,21,23,34,39, 74, 76, 84,
91,93,94,97,103, 108, III, 115,
121,124, 127, 150, 158, 160, 169,
174, 178, 179, 182, 183
community xi, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29,36,
179,180,191,192
competition xii, 20, 23, 64, 69, 94, 103,
108,121,124,126,127,130,131,
136,137,140,141,174
competition-avoidance 23,141
complex aril 9
computer model xiv
Corydalis vi, viii, 7, 11, 15, 17,20,37-
41,43,44,46,50,83,86-88,92,100,
103-106, 120, 130-135, 141, 153, 155,
189-191,196,211,212,216
- ambiqua 20
- aurea 83, 130, 135
- bulbosa vi, viii, 7,15,17,20,37-39,
50,86-88,103-106, 131-136, 141,
154,155,160,166,212
- cava vi, 7,11,15,17,20,37-41,43-
46,50,86-88,92,100,103,104,106,
153,155,160,161,189,191,211,216
Croomia 7,9
Croton 23,189,196
Cyclamen 11, 185, 195
D
deciduous forest i, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 4, 15,
17,20,24-26,30,31,36,69,72,81,
84,94,95,97,103,107,119,121,
129,130, 136, 141, 143, 153, 154,
162, 174, 175, 190, 191,210,213,
215,216
Dendromecon 22, 186, 187
diaspores v-ix, xi, xiii, xiv, 1-7,9,11,13,
15-29,31-41,43-47,49,50,53,59,
60,68,71-77,79,80,83-87,89-95,
97, 101, 103, 104, 106-108, 111-122,
124-127,131,134,136,137,143-145,
149-151,153-155,157-162,164,165,
169,170,173-183,191,193,211
219
Dicentra 7,9, 186
diet 14,20,59, 107
diglycerides 13-15, 195
Dillwynia retorta 126
1,2-diolein 13-15,24, 173
dip1ochores 22,49-51,73-75,131,136,
145, 178, 196
diploid 11
dispersal vii, viii, xi, xiii, xiv, 1-6, 15,
18-20, 22-26, 29, 33, 35, 36, 40-42,
45,50,53,59,62,68,69,71,75-81,
83,84,86,91,93-95,97, 106, 108,
109,111-123,125-127,129,131,134,
136, 137, 139-141, 143, 150, 151, 153,
154,156,157,161,166,167,170,
173-183, 185-199
- agent 1, 5, 6, 20, 26, 75, 177
- distance xiv, 34, 72, 77, 78, 81, 119,
137,192
- for distance 23,50, 79, 91, 121
dissemination 2, 16, 19-22,49, 130, 189,
197
distinct cortex 11, 202, 203
Dnipro xiii
dropping vii, xiv, 3, 4, 64, 71, 73-75, 77-
81,92, 106, 107, 111-122, 164, 165,
171,173,174,179,190
E
ecological networks xii, xv
ecology xi-xv, 1,2,97,125, 185, 186,
188,191,193-196,199
ecosystem xi-xv, 2, 4, 24,53, 121, 124,
125, 173, 175, 195, 196
elaiosome v-vii, ix, xii-xv, 1-17, 19-29,
31-34,36-47,49,50,53,59,60,62,
63,64,67-69,71,73-75,78,80,81,
83,84,86,88-97, 101-103, 106-108,
111,113,119-125,129-131,134-136,
140,143,149-151,153,155-158,160,
161,163,165,173-176,178,179,181,
220
182,187, 190, 191, 193, 195,202-208,
214
embryo 1,12,178,182
endosperm 12, 193
endozoochory 22,179
ephemeral 19,37,39,84,85,91, 130,
131, 135, 165, 196
epidermis 10, 11, 13,202,203
epiphytic plants 23
epizoochory 179
Equisetum sylvatica 154
erem 7,9,11,41-45,179
Euonymus verrucosa 99
Euphorbia 7, 11, 187, 189
Euphorbiaceae 11,13, 189, 194, 196
Europe xiii, 1,25, 186
