Glossary

Anemochory Diaspore dispersal by birds (Pijl, 1982).

Autobarochory A type of autochory, when diaspores fall off through gravity (Levina, 1967).

Autochory Diaspore dispersal, which does not require dispersal agents (Levina, 1957).

Allochory Diaspore dispersal, in which dispersal agents, such as wind, water, animals, humans, are involved (Levina, 1957).

Aril A seed appendage consisting of sappy and pulpy tissues or presenting a kind of a pellicle or a fringe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

- complex An aril of a dual origin (Werker, 1997).

- false An aril originating in the region of micropyle, chalaza or along raphe-antiraphe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

- micropylar An aril originating in the region of micropyle (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

- raphal An aril originating along raphe-antiraphe (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

- true An aril originating on afunicle (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Arillode See Aril false.

Bract A somewhat modified leaf, which subtends a flower or inflorescence in its axis (Allaby, 1992a).

177

178

«Cafeteria» experiment A type of experiment, where food objects are presented to animals to record removal rates of the objects.

Capsule A polyspermous dehiscent fruit, usually dry, only in some cases sappy (Levina, 1967).

Carnivorous ants (Brian, 1983).

Ant species that feed mainly on animal food

Caruncle See AriZ micropylar.

Carpel A structure of the flower, in which ovule(s) is (are) developed, and collectively constitute the gynoecium.

Chalaza A basal region of the ovule, where integuments arise and the funicle is attached (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Chalazal process An ariZ originating in the region of chalaza (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Clone A plant or a group of plants derived from an ancestor by asexual reproduction (by detachment of roots, stems or leaves, or their parts) and developed into a complete plant.

Coenobium A fruit that disintegrates not only along the plane of carpel accretion, but also along additional septum perpendicular to the plane (Levina, 1967).

Colony A group of ant individuals, other than a single mated pair, which constructs nests or brings up offspring in a cooperative manner (Hblldobler and Wilson, 1990).

Cotyledon, cotyledonous leaf A seed leaf, which is borne on a plant embryo (Allaby, 1992a).

Diaspore A part of a plant that serves for reproduction and dispersal (Tahtadzhjan, 1985). Diaspores have different origins: seeds, fruits, mericarps, erems, etc.

Diaspore dispersal The departure of a diaspore from the parent plant (Howe and Smallwood, 1982).

Diaspore body A diaspore without elaiosome.

Diaspore predator An animal that eats or destroys a diaspore (Howe and Smallwood, 1988).

Diplochore A plant that uses a two-phase method of dia5pore dispersal, e.g. myrmecochory follows autochory (Levina, 1957).

179

Dispersal of diaspores See Diaspore dispersal.

Dispersal syndrome A complex of plant adaptations to a certain diaspore dispersal method (Pijl, 1982).

Dissemination See Diaspore dispersal.

Dominant species The species having the most influence on community composition and form; also the most abundant species in the community (Allaby, 1994).

Dropping rate of diaspores The number of diaspores dropped by ants during transport along a certain distance of the route.

Elaiosome An appendage of a myrmecochorous diaspore that consists of parenchymatous cells containing a high amount of oils (Tahtadzhjan, 1985). Elaiosomes vary greatly in origin.

Endozoochory 1982).

Diaspore dispersal through animals, internally (Pijl,

Erem A part of a disintegrating fruit of the coenobium-type (Levina, 1967).

Erem body An erem without an elaiosome.

Exocarp The outer layer of the fruit wall (Allaby, 1992a).

Epizoochory Diaspore dispersal through animals, externally (Pijl, 1982).

Flower tube A structure consisting of partly or fully accrete floral leaves.

Foot of the nest mound The wall around the nest mound composed of the soil removed from tunnels.

Forager A worker of an ant colony that goes in search of food (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).

Foraging ant See Forager.

Fruit A modified, owing to fertilisation, ripened gynoecium and its content including any other organs of a flower or inflorescence, with which it is inseparably connected (Allaby, 1992a).

Fruit body A fruit without elaiosome.

Funicle A stalk that attaches the ovule to the placenta (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Garbage dump A place of waste deposition of the ant colony.

180

Geocarpy The ripening of diaspores in soil (Levina, 1967).

Gynoecium Female reproductive organs of a flower comprising one or many carpels (Allaby, 1992).

Habitat A living place of an organism or community, characterised by its physical or biotic properties (Allaby, 1994).

Harvesting ants Ant species that feed mainly on seeds and store them in their nests (H6lldobler and Wilson, 1990).

Hilum A scar on a seed that marks the point, at which it was attached to the funicle or placenta (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Hydrochory Diaspore dispersal by water (Pijl, 1982).

Inflorescence A flowering structure that consists of more than a single flower (Allaby, 1992a).

Juvenile, juvenile plant A young immature plant with true leaves, either with cotyledons or without them.

Learning A feature of ant behaviour; the process of acquisition of knowledge about food source location by an individual ant worker.

