gender inequality in science and mathematics education in africa
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GENDER INEQUITY IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION IN AFRICA: THE C AUS ES
CONSEQ UENCES AND SOLUTIONS
LEW IS AS IMENG-BOAHENE, P H . D
Penn State University Harrisburg
Over the past years, a large body of scholarly literature has
developed to address gender inequity in the developed world,
and suggestions for reducing the gender gap are well document-
ed in the literature. However, still lacking in research is why
there is gender inequity in m athematics and science education in
African schools. Girls are not receiving the same quality, or even
quantity, of education as their male classmates in both subjects.
This article discusses this gender bias, the discriminatory poli-
cies,
and the consequences. It also suggests several promising
strategies for discovering long-term solutions to this problem.
ntrodu tion
Science and technology have long been
recognized as the cornerstone of develop-
ment and prosperity of Africa. Economic
prosperity of African countries is inter-
linked with its skillful utilization and
management of science and technology.
This underscores the importance of skilled
human resources in the science, mathe-
matics and technology fields in Africa.
However, while the benefits of science and
mathematics education for women in sus-
tainable social and econom ic development
are numerous in some major parts of the
world, Africa still lags behind other con-
tinents in terms of provision of science and
mathematics education for girls. Female
education and training in Africa is gene r-
ally characterized by lower performance
and achievem ent levels than those of
boys,
especially in mathematics, science and
other technical subjects (Gachukia Kabi-
ra, 1991).
A closer look at the factors reveals that
the problem continues as it has not yet
occupiedaprominent placeinAfrica s edu-
cat ional c i rcles . Several cont r ibut ing
factors are addressed in this paper and they
include the early childhood environment,
family expectations, societal image, gen-
de r s t e r eo t ypes , and t he schoo l
environment and gender issues in Africa.
The paper further addresses the conse-
quences of this disparity for Africa and
finally offers some recommended solu-
tions including accommodating various
leaming styles and perspectives, connect-
ing science concepts to life experiences,
promoting an environment of self-confi-
dence and success, providing students with
female role models, effective networking,
advocating gender-fair materials, gender-
based aff i rmat ive act ion, conduct ing
workshops and in-service training for sci-
ence teachers and finally advocating for
effective official government polices and
involvement.
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THEORETIC L PERSPECTIVES ON
GENDER ISSUES
Of late one of the most active debates
in academia has been on nature versus nur-
ture controversy and this dispute is so
controversial the opposing sides almost
never discuss them. It is in view of these
different schools of thought that one finds
Harvard's President Lawrence Summers'
recent statement that women might be
intrinsically disadvantaged in studying sci-
ence and mathem atics (Reid,2003;Fogg,
2005a; Fogg, 2005b), which has generat-
ed strong public debate very fascinating.
One school of thought about the differ-
ences between m en's and wom en's brains
believes Summers' remarks have merit
because due to physical development of
their brains, males have better developed
visual spatial ability than girls (see Child
Sm ithers, 1971); thus, wom en suffer
from agenetic deficit and that biological
differences between m en and wom en real-
ly can account for some of the
under-representation of women in some
fields of science (See Gray, 1981). Accord-
ing to th is phi losophical f ramework,
'women lack the basic intellectual equip-
ment' to profit from science education.
Thu s, they attribute gender inequity in aca-
d e mic p e r fo rma n c e in s c i e n c e a n d
mathem atics to genetics (Benbow Stan-
ley, 1980; Gray, 1981) , and not
surprisingly, individuals wh o subscribe to
this posi t ion are re luctant to commit
resources to serve the needs of women.
However, another school of thought
advocates that there is substantial research
that provides clear and compelling evi-
dence that women, like men, flourish in
nity and a supportive environment. This
scholarship had polished off the genetic
deficit predisposition with a view that the
sexes are equal enoug h in their intellectu-
al abilities that any biologica l differences
between them is vastly outweighed by
social pressures and discrimination that
discourage girls and women from pursu-
ing science and m athematics (see Jahoda,
1979). Thus, to this paradigm,
scientists
are made not bornas scientific know ledge
requires years of education and training
and that women lack behind because they
do not have 'cognitively stimulating envi-
ronment' for science education (; Linn
Hyde, 1989; Hyde, Fennem a, Lam on,
1990; Kahle M eece, 1994; Solomon,
1997;Xie et al.,200 3). It is in the context
of these different paradigm s or theoretical
frameworks that this paper addresses gen -
der inequity in science and mathematics
in Africa w here wom en have difficulty in
accessing education and rarely found in
hierarchical posts or at decision making
level.