evolution xi, xiii, xiv, 5, 9, 43, 94, 173,
186, 191, 196
exocarp 42,43,179
extrafloral nectaries 23
F
Fabaceae 125
Fallopia convolvulus 86,89,90,93,99,
101, 104, 143
fat 1, 13
fatty acids 13,14,24,173
Fedia 7
fertilisation 10, 179-181
Ficaria verna 7,8, 17, 154,204,216
field experiments xi, xiii-xv, 3-5, 17,24,
25,36,40,68,76,77,79,108,111,
112, 137, 140, 155
fire-avoidance 23, 140
flower 9, 18,21,22,24,41, 128, 155,
173, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182
flowering 19,21,22,124,180
- plants xiii, xiv, 5, 9, 173
foraging 17,26,35,39,47,49,53,59,
64,67,71,77,81,84,85,87,91,94,
106,107,149,155, 157, 159-161, 164,
165, 168, 186, 192, 193, 195
- niche 17,64
forest xi, xiii, 19,21,125,131,134,157,
185, 186, 195
Formica vi-viii, xii, 3, 15, 19,21,26,28,
30-32,35-37,39,47,50,53-56,58,
60,61,65,66,68,69,71-73,76,81,
83,85,86,91-94,97,99,101,102,
104-106,108,111,119,124,127-129,
138, 140, 143, 144, 149, 151, 157,
163,166,167,170,189-193,195,197,
199,209-214
- cinerea 84, 113
- cunicularia 84
- execta 84
- polyctena vi-viii, xii, 3,15,19,21,
26,28-32, 34-39, 43, 45-50, 53-56, 58,
59-69,71-74,76,77,81, 84c86, 90-94,
97- 99,101-109,111,113,120,121,
127-130, 134, 136-141, 143, 144, 149,
150, 151, 157-169, 190-192, 195, 197,
209-214
- schaufossi 68, 189
Formicinae 157
Fraxinus excelsior 10 1
fructose 13
fruit v, xiii, xiv, 1,2, 7, 11, 12, 16,20-
22,25,26,41-43,50,56,59,60,68,
69,124,127-131, 140, 141, 144, 149,
151,155,156,158,159,165-168,178-
181, 185, 186, 191, 192, 194, 198,
204,210,214
fruiting period 16,19-21,37,84,91,106,
127, 131, 144, 155, 156, 158
Fumaria 9
Fumariaceae 41, 155, 186, 190
fundamental tissue 11,12,42,204,205
funicle 9,40,177-180,182
G
Gagea 11,120,202
-lutea 7,8, 17, 154, 189,214
Galium aparine viii, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93,
104, 106, 143-145, 146, 149-151, 153,
156, 168, 169, 191, 197,209
garbage dump 84,97, 103, 109, 174,
179,211
gardens of ants 23,188,189,194,197,
199
geocarpy 26, 155, 180
Geranium robertianum 99,101
germination 3, l3, 83, 93, 103, 108, 120,
125,131,144,145,150,151,175,
182, 189, 194
Geum urbanum 86,89,99,101,103,104
Glechoma hirsuta 86,89,93,99, 101,
104, 153, 154
glucose 13
granivores 124, l32
ground beetles 20,50,59, 119, 124, 163,
196
gynoecium 180
H
habitat xiii, xiv, 180, 191
haemolymph 14
Hardenbergia violacea l3, 192
harvesting ants 5,6,28,63,72, 180, 185-
187, 195
Hepatica 13,21, 197
- americana l3, 197
herbivores 23
Hibbertia 7
hilum 9,40, 180, 182
Hydnophytum 23, 193
hydrochory 27, 155, 180
I
inflorescence 7,9,24,173,177,179,180
inhibitors 13
221
inhumation 108
insects xiv, 14,20, 101, 107, 157, 185,
189, 190, 193, 198,211
Iris aphylla 21
K
Knautia arvensis 7, l3, 17
L
Lamiaceae 42
Lamium 7,8,12, l3, 17,86,88,100,