Mandibles Paired structures of ant mouth-parts commonly used for seizing and cutting food (Allaby, 1992b).

Mature plant A fully grown and developed plant.

Mericarp A monospermous closed part of a disintegrating fruit that corresponds to a carpel (Levina, 1967).

Microhabitat A precise location within a habitat, where an individual species is found (Allaby, 1994).

Micropyle A canal in the integuments on the apical part of the ovule, through which the pollen tube (a tube formed from a germinating pollen grain) passes during fertilisation (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Microsite See Microhabitat.

Myrmecochore A plant, whose diaspores are dispersed by ants (Sernander, 1906).

- facultative a plant that has another method of diaspore dispersal in addition to myrmecochory (Ulbrich, 1928) .

. - obligate a plant that uses only one method of diaspore dispersal - myrmecochory (Ulbrich, 1928).

181

Myrmecochorous plant See Myrmecochore.

Myrmecochorous syndrome A complex of special morphological, anatomical, biochemical, and phenological adaptations of plants that enhance ant attraction and thus increase the effectiveness of myrmecochory.

Myrmecochory One of diaspore dispersal methods; diaspore dispersal by ants (Ulbrich, 1928).

- non-specialised A type of myrmecochory, where diaspores lack fat-containing appendages.

- specialised A type of myrmecochory, where diaspores have special fat-containing bodies - elaiosomes. Ants consume elaiosomes and disperse diaspores.

Myrmecophily Mutually beneficial interactions between ants and plants (Beattie, 1983).

Mutualism, mutualistic relations Interactions between members of two species, which benefit both (Allaby, 1994).

Nest mound A part of an ant nest that is constructed of a mound of soil and projects above the ground surface.

Niche The combined range of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and food resources, within which a species can exist and reproduce (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).

Ornithochory Diaspore dispersal by birds (Pijl, 1982).

Ovule A structure in seed plants that, after fertilisation, develops into a seed (Allaby, 1992a).

Parent plant diaspores.

A plant, which is producing or has produced

Placenta A part of the ovary (a basal part of gynoecium) wall carrying the ovules (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Pericarp A fruit wall, often with three distinct layers (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Perigonium Floral leaves that are not differentiated into sepals and petals.

Pseudoaril See Aril false.

182

Raphe A part of the funicle of an anatropous ovule adnate to the integuments and forming a ridge from the hilum to chalaza (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Receptacle A part of the stem, from which all the parts of the flower arise (Allaby, 1992a).

Recruitment A special form of assemblage, in which members of an ant colony are directed to some point in space, where work is required (H611dobler and Wilson, 1990).

Redispersal of diaspores The transference of myrmecochorous diaspores by ants from nests after consumption of elaiosomes.

Redistribution of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.

Relocation of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.

Removal rate of diaspores The number of diaspores removed by ants over a certain period of time.

Sarcotesta The outer and usually soft and sappy part of the seed cover (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Secondary relocation of diaspores See Redispersal of diaspores.

Seed A dispersal unit of seed plants. It is formed on the parent plant from a fertilised and ripened ovule and contains an embryo and a food store enclosed in a protective outer coat (Tahtadzhjan, 1985).

Seed body A seed without elaiosome.

Seed flow Diaspore movement from the parent plant to the germination site. It can be caused either by the plant itself or by dispersal agents, such as wind, water, animals, and humans.

Seed producing capacity during one season.

The number of seeds produced by a plant

Seedling A young immature plant grown and developed from a seed, with cotyledons.

Selective advantages of myrmecochory Advantages, which are promoted by natural selection and used by plants dispersed by ants.

Soil seed bank Ungerminated but viable seeds that lie in the soil (Allaby, 1994).

Spermoderm 1985).

A protective outer coat of the seed (Tahtadzhjan,

183

Strophiole See Aril raphal.

Style An extension of the carpel that connects the ovary to the stigma (a part of the female reproductive organs on which pollen grains germinate) (Allaby, 1992a).

Time of half removal of diaspores The time, in which half of the diaspores are removed from the complete diaspore depot.

Worker, working individual A member of the non-reproductive labouring caste of the ant colony that are engaged in brood care, forage, building of nests etc. (Holldobler and Wilson, 1990).

Zoochory Diaspore dispersal by animals (Levina, 1957).

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Appendix

201

202

A

Fig. I. Longitudinal (A) and cross (B) sections of Gagea sp. elaiosome (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). DC, distinct cortex of elaiosome; EP, epidermis; VB, vascular bundle. Scale bar: A - 500 flm, B - 100 flm.

203

A

Fig. II. Longitudinal sections of Mercurialis perennis sarcotesta and caruncle (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. Combination of sarcotesta and caruncle. B. Sarcotesta. C. Caruncle. CRN, caruncle; DC, distinct cortex of elaiosome; ED, epidermis; PL, protective layer; SCT, sarcotesta. Scale bar: A - 500 11m, B - 100 11m, C - 200 11m.