THE FRIC N SCENE
The blessings of securing equal access
for females in science/mathematics edu-
c a t io n a r e n o w re c o g n iz e d a mo n g
non-governmental organizations, lending
institutions and govemments nAfrica. The
Millennium Declaration which was signed
in September 2000 (UN, 2000a) has as
some of its goals, the promo tion of gen der
equity and the empowerment of women,
and also the elimination of gender inequity
in primary and secondary education by
200 5 and in all levels of education no later
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Gender Inequity /7 1 3
Gender disparities in science/mathe-
matics education
is
the sector of the African
education system which has received lit-
tle attention when it comes to tackling
many of the problems facing this conti-
nen t (N a i doo & Savage , 1998 ) .
Traditionally, the educational systems of
the former colonizers has influenced the
science/mathematics education
in
African
coun tries, which involves a direct transfer
of science curricula, examinations and
teaching methods from westem countries
that have failed to address the current chal-
lenges in the continent. This has resulted
in a science/mathem atics education that in
most African countries is exemplified by
de-contextualized knowledge being trans-
mitted by poorly trained teachers in under
resourced and sometimes over crowded
classrooms (RoUnick, 1998;Yoloye, 1998).
Gender Patterns in Science/math education
in sub Saharan Africa:
Participation in science and mathem at-
ics education at Primary level is in general
compulsory in all sub-Saharan countries
(FEMSA, 1997). Low part icipat ion in
ma th/science education at this level is thus
only a problem in countries where chil-
dren are not in school. However, most
countries in this region have a gende r gap
that disadvantages girls (UNES CO, 2001).
The Education For All assessment (EFA
2
Assessm ent) undertaken in year 2000,
by the UNE SCO , the National Education
Statistical Information Systems (NESIS)
and the Association for the Development
of Education in Africa (AD EA) noted that
42 million children were out of school in
sub-Saharan A frica. Approximately60 of
these were also girls (UNESCO, NESIS
& ADEA , 2000).
In developing countries the tendency is
for the participation rates to drop signifi-
cantly from primary to secondary school.
In sub-Saharan Africa the gross enrolment
rate in secondary education is29.1 from
males and
23.3
from females (U NESC O,
1999a).
The following table shows the per-
centage of girls enrolled in secondary
education who part icipated in leaving
examination in science. The percentage of
Ghana
Tanzania
Uganda
Cameroon
Physics
35 (65)
25
29.5 (70.5)
Chemistry
35.8 (64.2)
25
36.8 (63.2)
Biology
44.2 (55.8)
compulsory
40.3 (59.7)
2-24 of girls choose science (district variations)
Tabte 1.1 Percentage enrotment oftotat numbe r of girts and boys in brackets) enrotted in
secondary e ducation w ho participated at teaving examinations in science. Source: FEM SA
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boys' participation is shown in brackets.
In terms of performance, the FEMSA
study showed that girls scored significantly
lower than boys in all science/math subjects
in the secondary schools that participated
in the first phase of FEMSA (FEMSA,
1997-10, pp. 11-13).
Studies in participation at tertiary edu -
cation reveal that in the sub-Saharan
average for science education in tertiary
education was
5 1
for m ale and2.8%for
females (UNESCO, 1999a) . In 2001
FAWE noted that data from ten selected
universitiesinAfrica showed that wom en's
enrolment in most universities is below
half that of men (FAWE, 2001).
