gender inequality in science and mathematics education in africa

7/25/2019 Gender Inequality in Science and Mathematics Education in Africa

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GENDER INEQUITY IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

EDUCATION IN AFRICA: THE C AUS ES

CONSEQ UENCES AND SOLUTIONS

LEW IS AS IMENG-BOAHENE, P H . D

Penn State University Harrisburg

Over the past years, a large body of scholarly literature has

developed to address gender inequity in the developed world,

and suggestions for reducing the gender gap are well document-

ed in the literature. However, still lacking in research is why

there is gender inequity in m athematics and science education in

African schools. Girls are not receiving the same quality, or even

quantity, of education as their male classmates in both subjects.

This article discusses this gender bias, the discriminatory poli-

cies,

and the consequences. It also suggests several promising

strategies for discovering long-term solutions to this problem.

ntrodu tion

Science and technology have long been

recognized as the cornerstone of develop-

ment and prosperity of Africa. Economic

prosperity of African countries is inter-

linked with its skillful utilization and

management of science and technology.

This underscores the importance of skilled

human resources in the science, mathe-

matics and technology fields in Africa.

However, while the benefits of science and

mathematics education for women in sus-

tainable social and econom ic development

are numerous in some major parts of the

world, Africa still lags behind other con-

tinents in terms of provision of science and

mathematics education for girls. Female

education and training in Africa is gene r-

ally characterized by lower performance

and achievem ent levels than those of

boys,

especially in mathematics, science and

other technical subjects (Gachukia Kabi-

ra, 1991).

A closer look at the factors reveals that

the problem continues as it has not yet

occupiedaprominent placeinAfrica s edu-

cat ional c i rcles . Several cont r ibut ing

factors are addressed in this paper and they

include the early childhood environment,

family expectations, societal image, gen-

de r s t e r eo t ypes , and t he schoo l

environment and gender issues in Africa.

The paper further addresses the conse-

quences of this disparity for Africa and

finally offers some recommended solu-

tions including accommodating various

leaming styles and perspectives, connect-

ing science concepts to life experiences,

promoting an environment of self-confi-

dence and success, providing students with

female role models, effective networking,

advocating gender-fair materials, gender-

based aff i rmat ive act ion, conduct ing

workshops and in-service training for sci-

ence teachers and finally advocating for

effective official government polices and

involvement.


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712 / Education Vol 126 No 4

THEORETIC L PERSPECTIVES ON

GENDER ISSUES

Of late one of the most active debates

in academia has been on nature versus nur-

ture controversy and this dispute is so

controversial the opposing sides almost

never discuss them. It is in view of these

different schools of thought that one finds

Harvard's President Lawrence Summers'

recent statement that women might be

intrinsically disadvantaged in studying sci-

ence and mathem atics (Reid,2003;Fogg,

2005a; Fogg, 2005b), which has generat-

ed strong public debate very fascinating.

One school of thought about the differ-

ences between m en's and wom en's brains

believes Summers' remarks have merit

because due to physical development of

their brains, males have better developed

visual spatial ability than girls (see Child

Sm ithers, 1971); thus, wom en suffer

from agenetic deficit and that biological

differences between m en and wom en real-

ly can account for some of the

under-representation of women in some

fields of science (See Gray, 1981). Accord-

ing to th is phi losophical f ramework,

'women lack the basic intellectual equip-

ment' to profit from science education.

Thu s, they attribute gender inequity in aca-

d e mic p e r fo rma n c e in s c i e n c e a n d

mathem atics to genetics (Benbow Stan-

ley, 1980; Gray, 1981) , and not

surprisingly, individuals wh o subscribe to

this posi t ion are re luctant to commit

resources to serve the needs of women.