204

Fig. III. Longitudinal sections of Ficaria verna fruit (A) and Lamium maculatum elaiosome (A, B) (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. General view. B. Peripheral part. C. Central part. FT, fundamental tissue; PFL, peripheral layer; PT, protective tissue; ST, supporting tissue (vascular bundle). Scale bar: A - 500 /lm, B - 100 /lm, C - 50 /lm.

205

A

Fig. IV. Longitudinal sections of Anemone ranunculoides elaiosome (light microscope, toluidine blue stain). A. General view. B. Central part. C. Apical part. FT, fundamental tissue; PFL, peripheral layer; PT, protective tissue; ST, supporting tissue (vascular bundle). Scale bar: A - 500 /lm, B -200 /lm, C - 100 )lm.

206

Fig. V. Elaiosome cells of Chelidonium majus (A) and Viola reichenbachiana (B) (light microscope, Sudan Black stain). Lipids are connected with cell walls (arrows), appear in spherosomes (SPH) or in an extemallayer of the elaiosome (stars). Scale bar: 50 ~m.

207

Fig. VI. Semi-thin sections of elaiosome cells of Pulmonaria obscura (A), Lamium maculatum (B) and Mercurialis perennis (C) in scanning electron microscope (after Maxwell method (Maxwell, 1978)). CW, cell walls; NC, nuclei; VS, places of lipid localisation. Scale bar: 5 !lm.

208

Fig. VII. Semi-thin sections of elaiosome cells of Lamium maculatum in scanning electron microscope (after Maxwell method (Maxwell, 1978)). CU, cuticle; CW, cell walls; NC, nuclei; OL, external lipid layer. Scale bar: A - 2 /lm, B -20 /lm.

209

Fig. VIII. Vegetation of Formica polyctena nest mounds. ap, Alliaria petiolata; as, Anthriscus sylvestris; ga, Galium aparine; in, Impatiens noli­tangere; 1m, Lamium maculatum; os, Omphalodes scorpioides; sh, Stella ria holostea; YO, Viola odorata.

210

,tl'" . ~ " ..

~"

Fig. IX. A. Study site. B. Guilds of myrmecochores in the deciduous forest. C. Germination success of seeds of Viola odorata collected from garbage dump on the territory borders of Formica polyctena ants (n=238) and seeds taken directly from the fruit (n=238). D. Diaspores collected from soil samples from various forest microsites. E. Experimental set-up in study on seedling survival of Coridalis bulbosa. F. Typical set-up for «cafeteria» experiments. ae, Asarum europaeum; 1m, Lamium maculatum; mp, mature plants; po, Pulmonaria obscura; sd, seedlings; sds, seeds; tb, wooden table; vh, V. hirta; vo, V. odorata; wk, ant workers.

211

Fig. X. Garbage dump of Formica polyctena ants on the new border between territories of Lasius fuliginosus and Formica polyctena in late Summer (A, B) and late Spring (C). Note presence of diaspores among insect remains. cc, Corydalis cava; os, Omphalodes scorpioides; sb, Scilla bifolia; YO, Viola odorata.

212

Fig. XI. Association of seedlings and juvenile plants on the old border between territories of Lasius fuliginosus and Formica polyctena. ae, Asarum europaeum; cb, Corydalis bulbosa; 1m, Lamium maculatum; as, Omphalodes scorpioides; sh, Stellaria holostea; va, Viola odorata.

213

Fig. XII. Ant -related associations of plants in the deciduous forest. A. Border between Formica polyctena and Lasiusfuliginosus. B, C. A high concentration of Lamium maculatum in surroundings of L. fuliginosus nest (B) and on the border between F. polyctena and L. fuliginosus territories (C). D. A high concentration of Chelidonium majus on the L. niger nest. E. A high concentration of Omphalodes scorpio ides on the border between F. polyctena and L. fuliginosus territories. ae, Asarum europaeum; cm, C. majus; 1m, L. maculatum; os, O. scorpioides; po, Pulmonaria obscura; YO,

Viola odorata.

214

Fig. XIII. Fate of seeds of myrmecochorous plants. A. Juvenile plants of Lamium macula tum growing in a Myrmica rubra nest located in the hollow of a tree. B. Formica polyctena worker removing seeds from the opened fruit of Scilla bifolia. C. F. polyctena workers removing seeds from the opened fruit of V. odorata. D. Juvenile plant of Chelidonium majus growing in a Lasius niger nest located on the tree bark. E. Elaiosome-bearing seeds of early-spring myrmecochores: Gagea lutea (gl), S. bifolia (sb), S. sibirica (ss).

215

Fig. XIV. Fruits and seeds of myrmecochorous plants from the deciduous forest. A. Viola mirabilis. B. Chelidonium majus. C, E. Scilla sibirica. D. V. odorata. F. Pulmonaria obscura.

216

Fig. xv. Fruits and seeds of myrmecochorous plants from the deciduous forest. A. Anemone ranunculoides. B. Mercurialis perennis. C. Corydalis cava. D. Omphalodes scorpioides. E. Asarum europaeum. F. Ficaria verna.