EXPLAINING CAUSES OF GENDER
INEQUITY
Trying to find out what causes gender
inequity in mathematics and science edu-
cation has been the center of attention of
much gender research and studies in sci-
ence education (see Kenway & Gough,
1998;Mulemw a, 1999; UNESC O, 1999b,
Bordo , 200 1 ; UN ESCO , 2003a ; Re id ,
2003). These studies have resulted in an
extensive but incoherent body of informa-
tion suggesting why females in developing
world are underrepresen ted and und erper-
forming in some areas of math and science
education especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
At the beginning of twenty-first centu-
ry , wo me n rem ain a m inor i ty in the
mathematics and science disciplines in
Africa. Despite considerable progress
toward ge nder equity in other areas, a lin-
gering mind-set perseveres. Such beliefs
as Fem ales are not good in mathematics
because of long-held assumptions and
beliefs. However, there is consistent doc-
umentation that the major contributors to
the gender gap in science and mathemat-
ics are environm ental in nature influenced
by society (Guzzeti & Williams, 1996;
Jones etal.,
2000;
Adam s, 1996; Sadker &
Sadker, 1994; Mewborn, 1999; Pollina,
1995);
as it is endemic to the socio-cul-
tural, political and econom ic history of the
African continent. Society, by this paper,
is considered as an organized group of
peo-
ple associated together for cultural, social,
political, economic and geographical pur-
poses that influence all aspects of an
individual's life. Thus, the differential treat-
ment of females in Africa is grounded in
beliefs that society has about gender dif-
ferences. Sexism is woven into African
societal tapestry and pervades the various
cultures. Societies in most African coun-
tries undervalue the role of women, placing
higher value on the traditional male role.
Girls and women receive conflicting mes-
sages about their worth and place in African
cultures from schools, hom e, and the com-
munity. Science as a subject itself has
traditionally discouraged participation of
wom en. Adding to the problem is that sci-
ence classes are traditionally competitive
and do not make room for a variety of
leaming styles (Mulemw a, 1999; Graham,
2001). The proceeding themes on socio-
cultural values, beliefs and practices of
African societies coupled with the existing
educational eco-system provide a forum
for the discussion of the causes of gender
inequity in science and mathematics edu-
cation in African schools.
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The Early hildhood Environmen t
One major obstacle to gender disequi-
l ib r ium in mathemat i cs and sc i ence
education is attributable to early childhood
environm ent. Boys and girls in Africa are
from beginning, brought up under differ-
ent environmental setting. Parents are more
likely to react absolutely to self-confident
acts of thei r sons and to emot ional
demeanor in their daughters (Woolfolk,
1998). Boys are encouraged to be more
physical ly act ive and to learn how to
address their own problems while girls are
convinced to be obedient, tender and con-
scien tious. Bo ys, therefore, tend to be
brough t up to be independent, w hile there
is propensity to call on girls to be sub-
servient and affectionate (Woolfolk, 1998 ;
Mulemwa, 1999). Thus, the important
learning tools in science classrooms which
include discussion, problem solving, and
laboratory exercises, tend to be more in
sync with environment w hich boys
re
used
to .
There is the tendency to have an envi-
ronmentally- induced head start for boys
in science even before they are introduced
to the subject in school (Guzzett i
Wilhams,1996; Woolfolk, 1998,Aldridge
Goldman, 2002).
Family Expectations
Generally, family expectations have also
been a disincentive for mathematics and
science education for girls in Africa. Girls
tend to be given time consuming domes-
tic responsibilities, wh ich leave them with
not much time for private study. Girls con-
templating a career in science in some
cultures may find the issue of family ver-
usually takes preceden ce. There is the ten-
dency for females tofindt difficult
to
look
to the future to make career plans based
on their interests, rather than the m andates
of influential persons, especially their par-
ents,
as parents tend to encourage males
more than females to pursue advanced
coursework in science and mathematics
( A d a m s , 1 9 9 6 ; M e w b o r n , 1 9 9 9 ;
Mulemwa, 1999).
Societal Images of Wo men
Another phenomena explaining gender
inequity is low societal images of women
in some cultures of Africa. The values of
most African cultures assume and reflect
the somehow generally accepted less sig-
nificant status of women some of which
are embedded in mythologies, riddles and
proverbs. However, these images on which
African socialization systems thrive have
not yet received any thought-provoking
inquiry (Gachukia Kabira, 1991;B unyi,
2004 ). For instance, gender-differentiated
prospect for future incom e; wom en's labor
and household chores; open and hidden
dissuasion from pursuing particular track
of study, educational attainment of par-
ents,
religious and ethical guideline of
family, are some of the major problems
stemming from these socio-cultural images
(Mulemwa, 1999;Samoff 2003).
Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotype is another glaring
problem. Widespread acceptance of stereo-
typing of scient i s t s and engineers as
predominantly male domain from ele-
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This refers to the practices of attributing
roles,
behaviors, and aspirations to indi-
viduals or groups solely on the basis of
gender. Discriminations based on gender
stereotype surface in many ways in the
school context. It may occur, for exa mp le,
through teachers samples of group place-
ments and activity assignments, the content
of compliments and criticism.. Examples
range from the treatment of females in text-
b o o k s a n d c u r r i c u lu m ma te r i a l s t o
differential treatment of males and fem ales
in the classroom, to mistaken beliefs about
attitudes and cognitive abilities (Woolfolk,
1998; Mulemwa, 1999; Mewborn, 1999;
Wood, 2000; Martorella et
al. 2005;
Saitoti,
2005).
The tradi t ional female s tereotypes
emphasize dependence, personal relation-
ships,
and feelings (Smith, 1992). These
stereotypes prom ote female achievement
through conformity, by accepting the
notions that success is achieved through
being well-behaved, and obedient (Ad ams,
1996). These stereotypes encourage girls
to adopt self-conceptions and values that
reduce the importance of interest and
achievement in science and m athematics.
Unlike
boys,
these self-conceptions among
females lead to a pattern of internalized
helplessness with respect of science and
ma them atics, with failure credited to lack
of ability and success to luck (Smith, 1992;
Adams, 1996). In Botswana, for instance,
boys are still channeled into the so-called
masc uline areas such as mathem atics, sci-
ence and technology, while g ir ls are
concentrated in the so-called feminine dis-
ciplines like home economics, language
boys are treated more tolerably than girls
for outbursts of temper in the classrooms
(Graham, 2001).
THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT AND
GEND ER ISSUES IN AERICA
The Afr ican educ a t iona l sy s tem s
inability to address the gender issues in
terms of power relation s in the private and
public area cuts across all levels of edu-
cation, from prim ary to tertiary education.
It should come as no surprise then that the
schools have contributed in no small mea-
sure in bringing about gender inequity in
mathematics and science education in
Africa and the issues involved are captured
in the proceeding discussions.
ttitudes and Instructional Methods of
Teachers
There is a strong belief among some
teachers that mathem atics and science sub-
jects are a male preserve. Many teachers,
including women teachers, despite much
pservice to the equality ofgirlsand boys,
just do not believe that girls have the abil-
ity to study mathem atics and scien ce. The
result is that teachers have low expecta-
tions of girls ability to perform well in
sc ience and mathem at ics (O Con nor ,
2000). Female Education in M athematics
and ScienceinAfrica (FEM SA) studies in
eight African countries namely, Burkina
Faso,
Kenya, Mali, Malawi, M ozambique,
Senegal, Swaziland, and Zambia (cited in
O Connor
2000) found teachers attitudes
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state of affairs across all the countries.
Again, teachers generally tended to accept
the situation as heing out of their control
and inevitable and therefore, saw nothing
wrong in terms of their at t i tudes and
instructional styles (O'Connor, 2000).
Therefore, poor expectation of girls'
performance in the mathematics and sci-
ence subjects is a common spectacle. The
following set of statements has been a com-
mon feature in science and mathematics
classes:
Comfort Owusu,38%.Con nie You
have really made an effort during
this test
Kwadwo Mensah, 74%. Hey, my
rother
You did not try
enough
You
must really work harder next term
Statements like these send mixed sig-
nals that, it is not unheard of, if females
under-perform in mathematics and science
examinations but very much unacceptable
if a male student's performance is above
average. After over a decade of enhan ced
awareness of the need for more gender-
equitable treatments, the messages that
such comm ents can convey to students can-
not be overlooked.
Furthermore, Female Educat ion in
M at hem a t i c s and Sc i ence i n A f r i ca
(FEMSA)'s eight countries research pro-
ject ( cited in O'Connor, 2000) further
revealed that poor expectations of girls'
performance on the part of teachers leads
to the kind of science and mathematics
classroom dynam ics, where girls are treat-
ed very differently from boys. Their studies
revealed that teachers do not encourage
lessons, and in fact, at times, actively dis-
courage them. One way they do this is by
directing more challenging, high order
thinking questions to males, while only
simple recall type of questions to females
(Rosser, 1990; Kenway & Gough, 1998;
Mulemwa, 1999). This kind of treatment
can only reinforce and confirm in the minds
of both boys and girls what society and lit-
erature peddles around 'that science is for
boys only. ' Boys therefore, over time,
develop at these subjects which they con-
sider a ma le doma in. Therefore, g irls shy
away from any active participation during
science and mathem atics for fear of being
taunted ytheir male classmates. The study
further showed that girls complain that
boys call them names when they attempt
to ask teachers questions. Boys on the other
hand, fault girls for being unable to take
jokes and name calling sometimes coined
out of concepts leam ed in science classes.