120, 153,204,207-210,212-214
- maculatum 7,8, l3, 17,86,88, 100,
120,153,204,207-210,212-214
Lasius vi, vii, l3, 29,50,53-56,58,61,
65,66,69,73,97,99,101,102,104-
106, 108, 124, 129, l31, 136, 140,
149, 157, 162, 163, 166, 187, 189,
194,211-214
-jlavus 50,129,149,166
- fuliginosus vi, vii, 13,50,53-56,58-
69,72,73,97-99,101-109,129,140,
157, 162-166, 169, 189, 211-2l3
- niger 29,50,129, l31, 136, 149,
166, 2l3, 214
- pallitarsis 29
leaf 21,23,138, l39, 155, 168, 178-181
learning vii, xii, 54, 64, 66-69, 159, 161,
164,174,180,193
Leptothorax nylanderi 19,29,53-55,61,
69,71,73,157,163
linoleic acid 14
lipids 7,9, l3, 44, 45, 158,207,208
litter 16,17,19,25,34,45,49,74-76,
93, 127-129, 155-160, 166
M
Afacaranga 23, 189
mandible 34,39,41,60,72,92, 180
manipulation vi, 41, 54, 60-62, 64, 66,
164
222
mark-recapture experiments 74,81
mechanical tissue 16, 22
medulla 11
Melampyrum argyrocomum 22
MeUca nutans 7
MercuriaUs 7, 11, 196
- perennis 17, 154,203,207,216
mericarp 180
Messor
- barbatus 28
- capitatus 28, 186
- denticomis 28
- sanctus 28
microhabitat 180
micropyle 41,177,180
microsite vi, xiv, xv, 29, 54, 55, 58-61,
68,90,98, 103, 131, 138, 162, 163,
164, 180
mobilisation 47
morphology xi, xiv, 1,2,5,6,24,25,50,
59,72,73,77,111-113,122,127,153,
157, 170, 173, 181, 185, 190, 193-195,
198, 199
mound 45,90,91,93,94,106,123,127,
143,145,146,150,165,169,179,
181, 187, 199
- substrate 93,94, 106, 143, 150
mutualism xi, 5,23,71,150,151,181,
189, 190, 192-194, 196
myrmecochore v-ix, xiv, xv, 1,2, 7, 9, 11,
13, 16, 19-22,24,26-29,35,36,39,
40,43,47,49-51,59,67,68,71,74,
75,78,81,84-95,98-101,103,104,
106-109,120-122,124-127,129-131,
136, 143, 145, 149, 150, 151, 155,
156,158,165,169,173-176,186,190,
210,214
myrmecochorous v, vi, viii, ix, xiii-xv, 1,
2,5-8, 13-15, 17-26,33,36,37,47,
50,53,59,64,68,69,75,79,84,86-
89,93,94,97,102,105,106,111,
119,125,136,137,141,143,150,
151,153,157,158,168,173-175,179,
181,182, 186, 187, 190-192, 195, 197,
198,214-216
myrmecochory v, viii, ix, xi, xiii-xv, 1-6,
16,22-25,27,36,44,50,59,71,91,
93,94,107,113,118,123-126,130,
131,136,139-141,143,151,153,155,
156, 164-167, 171, 173-17~ 17~ 180-
182, 185, 187, 188, 190, 192, 196, 197
Myrmecodia 23, 193
myrmecophily 22,23,123,140,181
Myrmica vi, 19,29,36,47,50,53-56,
58,61,62,65,66,69,71-73,107,119,
124,129,140,157,163,187,194,214
- rubra vi, 19,29,36,50,53-56,58-
69,71-73, 129, 140, 157, 158, 162-
164,166,167,187,214
- ruginodis 47, 107, 119
- sabuleti 67
N
natural selection 23,45,124,182
nest vii, viii, 3-5, 20, 23, 26, 30, 36,45,
53,71,81,83,86-89,91-95,97, 101,
103-109,113,115,119,120,121,124-
127, 129, 130, 135, 137-141, 144, 149,
150,151,160,162,165-167,169,173-
175,178,180,182,183,188,190,198
nest-cleaning behaviour xiv, 111
niche 181
Nominium 129