Index

A

Acacia 13,17,23,28,126,185,188,

196,198

- linifolia 28

- myrtifolia 13

- terminalis 126

Acalypha 11, 194

Acer

- platanoides 101, 104, 153, 154

- negundo 154

adaptation xi, xiii, xiv, 2-6, 16, l7, 21-24,

40,44,50,77,95,153,155,173,179,

181,188

Aegopodium podagraria 86,89, 154

Africa 126

aggregation of seeds vi, 35-37, 46-50,

154, 161, 191

Alliariapetiolata 86,89,90,93,101,

143,209

allochory 6, 177

anatomy vi, ix, 1,2,5,6,9, 11,24-26,38,

40,42-44,50,123,153,157,158,170,

173,181,198,199

anemochory 22,27,155,177

Anemone 12,21,104,205,216

217

- hepatica 12

ants v-ix, xi-xv, 1-6,9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19-

26,28-34,36,37,39-47,49,50,53-

55,58-65,67-69,71-78,80,81,83-95,

97-99, 101, 102, 104, 106-108, 111-

113,115,118,121-131,135,137,138,

140,143-151,155,157-167,169,173-

176,178-183,186-199,210

Anthriscus sylvestris 86,87, 89, 90, 93,

99-101, 103, 104, 106, 143, 153,209

ant-plants v, xi, xii, xiv, 1, 15, 22, 25,

175,186,188,189,192,194

Aphaenogaster 13

aphids 20

aril 9, 10, 11,40, 177, 178, 194, 197

arillode 177

Aristolochiaceae 155, 190

Asarum viii, 15, 17,26,27,32,33,36,

37,40,71,81,86,87,91,92,98-101,

103-106,121,130,136-139,141,153-

155,167,168,190,192,210,212,

213,216

- europaeum viii, 15, 17,26- 29, 32-

34,36,37,71,73-76,81,86,87,91,

92,98,99, 100, 101, 103-106, 121,

218

130, 136-141, 153-155, 159, 164, 167,

168, 190,210,212,213,216

assimilating organs v, 16,21

Atriplex 101

attractants 14,15,189,195

attractiveness v, xiv, 15,22,33,36,37,

44,45,50,62,174,191

Australia 2, 17, 125, 126, 185, 188, 193,

196

autobarochory 27,131,136,141,155,

177

autochory 6,22,27,49,50,75,125,136,

155, 156, 161, 177, 178

automechanochory 27, 155

B

Ballota nigra 8,86,88,98,99, 101, 103-

106, 153

behaviour vii, xi, xii, xiv, 1,5, 13,21,

24,26,39,45,47,53,64,67,68,80,

91,93,95,97,106,107,111,118,

122, 125, 127, 130, 14~ 157, 163,

173-175,180,186,187,193

Besleria 23,199

biochemistry 5,6,24,45, 173, 181

birds 22,124,163,169,177,181

Bocconia 7,9

Boraginaceae 42, 155, 191

Borago 21

Bossiaea obcordata 28

Brachychilum 7

bract 177

brood emergence 19

Buxus 7

c cafeteria experiments vi, ix, 25, 26, 27,

28,31,38,39,47,143,144,159,160,

161, 168, 170, 178, 210

Calathea 7, 126, 193

calcium oxalate 12

California 125

Camponotus obscripes 29

capsules 21,22,83, 127-129, 155, 156,

178

carbohydrates 13

Carex 124

- pi/osa 154

- pilulifera 47,107,119,194

Carica papaya 13, 194

carpel 178

Carpinus betulus 154

caruncle 9, 11, 178, 194, 203

Cecropia 23,188

cell 7, 10-13,38,40-42,44,45, 158, 179,

206-208

- wall 11-13, 38, 40, 206-208

Centaurea

- cyanus 12

- montana 12

chalaza 178

chaparral 125, 187

chasmogamous flowers 127, 156

Chelidonium 7,15,17,26,27,32,33,

36,3~47-5~ 71,81, 10~ 101, 104,

106,120,136,153,156,188,191,

198,206,213-215

- majus 15, 17,26-29,32-34,36,37,

47-50,71,73-76,81,100,101,104,

106,120,121,136,153,156,159,161

164,188,191,198,206,213-215

chemical content 2,13,15,33,37,45,

50,83,90,120,130,150,173

cleaning behaviour 127

c1eistogamous flowers 156, 188

clone 130, 137, 138-141, 155, 156, 168,

178

coat of the fruit 42,44,45, 182

coenobium 7,41,155,178,179

collar 41,42,44,45,50

colony vii, 19,21,23,34,39, 74, 76, 84,

91,93,94,97,103, 108, III, 115,

121,124, 127, 150, 158, 160, 169,

174, 178, 179, 182, 183

community xi, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29,36,

179,180,191,192