This situation is tolerated by many teach-
ers and school administrations (O'Co nnor,
2000). Thus teachers' classroom instruc-
tional and management practices are not
always conducive to learning especially
for girls in science and mathematics cours -
es (FAWE, 2001).
Furthermore, one of the best docu-
mented findings of the past years is that
teachers interact more often and in more
detail with boys than with girls. This has
been observed in students from preschool
to college. Teachers ask males m ore ques-
tions and give them more feedback (e.g.
praise, criticism, correction), and give them
more valuable and specific comments
(Adams, 1996; Graham,
2001,
Guzzetti &
Williams, 1996). Small group activities
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tribute to gender inequity. Girls often
engage in passive activities such as record-
ing data, while boys get the opportunity to
handle equipment, dissect, and engage in
hands-on problem-solving (Guzzetti &
Williams, 1996; Mewborn, 1999). The
above discussed problems are aptly sum-
mar ized by Mulemwa (1999) in the
UN ESC O Special project on Scientific,
Techn ica l and Voca t iona l E duca t ion
(STVE ) of Girls in Africa in the follow-
ing fashion:
Many o fthe factors that inhibit girls'
participation and good performance
in the STVE field have been found
to be similar across countries and
regions. Those that are common
include gender biased curriculum
and other education m aterials; poor
teaching methods and classroom
pract ices and hence point ing to
teacher training; lack of appropriate
guidance and counseling of students,
particularly girls; and the lack of
encouragement and motivation of
the girls to pursue studies in these
fields
(p .
3)
applies to the boys.
Some researchers (Rop , 1998, Martin
& Newcomer, 1999) have attributed one
ofthe causes of gender inequity in science
and mathematics to the disciplines them-
selves. Science discipl ine, especial ly
physical sciences, has usually discouraged
women into the field, causing attrition of
more female than male students leaving
the
field
Traditional physical science class-
es are extremely competitive, and do not
make room for diversity of learning styles
(Graham, 2001).
Furthermore, the absence of senior
women scientists and mathematicians in
most public arena in Africa translate that
girls have few role models with whom to
identify, and few female mentors to encour-
age them (Nancy, 1 999). Again career
advisors in the schools are themselves ill-
prepared to extol the virtues of a caree r in
science and technology for girls; and pri-
mary school teachers teaching the science
subjects are themselves, more often than
not, unfamiliar with science lessons and
are therefore not equipped enough to m ake
the subject exciting (Nancy, 1999).
Lack of confidence in Science as a Discipline
One difference among girls and boys
in math and science education that is sug-
gested by gender researchers in many
countries is the difference in self-confi-
dence (Kenway & Gough, 1998;Andre et
al., 1999). Studies have shown that even
when girls tend to perform just as well as
boys,
their confidence relating to their abil-
Gender Biased Materials in Schools
Another wel l -es t ab l i shed form of
stereotyping and gender-bias comes from
textbooks and other learning materials
(Woolfolk, 1998; M ewborn, 1999; Wood,
2000). Many have documented through
content analysis that most ofthe textbooks
published tend to depict both males and
females in sexually stereotyped posifions.
There is the tendency to present women in
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Gender Inequity /7 1 9
makers, and care givers, with limited role
as professionals (Stromquist, 2005). A
study conducted in 1975 on Women on
Words and Images established that the
entire number of stories dealing with males
were four times as great as those dealing
with females. In add ition, this study found
that while men were usually more vibrant
and daring, females tended to be shown in
the home, behaving submissively and con-
veying incompetence (Woolfolk, 1998).
According to Duncan (1989), schools in
Botswana continue to use gender-biased
instructional materials and other forms of
sexism in the school environment.
CONSEQUENCES
The consequences of gender bias in sci-
ence education create problems both for
individuals and for society. It is well doc-
umented that girls, early on, suffer from
lack of self-esteem and self-confidence
(Graham , 200 1, Jones , How e, & Rua,
2000; Po llina, 1995). In addition, they have
low perceived ability in science, negative
attitudes toward science classes, and lack
of motivation to pursue advanced studies
in science and mathem atics (DeBacker &
Nelson, 2000). The costs of low perfor-
mance in mathem atics and science subjects
are that women and girls are unable to enter
science-related careers. A study carried out
in Ghana on post-secondary school sub-
ject choices indicates the following:
Only 12 ofgirlselect to study sci-
e n c e (p h y s i c s , c h e mis t ry , a n d
biology).