non-myrmecochore viii, 18,99,124,
143, 144, 150, 151
non-specialised myrmecochory 5
nucleus 11, 207, 208
nutrient-enriched microsites 23,94,101-
103, 108, 109, 126, 130, 136, 197
o Odontomachus bauri 36,196
oleic acid 13, 14
Omphalodes scorpioides 7,8, 17,86,87,
100,104,154,209,211-213,216
ornithochory 7, 17, 181
Ornithogalum 11
ovule 9,24, 173, 178-182, 187, 197
p
palmitic acid 14
Papaveraceae 156, 187, 196
parenchym 7,42,44,179
parent plant xv, 23, 71, 77-80, 93, 94,
109, 111-122, 125, 127, 130-137, 140,
141, 166, 174, 175, 178, 182
pedicle 16, 18,22,26, 130, 155, 166
pericarp 9,21,24,42,44,45,173,181
perigonium 181
peripheral feeding layer 11
phenology xi, 5, 6, 20, 21, 24, 157, 158,
170, 173, 181, 195, 198
pheromones 15
physiology xi
Piper 23,194
placenta 9,179-181
Poa nemoralis 154
Podophyllum 9
Pogonomyrmex
- badius 28, 195
- rugosus 13
pollination xiii, 193
Polygala vulgaris 7, 196
polyploid 11
population dynamics xiii
Populus tremula 154
predator-avoidance 23, 140
primates 22
Primula
- acaulis 18
- elatior 18
protection 9, 12,23
protective tissues 11
proteins 13
Prunella vulgaris 99
pseudoaril 9, 181
223
Pulmonaria vi, 7-9, 12, 17,39,41-44,
46,50,86,87,91,92,98-101,103,
104,106,121,154,155,191,207,
210,213,215
-obscuravi, 7-9,17,39,41-46,50,
86-88,91,92,98-101, 103, 104, 106,
121, 154, 155, 161, 191,207,210,
213,215
- officinalis 43
Puschkinia 11
Q Quercus robur 101, 153, 154
raphe 9,40,177,182
receptacle 43, 182
R
recruitment vii, 54, 64, 66-69, 159, 161,
164,174,182,187,188
redispersal 182
redistribution 182
releasers 13
relocation 182
removal v-vii, ix, xiv, 3, 4, 13, 15, 16,
20,22,25,26,28,29,31-33,35-39,
43-50,53-64,66-69, 74-76, 79, 81, 92,
95,108,111-113,119,123,129,135-
137, 139, 143, 145, 149, 154, 159,
160-164,170,174,178,183,185,191-
193,195
- rate 55, 182
ricinoleic acid 13
ripening 11,22, 155, 156, 180
Robinia pseudoacacia 86, 104
rodents 20,50,59,68, 119, 124, 163,
169,192,196
Rubus caesius 99, 101
224
s Sambucus nigra 86, 104
sarcotesta 11, 13, 182, 194,203
Scilla 7, 8, 17, 86, 88, 92, 103, 104, 106,
120, 154, 194,211,214,215
- bifolia 8, 17,86,88, 103, 104, 106,
154,211,214
- sibirica 7,8, 17,92,154,214,215
sclerenchymatous cell 11
secondary relocation vii-ix, xiv, 3, 4, 91,
95,97, 107, 108, 111, 113-121, 127,
149,165,169,174,182
seed vi, xi-xiv, 1,4-7,9, 11, 13-15, 17,
20-23,26-28,30-41,43-51,54-56,58-
64,66-69,71-81,83-85,87-89,91-93,
95, 105-108, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120,
123-125,127-135,137,139-141,149,
151,155-165,178,180,182,186-198,
210,214-216
- dispersal xi, xiii, 6, 141, 192
- flow vii, xiv, 3, 53, 83-85, 87, 89,
91,94, 107-109, 157, 165, 169, 182,
190
- predation 68, 163
- producing capacity xiv, 72, 77-81,
83, 12~ 129-131, 140, 155, 156, 16~