competition xii, 20, 23, 64, 69, 94, 103,

108,121,124,126,127,130,131,

136,137,140,141,174

competition-avoidance 23,141

complex aril 9

computer model xiv

Corydalis vi, viii, 7, 11, 15, 17,20,37-

41,43,44,46,50,83,86-88,92,100,

103-106, 120, 130-135, 141, 153, 155,

189-191,196,211,212,216

- ambiqua 20

- aurea 83, 130, 135

- bulbosa vi, viii, 7,15,17,20,37-39,

50,86-88,103-106, 131-136, 141,

154,155,160,166,212

- cava vi, 7,11,15,17,20,37-41,43-

46,50,86-88,92,100,103,104,106,

153,155,160,161,189,191,211,216

Croomia 7,9

Croton 23,189,196

Cyclamen 11, 185, 195

D

deciduous forest i, xi, xii, xiv, xv, 4, 15,

17,20,24-26,30,31,36,69,72,81,

84,94,95,97,103,107,119,121,

129,130, 136, 141, 143, 153, 154,

162, 174, 175, 190, 191,210,213,

215,216

Dendromecon 22, 186, 187

diaspores v-ix, xi, xiii, xiv, 1-7,9,11,13,

15-29,31-41,43-47,49,50,53,59,

60,68,71-77,79,80,83-87,89-95,

97, 101, 103, 104, 106-108, 111-122,

124-127,131,134,136,137,143-145,

149-151,153-155,157-162,164,165,

169,170,173-183,191,193,211

219

Dicentra 7,9, 186

diet 14,20,59, 107

diglycerides 13-15, 195

Dillwynia retorta 126

1,2-diolein 13-15,24, 173

dip1ochores 22,49-51,73-75,131,136,

145, 178, 196

diploid 11

dispersal vii, viii, xi, xiii, xiv, 1-6, 15,

18-20, 22-26, 29, 33, 35, 36, 40-42,

45,50,53,59,62,68,69,71,75-81,

83,84,86,91,93-95,97, 106, 108,

109,111-123,125-127,129,131,134,

136, 137, 139-141, 143, 150, 151, 153,

154,156,157,161,166,167,170,

173-183, 185-199

- agent 1, 5, 6, 20, 26, 75, 177

- distance xiv, 34, 72, 77, 78, 81, 119,

137,192

- for distance 23,50, 79, 91, 121

dissemination 2, 16, 19-22,49, 130, 189,

197

distinct cortex 11, 202, 203

Dnipro xiii

dropping vii, xiv, 3, 4, 64, 71, 73-75, 77-

81,92, 106, 107, 111-122, 164, 165,

171,173,174,179,190

E

ecological networks xii, xv

ecology xi-xv, 1,2,97,125, 185, 186,

188,191,193-196,199

ecosystem xi-xv, 2, 4, 24,53, 121, 124,

125, 173, 175, 195, 196

elaiosome v-vii, ix, xii-xv, 1-17, 19-29,

31-34,36-47,49,50,53,59,60,62,

63,64,67-69,71,73-75,78,80,81,

83,84,86,88-97, 101-103, 106-108,

111,113,119-125,129-131,134-136,

140,143,149-151,153,155-158,160,

161,163,165,173-176,178,179,181,

220

182,187, 190, 191, 193, 195,202-208,

214

embryo 1,12,178,182

endosperm 12, 193

endozoochory 22,179

ephemeral 19,37,39,84,85,91, 130,

131, 135, 165, 196

epidermis 10, 11, 13,202,203

epiphytic plants 23

epizoochory 179

Equisetum sylvatica 154

erem 7,9,11,41-45,179

Euonymus verrucosa 99

Euphorbia 7, 11, 187, 189

Euphorbiaceae 11,13, 189, 194, 196

Europe xiii, 1,25, 186

evolution xi, xiii, xiv, 5, 9, 43, 94, 173,

186, 191, 196

exocarp 42,43,179

extrafloral nectaries 23

F

Fabaceae 125

Fallopia convolvulus 86,89,90,93,99,

101, 104, 143

fat 1, 13

fatty acids 13,14,24,173

Fedia 7

fertilisation 10, 179-181

Ficaria verna 7,8, 17, 154,204,216

field experiments xi, xiii-xv, 3-5, 17,24,

25,36,40,68,76,77,79,108,111,

112, 137, 140, 155

fire-avoidance 23, 140

flower 9, 18,21,22,24,41, 128, 155,

173, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182

flowering 19,21,22,124,180

- plants xiii, xiv, 5, 9, 173

foraging 17,26,35,39,47,49,53,59,

64,67,71,77,81,84,85,87,91,94,

106,107,149,155, 157, 159-161, 164,

165, 168, 186, 192, 193, 195

- niche 17,64

forest xi, xiii, 19,21,125,131,134,157,

185, 186, 195

Formica vi-viii, xii, 3, 15, 19,21,26,28,

30-32,35-37,39,47,50,53-56,58,

60,61,65,66,68,69,71-73,76,81,

83,85,86,91-94,97,99,101,102,