Only 5 of girls enroll for mathe-
Less than 1 of girls enter middle-
level technical training institutions
(Andam, 1990).
The above studies show that generally
women are invisible when one talks about
science and technology education which
have long been recognized as the co me r-
stone of development
in
Ghana
in
particular
and Africa in general.
SOLUT IONS What Should Be Done?
If the above discussed problems are
some of the reasons why women are not
to be found in greater numbers in science
and technology, what further can be done
to address the under-representativeness?
In spite ofth mounting problems militat-
ing against women in mathematics and
science education in Africa, I am of the
opinion that something positive could be
done about these problems to make m ath-
e ma t i c s a n d s c i e n c e su b je c t s mo re
appealing to women. The following are
some of the solutions recommended by the
paper.
GENDER RESPONSIVE POLICIES IN
THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
The schools' endeavor to address the
gender problems can take many forms. A
pohcy is a statement of guiding principle,
which defines main beliefs that guide plans,
actions and practices. Gender responsive
policy is a set of guidelines, which char-
acterize principles on how to address
imbalances and inequalities that have
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structed differences between men and
wom en in a given
society.
A gender respon-
sive policy, therefore, seeks to redress the
historical and socio-cultural imbalances
that have created gender hierarchies and
limited the extent to which wom en realize
their basic human needs as in the case of
Africa.
ccommodating
arious
Learning S tyles and
Viewpoints
Numerous scholars have explored the
imp lications of attending to various learn-
ing styles in the teaching-learning process
(Anderson & Adam s, 1992; Guild, 1997;
Johnson, 1998). There is consensus among
scholars that attending to the unique w ays
in which students leam should be part of
the teaching and learning process. Silver
et al. (1997) indicate that learning styles
emphasize the different ways people think
and feel as they solve problems, create
products, and interact...Learning styles
are concerned with differences in the
process of learnin g (P. 22).
Many teachers have choreographed the
curriculum to cater to male student popu-
lation and expect females to conform.
Science teachers, however, must include
pedagogical practices that have relevance
and meaning to gender issues for as Dewey
(1933) rem inds us that Every thing the
teacher does, as well as the manner in
which he does it , incites the child to
respond in some way or another, and each
respon se tends to get the child's attitude in
some way or the other (p. 59).
process gender responsive in all learning
environments including the family by
restructuring the curriculum and training
teachers on different teaching m ethod olo-
gies in all contexts including how to deal
with students with special needs. It also
involves providing friendly learning envi-
ronm ents that are inclusive, affordable and
accessible to all students.
We have seen how all factors both in
and out of school contribute to gender
inequity in science and mathematics. How-
ever, teachers are somehow limited in their
ability to control the influences that soci-
ety has outside ofth school environment.
However, even with these restrictions,
teachers can still contribute tremendously
to the minimization of gender bias within
the classroom.
Educational policies that govern edu-
cat ion do not a lways favor gir ls and
wom en. In the provision of school places,
equipment , teachers ' d is tr ibut ion and
deploym ent, the gender approach needs to
be addressed to ensure non discriminato-
ry practices. An increasing body of research
suggests that equating learning styles with
teaching and learning activities contributes
to meeting each individual's unique needs
(Stewart, 1990).
Linking Science and Mathematics Concepts
to life Ex periences
The curriculum in many African coun-
tries needs to be revisited for relevance and
appropriateness as some countries contin-
ue to use curricula inherited from the
colonial times (Asimeng-Boahene, 1999).
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Gender Inequity /7 2 1
so that science and mathematics leamed
in school be meaningful and practical for
female students. As demon strate by Paulus
Gerdes in his book, Geometry of Africa;
the business acumen of market women,
street vendors quick-thinking mathemati-
cal computation, on the spot determination
of what is a good buy or a good sale; the
kind of geometry involved in hair styles,
basket weaving, pot making, bead work,
cloth w eaving can be used in m athematics
and science classes for illustrations (Cited
in O'Conno r, 2000). Thus interests of the
students, and also the applications of sci-
ence concep ts , pa r t icu la r ly phys ica l
science, to life learning and life skills
should feature prominently in the science
classrooms (Brown U niversity,
1996,
cited
in Tindall and Ham il, 2004).