However, another school of thought

advocates that there is substantial research

that provides clear and compelling evi-

dence that women, like men, flourish in

nity and a supportive environment. This

scholarship had polished off the genetic

deficit predisposition with a view that the

sexes are equal enoug h in their intellectu-

al abilities that any biologica l differences

between them is vastly outweighed by

social pressures and discrimination that

discourage girls and women from pursu-

ing science and m athematics (see Jahoda,

1979). Thus, to this paradigm,

scientists

are made not bornas scientific know ledge

requires years of education and training

and that women lack behind because they

do not have 'cognitively stimulating envi-

ronment' for science education (; Linn

Hyde, 1989; Hyde, Fennem a, Lam on,

1990; Kahle M eece, 1994; Solomon,

1997;Xie et al.,200 3). It is in the context

of these different paradigm s or theoretical

frameworks that this paper addresses gen -

der inequity in science and mathematics

in Africa w here wom en have difficulty in

accessing education and rarely found in

hierarchical posts or at decision making

level.

THE FRIC N SCENE

The blessings of securing equal access

for females in science/mathematics edu-

c a t io n a r e n o w re c o g n iz e d a mo n g

non-governmental organizations, lending

institutions and govemments nAfrica. The

Millennium Declaration which was signed

in September 2000 (UN, 2000a) has as

some of its goals, the promo tion of gen der

equity and the empowerment of women,

and also the elimination of gender inequity

in primary and secondary education by

200 5 and in all levels of education no later


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Gender Inequity /7 1 3

Gender disparities in science/mathe-

matics education

is

the sector of the African

education system which has received lit-

tle attention when it comes to tackling

many of the problems facing this conti-

nen t (N a i doo & Savage , 1998 ) .

Traditionally, the educational systems of

the former colonizers has influenced the

science/mathematics education

in

African

coun tries, which involves a direct transfer

of science curricula, examinations and

teaching methods from westem countries

that have failed to address the current chal-

lenges in the continent. This has resulted

in a science/mathem atics education that in

most African countries is exemplified by

de-contextualized knowledge being trans-

mitted by poorly trained teachers in under

resourced and sometimes over crowded

classrooms (RoUnick, 1998;Yoloye, 1998).

Gender Patterns in Science/math education

in sub Saharan Africa:

Participation in science and mathem at-

ics education at Primary level is in general

compulsory in all sub-Saharan countries

(FEMSA, 1997). Low part icipat ion in

ma th/science education at this level is thus

only a problem in countries where chil-

dren are not in school. However, most

countries in this region have a gende r gap

that disadvantages girls (UNES CO, 2001).

The Education For All assessment (EFA

2

Assessm ent) undertaken in year 2000,

by the UNE SCO , the National Education

Statistical Information Systems (NESIS)

and the Association for the Development

of Education in Africa (AD EA) noted that

42 million children were out of school in

sub-Saharan A frica. Approximately60 of

these were also girls (UNESCO, NESIS

& ADEA , 2000).

In developing countries the tendency is

for the participation rates to drop signifi-

cantly from primary to secondary school.

In sub-Saharan Africa the gross enrolment

rate in secondary education is29.1 from

males and

23.3

from females (U NESC O,

1999a).

The following table shows the per-

centage of girls enrolled in secondary

education who part icipated in leaving

examination in science. The percentage of

Ghana

Tanzania

Uganda

Cameroon

Physics

35 (65)

25

29.5 (70.5)

Chemistry

35.8 (64.2)

25

36.8 (63.2)

Biology

44.2 (55.8)

compulsory

40.3 (59.7)

2-24 of girls choose science (district variations)

Tabte 1.1 Percentage enrotment oftotat numbe r of girts and boys in brackets) enrotted in

secondary e ducation w ho participated at teaving examinations in science. Source: FEM SA


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714 /Edu cat ion Vol 126 No 4

boys' participation is shown in brackets.

In terms of performance, the FEMSA

study showed that girls scored significantly

lower than boys in all science/math subjects

in the secondary schools that participated

in the first phase of FEMSA (FEMSA,

1997-10, pp. 11-13).

Studies in participation at tertiary edu -

cation reveal that in the sub-Saharan

average for science education in tertiary

education was

5 1

for m ale and2.8%for

females (UNESCO, 1999a) . In 2001

FAWE noted that data from ten selected

universitiesinAfrica showed that wom en's

enrolment in most universities is below

half that of men (FAWE, 2001).