104-106,108,111,119,124,127-129,

138, 140, 143, 144, 149, 151, 157,

163,166,167,170,189-193,195,197,

199,209-214

- cinerea 84, 113

- cunicularia 84

- execta 84

- polyctena vi-viii, xii, 3,15,19,21,

26,28-32, 34-39, 43, 45-50, 53-56, 58,

59-69,71-74,76,77,81, 84c86, 90-94,

97- 99,101-109,111,113,120,121,

127-130, 134, 136-141, 143, 144, 149,

150, 151, 157-169, 190-192, 195, 197,

209-214

- schaufossi 68, 189

Formicinae 157

Fraxinus excelsior 10 1

fructose 13

fruit v, xiii, xiv, 1,2, 7, 11, 12, 16,20-

22,25,26,41-43,50,56,59,60,68,

69,124,127-131, 140, 141, 144, 149,

151,155,156,158,159,165-168,178-

181, 185, 186, 191, 192, 194, 198,

204,210,214

fruiting period 16,19-21,37,84,91,106,

127, 131, 144, 155, 156, 158

Fumaria 9

Fumariaceae 41, 155, 186, 190

fundamental tissue 11,12,42,204,205

funicle 9,40,177-180,182

G

Gagea 11,120,202

-lutea 7,8, 17, 154, 189,214

Galium aparine viii, 86, 87, 89, 90, 93,

104, 106, 143-145, 146, 149-151, 153,

156, 168, 169, 191, 197,209

garbage dump 84,97, 103, 109, 174,

179,211

gardens of ants 23,188,189,194,197,

199

geocarpy 26, 155, 180

Geranium robertianum 99,101

germination 3, l3, 83, 93, 103, 108, 120,

125,131,144,145,150,151,175,

182, 189, 194

Geum urbanum 86,89,99,101,103,104

Glechoma hirsuta 86,89,93,99, 101,

104, 153, 154

glucose 13

granivores 124, l32

ground beetles 20,50,59, 119, 124, 163,

196

gynoecium 180

H

habitat xiii, xiv, 180, 191

haemolymph 14

Hardenbergia violacea l3, 192

harvesting ants 5,6,28,63,72, 180, 185-

187, 195

Hepatica 13,21, 197

- americana l3, 197

herbivores 23

Hibbertia 7

hilum 9,40, 180, 182

Hydnophytum 23, 193

hydrochory 27, 155, 180

I

inflorescence 7,9,24,173,177,179,180

inhibitors 13

221

inhumation 108

insects xiv, 14,20, 101, 107, 157, 185,

189, 190, 193, 198,211

Iris aphylla 21

K

Knautia arvensis 7, l3, 17

L

Lamiaceae 42

Lamium 7,8,12, l3, 17,86,88,100,

120, 153,204,207-210,212-214

- maculatum 7,8, l3, 17,86,88, 100,

120,153,204,207-210,212-214

Lasius vi, vii, l3, 29,50,53-56,58,61,

65,66,69,73,97,99,101,102,104-

106, 108, 124, 129, l31, 136, 140,

149, 157, 162, 163, 166, 187, 189,

194,211-214

-jlavus 50,129,149,166

- fuliginosus vi, vii, 13,50,53-56,58-

69,72,73,97-99,101-109,129,140,

157, 162-166, 169, 189, 211-2l3

- niger 29,50,129, l31, 136, 149,

166, 2l3, 214

- pallitarsis 29

leaf 21,23,138, l39, 155, 168, 178-181

learning vii, xii, 54, 64, 66-69, 159, 161,

164,174,180,193

Leptothorax nylanderi 19,29,53-55,61,

69,71,73,157,163

linoleic acid 14

lipids 7,9, l3, 44, 45, 158,207,208

litter 16,17,19,25,34,45,49,74-76,

93, 127-129, 155-160, 166

M

Afacaranga 23, 189

mandible 34,39,41,60,72,92, 180

manipulation vi, 41, 54, 60-62, 64, 66,

164

222

mark-recapture experiments 74,81

mechanical tissue 16, 22

medulla 11

Melampyrum argyrocomum 22

MeUca nutans 7

MercuriaUs 7, 11, 196

- perennis 17, 154,203,207,216

mericarp 180

Messor

- barbatus 28

- capitatus 28, 186

- denticomis 28

- sanctus 28

microhabitat 180

micropyle 41,177,180

microsite vi, xiv, xv, 29, 54, 55, 58-61,

68,90,98, 103, 131, 138, 162, 163,

164, 180

mobilisation 47

morphology xi, xiv, 1,2,5,6,24,25,50,

59,72,73,77,111-113,122,127,153,

157, 170, 173, 181, 185, 190, 193-195,

198, 199

mound 45,90,91,93,94,106,123,127,

143,145,146,150,165,169,179,

181, 187, 199

- substrate 93,94, 106, 143, 150

mutualism xi, 5,23,71,150,151,181,

189, 190, 192-194, 196