Environment of Self Conftdence and
Success
Com mu nicating loudly and clearly that
both boys and girls would be equally
expected to do well in mathematics and
science courses by teachers can go a long
way in motivating science and mathemat-
ics students (Wood, 20 00, cited in Tindall
& Ham il, 2004). However, teachers need
to pay mo re attention to girls as they m ay
not be able, due to environmental circum-
stances, to do as well in science and
mathem atics as boys. Thu s, the role of the
teacher in praising students and verbaliz-
ing expectations is critical in fostering
self-confidence in girls. For instance , it is
very important to give regular feedbacks
in the form of un-stereotyped comments
thereby highlighting female studen ts' con-
fidence in terms of the content of course
age participation and foster self-confidence
by giving consistent positive reinforcement
for their comm ents and questions (Guzzetti
& Williams, 1996, Mewbom, 1999).
Female Role Models as Guest Speakers
Increasing representation of female role
models is a potential force to prom ote girls
education in mathematics and science.
Schools could invite women who have
excelled in the field of science and tech-
nology to their schools or classroom to talk
about their experiences. For example, in
Kenya, schools could invite Dr. Wangari
M aathai, the Kenyan first African wom an
to win a Nobel Peace Prize for her work
on environmental issues and human rights
to the schools to talk about environment.
Her award could be a perfect and reward-
ing exercise for women studying science
and mathematics in Kenya. Ardent advo-
cates for using wom en as effective teaching
tools in science classrooms justify it by the
positive effects that woman resource per-
son may have on students in general and
wom en in particular. The use of women as
resource perso ns cannot only serve as role
mo dels for science girls, but their presence
in the science classrooms is important to
male students and teachers too. Further-
more , the p resence o f female gues t
speakers in the schools can serve as psy-
c h o so c ia l t h e ra p y b o o s t in g f e ma le
students' self-esteem, helping to raise the
aspiration, motivation, and academic lev-
els of female science students in Africa.
The importance of this concept is further
reiterated by Braithwaithe (1995), when
he sums up that, process of dialogue with
those who suffer from acts of irresponsi-
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722 / Education Vol 126 No 4
most effective ways of bringing home to
us as human beings ones obligations to
take responsibility for our dee ds (P. 21).
Networking among Female Scientists
Networking among female scientists in
Africa should be promoted through publi-
cations, meetings, and virtual discussion
groups. Marriner-Tomey (1993) describes
networking as a means in which people
communicate, share ideas and informa-
tion, and give support and direction to each
other. The inclusion of women in the math-
ematics and science education networking
circles of the men at the center of power
would be of further great benefit (Nancy,
1999).
Thus, the science/mathematics
women teachers need a network with other
profess ionals to help them function effec-
tively. Networking promotes bonds with
people throughout the profession, both
within and outside the work environment.
Also,
it creates new opportunities and
makes it easier for the exchange of ideas,
knowledge, and informat ion. Science
teachers can develop a network by a)
attending local, regional and national con-
ferences, b) joining the alumni association
and attending alumni meetings,c joining
and participating in professional organi-
za t ions , and d) soc ia l i z ing wi th
professional colleagues (O'Leary et al.,
1986,
cited in Asimeng-Boahene, 1999).