182
seedling vii, viii, xi, xv, 3, 4, 23, 53, 84,
83,90,94,97-99, 101-103, 107-109,
111,113,120,121,123-127,130-141,
144-148,150,151,165-169,171,173,
175,182,190,192,210,212
- mortality 140, 141, 175
selective advantages viii, xv, 2-4, 23, 59,
113, 123, 126, 130, 136, 140, 175
shrub 125,185,187
soil
- aeration 23
- seed bank ix, 71, 81, 85, 90, 92, 95,
103,106,107,127,132,133,144,
157, 169, 174, 182
Solenopsis geminata 28, 187
South Africa 125
spatial distribution viii, xiv, 111, 113,
119,131,136,137,140,141,165,
167,171
specialised myrrnecochory 5, 143
species composition vii, ix, xiv, 53, 54,
60,69,90,94,95,103,121,137,149,
162, 174, 175, 191
sperrnoderrn 11,41,42,182
spherosomes 13,206
starch 13
Stellaria holostea 17,86,89,90,93,99,
101,104,154,209,212
stem 23,146,156,178
Stemona tuberosa 7
Sterculia 7
storing tissues 40
strophiole 40,43, 183, 188
Strophiostoma sparsiflora 7,8, 17, 154
style 183
succession xiii
sucrose 13
sugars 13
supporting tissue 11, 41, 204, 205
survival xi, xiii, 3, 4, 83, 103, 125, 136,
137,139,140,173,210
syndrome v, ix, xiv, 2, 5, 6, 22-24, 37,
5~53,59, 15~ 173, 179, 181, 191
T
Taraxacum officinale 104
territory vii, ix, xii, xiv, 3, 4, 53, 54, 56,
59,61,62,71,83,84,86,94,97-99,
101-108,122,157,161,165,166,169,
174,190,211-213
territory border 45,92,93,95,97, 101,
103,106-109,111-113,117-119,121,
122,127,135,140,169,174,210
Tetramorium rufescens 28
Tetratheca stenocarpa 13
thorns 23
Tilia cordata 104, 154
time of half removal 28,31,43,44,46-
48, 149
transport of diaspores vii-ix, xi, xiv, 1, 3-
6,9, 12, 15,24,33,34,39,41,44,45,
51,64,67,71-81,84,92-94,97,107,
111-113,118,119,121,123,125,140,
143,144,149,164,165,171,174,
179,190
transporting tissues 11
Trillium 16,126,130,186,191,192,196
- ovatum 137, 195
Triodia decumbens 7
u Ukraine xii, xiii, xv, 25, 153, 154, 190
Ulmus laevis 101, 104, 153
v Vancouveria 9, 186
vascular bundles 11-12,41,202,204,
205
vegetation vii, xii, xiii, 90, 93, 97, 101,
124,188,191,193,195,197,199
Veronica chamaedrys 99, 101
225
Viola viii, 3, 7, 13, 15, 17,20,21,26,27,
32-34,36,37,39,40,47-50,53,56,
60,69,71,73,81,83,86-88,92,98-
101,103-106, 120, 123, 127-129, 136,
140,153-155,186,188,190,191,196-
198,206,209-213,215
- hirta 7, 15, 17,26-28,32-34,36,37,
71,73-76,81,153-155,159,164,210
- matutina 15,17,26-29,32-34,36,
37,71,73-76,81,121,136,154,156,
159, 164
- mirabilis 15,26-29,32,34,36,37,
71,73-75,81,100, 154, 15~ 159, 164
- nuttallii 20, 198
- odorata viii, 3, 7,13,17,21,47-51,
53,56,59,60,69,72,73,83,86-88,
92,98-101, 103-106, 120, 127-130,
140, 153, 154, 156, 158, 161, 162,
164-166, 190, 191,209-215
Violaceae 155, 156, 193, 196, 197
violets 17,22,53,83, 129, 190
vitamin 13
z zoochory 5,27,155,183
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