myrmecochore v-ix, xiv, xv, 1,2, 7, 9, 11,

13, 16, 19-22,24,26-29,35,36,39,

40,43,47,49-51,59,67,68,71,74,

75,78,81,84-95,98-101,103,104,

106-109,120-122,124-127,129-131,

136, 143, 145, 149, 150, 151, 155,

156,158,165,169,173-176,186,190,

210,214

myrmecochorous v, vi, viii, ix, xiii-xv, 1,

2,5-8, 13-15, 17-26,33,36,37,47,

50,53,59,64,68,69,75,79,84,86-

89,93,94,97,102,105,106,111,

119,125,136,137,141,143,150,

151,153,157,158,168,173-175,179,

181,182, 186, 187, 190-192, 195, 197,

198,214-216

myrmecochory v, viii, ix, xi, xiii-xv, 1-6,

16,22-25,27,36,44,50,59,71,91,

93,94,107,113,118,123-126,130,

131,136,139-141,143,151,153,155,

156, 164-167, 171, 173-17~ 17~ 180-

182, 185, 187, 188, 190, 192, 196, 197

Myrmecodia 23, 193

myrmecophily 22,23,123,140,181

Myrmica vi, 19,29,36,47,50,53-56,

58,61,62,65,66,69,71-73,107,119,

124,129,140,157,163,187,194,214

- rubra vi, 19,29,36,50,53-56,58-

69,71-73, 129, 140, 157, 158, 162-

164,166,167,187,214

- ruginodis 47, 107, 119

- sabuleti 67

N

natural selection 23,45,124,182

nest vii, viii, 3-5, 20, 23, 26, 30, 36,45,

53,71,81,83,86-89,91-95,97, 101,

103-109,113,115,119,120,121,124-

127, 129, 130, 135, 137-141, 144, 149,

150,151,160,162,165-167,169,173-

175,178,180,182,183,188,190,198

nest-cleaning behaviour xiv, 111

niche 181

Nominium 129

non-myrmecochore viii, 18,99,124,

143, 144, 150, 151

non-specialised myrmecochory 5

nucleus 11, 207, 208

nutrient-enriched microsites 23,94,101-

103, 108, 109, 126, 130, 136, 197

o Odontomachus bauri 36,196

oleic acid 13, 14

Omphalodes scorpioides 7,8, 17,86,87,

100,104,154,209,211-213,216

ornithochory 7, 17, 181

Ornithogalum 11

ovule 9,24, 173, 178-182, 187, 197

p

palmitic acid 14

Papaveraceae 156, 187, 196

parenchym 7,42,44,179

parent plant xv, 23, 71, 77-80, 93, 94,

109, 111-122, 125, 127, 130-137, 140,

141, 166, 174, 175, 178, 182

pedicle 16, 18,22,26, 130, 155, 166

pericarp 9,21,24,42,44,45,173,181

perigonium 181

peripheral feeding layer 11

phenology xi, 5, 6, 20, 21, 24, 157, 158,

170, 173, 181, 195, 198

pheromones 15

physiology xi

Piper 23,194

placenta 9,179-181

Poa nemoralis 154

Podophyllum 9

Pogonomyrmex

- badius 28, 195

- rugosus 13

pollination xiii, 193

Polygala vulgaris 7, 196

polyploid 11

population dynamics xiii

Populus tremula 154

predator-avoidance 23, 140

primates 22

Primula

- acaulis 18

- elatior 18

protection 9, 12,23

protective tissues 11

proteins 13

Prunella vulgaris 99

pseudoaril 9, 181

223

Pulmonaria vi, 7-9, 12, 17,39,41-44,

46,50,86,87,91,92,98-101,103,

104,106,121,154,155,191,207,

210,213,215

-obscuravi, 7-9,17,39,41-46,50,

86-88,91,92,98-101, 103, 104, 106,

121, 154, 155, 161, 191,207,210,

213,215

- officinalis 43

Puschkinia 11

Q Quercus robur 101, 153, 154

raphe 9,40,177,182

receptacle 43, 182

R

recruitment vii, 54, 64, 66-69, 159, 161,

164,174,182,187,188

redispersal 182

redistribution 182

releasers 13

relocation 182

removal v-vii, ix, xiv, 3, 4, 13, 15, 16,

20,22,25,26,28,29,31-33,35-39,

43-50,53-64,66-69, 74-76, 79, 81, 92,

95,108,111-113,119,123,129,135-

137, 139, 143, 145, 149, 154, 159,

160-164,170,174,178,183,185,191-

193,195

- rate 55, 182

ricinoleic acid 13

ripening 11,22, 155, 156, 180

Robinia pseudoacacia 86, 104

rodents 20,50,59,68, 119, 124, 163,

169,192,196

Rubus caesius 99, 101

224

s Sambucus nigra 86, 104

sarcotesta 11, 13, 182, 194,203

Scilla 7, 8, 17, 86, 88, 92, 103, 104, 106,

120, 154, 194,211,214,215