Thus,
women in science and mathematics
must m aintain outside contacts if they are
to manage a fulfilling and effective pro-
fessional career as this can help them find
new opportunities and also attract men-
Gender based Affirmative Action
Since the existing po licies and practices
have failed to address the unjust realities
in terms of gender inequity in science and
ma them atics, it is not too late for the insti-
tutions to go out of their way to assure
justice through gender-based affirmative
action. Affirmative action, in general, is a
policy whereby preference is given to
underrepresented minority applicants. It is
one of
the
most talked about and most con-
troversial issues in the field of academia
(Grofman & Merrill, 2004). This sugges-
tion may be controversial as critics argue
that admissions to institutions of higher
leaming are based on merits and therefore,
allowing women to enter at lower cut off
points than their male counterparts 'waters
down' standards. This approach further
endorses the notion of women as intellec-
tually weaker gender and thus denies them
the prestige they would achieve by mak-
ing it on their own (Sowell, 2004). Sow ell
(2004) further concludes from his analy-
sis of affirmative action that des pite
sweeping claims made for affirmative
action programs, an examination of their
actual consequences m akes it hard to sup-
port those claims or even to say that these
programs have been beneficial on the net
ba lan ce ... (P. 120). However, advocates
who believe in this adjusted admission
advantage for wom en talk about the oppor-
tunity cost of admission preferences by
viewing the policy to be, if at all,
positive
discrimination and a necessary
evil As
such, stake holders must be prepared to
subscribe to the view that any amount of
social redress, however, small, is worth
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ender Inequity 1122
ing to Szockyj and Frank (Cited in Szock-
yj and Fox, 1995), preserving the gender
queue bestows advantages on all men by
reinforcing their dominant position in
employm ent, and by extension, in society
(p. 16).
This paper is of the opinion that 'soft-
ening' the admission criteria by modest
degree for females seems to be an appro-
priate measure to help reduce the gender
gap. The pol icy addresses the demo-
graph ics o f sex inequ i t ies and
discrimination in school admissions as
emphasis is on achieving equality of oppor-
tun i ty in the educa t ion and work
environment.
During my eight years teaching expe-
rience in Nigeria, for instance, places in
university are required to reflect the fed-
eral character of Nigeria. This mean s that
there are quotas for all the large ethnic
groups in the country. I am ofth e view that
the same can be done to reflect the gender
character ofthe Federal Republic of Nige-
ria. Thus given the current dismal picture
of females in science and mathem atics edu-
cation in Africa, introducing
preferential
policies in the form of gender-based affir-
mative action seems to be an immediate
option if not an all time remedy towards
maintaining a gender equity community
in academia.
orks ops and In Service Training for
Teachers
Gender awareness training in the form
of workshops and in-service training for
mathem atics and science educators should
becom e an integral part of the school cur-
necessary to help produce current and com-
petent teachers. This will require the
development of focused institutionalized
and regular in-servicing of mathematics
and science teachers. Basically, gender
awareness training allows teachers to incor-
p o ra t e g e n d e r p a ra me te r s i n t h e i r
instruction. The training should focus on,
among others, the concepts, scope and con-
tent, the methods of teaching and assessing
the end product of the subject, and text-
book development and production, etc.
Such schools-based w orkshops to improve
science and mathematics teachers' method-
ologies and skills and update on new
techniques is vital force to help reduce the
stigma that has been attached to females
subordinate position in mathematics and
science education in Africa. A lso, as stat-
ed by George Saitoti, Kenya's Educafion
Minister when launching the Association
for
the
Development of Education
in
Africa
Working Group on Mathem atics and Sci-
ence Education in Nairobi This approach
will help to demystify the learning of math-
e ma t i c s a n d s c i e n c e su b je c t s
www.allafrica.com/stories.html (Accessed
3 March 2005).
This can also be done through outreach
activities in conjunction with other stake
holders like Non-governmental Organiza-
tions focusing on gender issues. Th is could
take the form of a production of docu-
mentary videos or films about wom en and
science and mathematics education to be
distributed within the country involved to
schools and communities. Also career guid-
ance counselors have to visit various parts
ofth e country to organize sessions for stu-
d e n t s ,
p a r e n t s , c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s
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ender Inequity
1125
CONCLUSION
I have addressed in the paper why gen-
der inequity in mathematics and science
still exists in African schools, and also
offered several strategies for the purpose
of discovering long-term solutions to this
problem. I strongly believe that investment
in science and mathematics education for
women would yield broad economic ben-
efitsinAfrica, ifw are to take co gnizance
of the saying that 'If you educate a man,
you educ ate an individual; but if you edu-
cate a woman, you educate a nation. '
African women are absolutely central to
sustainable development and socio-eco-
n o mic a d v a n c e me n t o n th e Af r i c a n
continent. With the new flying phrases
being scientific and technological advance-
ments, let all stake holders in Africa, be
they families, schools, communities, gov-
e rn me n t s e t c , t h ro u g h th e i r sk i l l s ,
innovations and intellect, chart a new era
of development for African women by
being g ender-sensitive in all their endeav-
ors and thereby helping in uplifting wom en
in mathematics and science subjects on the
continent of Africa.
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