- bifolia 8, 17,86,88, 103, 104, 106,

154,211,214

- sibirica 7,8, 17,92,154,214,215

sclerenchymatous cell 11

secondary relocation vii-ix, xiv, 3, 4, 91,

95,97, 107, 108, 111, 113-121, 127,

149,165,169,174,182

seed vi, xi-xiv, 1,4-7,9, 11, 13-15, 17,

20-23,26-28,30-41,43-51,54-56,58-

64,66-69,71-81,83-85,87-89,91-93,

95, 105-108, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120,

123-125,127-135,137,139-141,149,

151,155-165,178,180,182,186-198,

210,214-216

- dispersal xi, xiii, 6, 141, 192

- flow vii, xiv, 3, 53, 83-85, 87, 89,

91,94, 107-109, 157, 165, 169, 182,

190

- predation 68, 163

- producing capacity xiv, 72, 77-81,

83, 12~ 129-131, 140, 155, 156, 16~

182

seedling vii, viii, xi, xv, 3, 4, 23, 53, 84,

83,90,94,97-99, 101-103, 107-109,

111,113,120,121,123-127,130-141,

144-148,150,151,165-169,171,173,

175,182,190,192,210,212

- mortality 140, 141, 175

selective advantages viii, xv, 2-4, 23, 59,

113, 123, 126, 130, 136, 140, 175

shrub 125,185,187

soil

- aeration 23

- seed bank ix, 71, 81, 85, 90, 92, 95,

103,106,107,127,132,133,144,

157, 169, 174, 182

Solenopsis geminata 28, 187

South Africa 125

spatial distribution viii, xiv, 111, 113,

119,131,136,137,140,141,165,

167,171

specialised myrrnecochory 5, 143

species composition vii, ix, xiv, 53, 54,

60,69,90,94,95,103,121,137,149,

162, 174, 175, 191

sperrnoderrn 11,41,42,182

spherosomes 13,206

starch 13

Stellaria holostea 17,86,89,90,93,99,

101,104,154,209,212

stem 23,146,156,178

Stemona tuberosa 7

Sterculia 7

storing tissues 40

strophiole 40,43, 183, 188

Strophiostoma sparsiflora 7,8, 17, 154

style 183

succession xiii

sucrose 13

sugars 13

supporting tissue 11, 41, 204, 205

survival xi, xiii, 3, 4, 83, 103, 125, 136,

137,139,140,173,210

syndrome v, ix, xiv, 2, 5, 6, 22-24, 37,

5~53,59, 15~ 173, 179, 181, 191

T

Taraxacum officinale 104

territory vii, ix, xii, xiv, 3, 4, 53, 54, 56,

59,61,62,71,83,84,86,94,97-99,

101-108,122,157,161,165,166,169,

174,190,211-213

territory border 45,92,93,95,97, 101,

103,106-109,111-113,117-119,121,

122,127,135,140,169,174,210

Tetramorium rufescens 28

Tetratheca stenocarpa 13

thorns 23

Tilia cordata 104, 154

time of half removal 28,31,43,44,46-

48, 149

transport of diaspores vii-ix, xi, xiv, 1, 3-

6,9, 12, 15,24,33,34,39,41,44,45,

51,64,67,71-81,84,92-94,97,107,

111-113,118,119,121,123,125,140,

143,144,149,164,165,171,174,

179,190

transporting tissues 11

Trillium 16,126,130,186,191,192,196

- ovatum 137, 195

Triodia decumbens 7

u Ukraine xii, xiii, xv, 25, 153, 154, 190

Ulmus laevis 101, 104, 153

v Vancouveria 9, 186

vascular bundles 11-12,41,202,204,

205

vegetation vii, xii, xiii, 90, 93, 97, 101,

124,188,191,193,195,197,199

Veronica chamaedrys 99, 101

225

Viola viii, 3, 7, 13, 15, 17,20,21,26,27,

32-34,36,37,39,40,47-50,53,56,

60,69,71,73,81,83,86-88,92,98-

101,103-106, 120, 123, 127-129, 136,

140,153-155,186,188,190,191,196-

198,206,209-213,215

- hirta 7, 15, 17,26-28,32-34,36,37,

71,73-76,81,153-155,159,164,210

- matutina 15,17,26-29,32-34,36,

37,71,73-76,81,121,136,154,156,

159, 164

- mirabilis 15,26-29,32,34,36,37,

71,73-75,81,100, 154, 15~ 159, 164

- nuttallii 20, 198

- odorata viii, 3, 7,13,17,21,47-51,

53,56,59,60,69,72,73,83,86-88,

92,98-101, 103-106, 120, 127-130,

140, 153, 154, 156, 158, 161, 162,

164-166, 190, 191,209-215

Violaceae 155, 156, 193, 196, 197

violets 17,22,53,83, 129, 190

vitamin 13

z zoochory 5,27,155,183