EXPLAINING CAUSES OF GENDER

INEQUITY

Trying to find out what causes gender

inequity in mathematics and science edu-

cation has been the center of attention of

much gender research and studies in sci-

ence education (see Kenway & Gough,

1998;Mulemw a, 1999; UNESC O, 1999b,

Bordo , 200 1 ; UN ESCO , 2003a ; Re id ,

2003). These studies have resulted in an

extensive but incoherent body of informa-

tion suggesting why females in developing

world are underrepresen ted and und erper-

forming in some areas of math and science

education especially in sub-Saharan Africa.

At the beginning of twenty-first centu-

ry , wo me n rem ain a m inor i ty in the

mathematics and science disciplines in

Africa. Despite considerable progress

toward ge nder equity in other areas, a lin-

gering mind-set perseveres. Such beliefs

as Fem ales are not good in mathematics

because of long-held assumptions and

beliefs. However, there is consistent doc-

umentation that the major contributors to

the gender gap in science and mathemat-

ics are environm ental in nature influenced

by society (Guzzeti & Williams, 1996;

Jones etal.,

2000;

Adam s, 1996; Sadker &

Sadker, 1994; Mewborn, 1999; Pollina,

1995);

as it is endemic to the socio-cul-

tural, political and econom ic history of the

African continent. Society, by this paper,

is considered as an organized group of

peo-

ple associated together for cultural, social,

political, economic and geographical pur-

poses that influence all aspects of an

individual's life. Thus, the differential treat-

ment of females in Africa is grounded in

beliefs that society has about gender dif-

ferences. Sexism is woven into African

societal tapestry and pervades the various

cultures. Societies in most African coun-

tries undervalue the role of women, placing

higher value on the traditional male role.

Girls and women receive conflicting mes-

sages about their worth and place in African

cultures from schools, hom e, and the com-

munity. Science as a subject itself has

traditionally discouraged participation of

wom en. Adding to the problem is that sci-

ence classes are traditionally competitive

and do not make room for a variety of

leaming styles (Mulemw a, 1999; Graham,

2001). The proceeding themes on socio-

cultural values, beliefs and practices of

African societies coupled with the existing

educational eco-system provide a forum

for the discussion of the causes of gender

inequity in science and mathematics edu-

cation in African schools.


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Gender Inequity / 715

The Early hildhood Environmen t

One major obstacle to gender disequi-

l ib r ium in mathemat i cs and sc i ence

education is attributable to early childhood

environm ent. Boys and girls in Africa are

from beginning, brought up under differ-

ent environmental setting. Parents are more

likely to react absolutely to self-confident

acts of thei r sons and to emot ional

demeanor in their daughters (Woolfolk,

1998). Boys are encouraged to be more

physical ly act ive and to learn how to

address their own problems while girls are

convinced to be obedient, tender and con-

scien tious. Bo ys, therefore, tend to be

brough t up to be independent, w hile there

is propensity to call on girls to be sub-

servient and affectionate (Woolfolk, 1998 ;

Mulemwa, 1999). Thus, the important

learning tools in science classrooms which

include discussion, problem solving, and

laboratory exercises, tend to be more in

sync with environment w hich boys

re

used

to .

There is the tendency to have an envi-

ronmentally- induced head start for boys

in science even before they are introduced

to the subject in school (Guzzett i

Wilhams,1996; Woolfolk, 1998,Aldridge

Goldman, 2002).

Family Expectations

Generally, family expectations have also

been a disincentive for mathematics and

science education for girls in Africa. Girls

tend to be given time consuming domes-

tic responsibilities, wh ich leave them with

not much time for private study. Girls con-

templating a career in science in some

cultures may find the issue of family ver-

usually takes preceden ce. There is the ten-

dency for females tofindt difficult

to

look

to the future to make career plans based

on their interests, rather than the m andates

of influential persons, especially their par-

ents,

as parents tend to encourage males

more than females to pursue advanced

coursework in science and mathematics

( A d a m s , 1 9 9 6 ; M e w b o r n , 1 9 9 9 ;

Mulemwa, 1999).

Societal Images of Wo men

Another phenomena explaining gender

inequity is low societal images of women

in some cultures of Africa. The values of

most African cultures assume and reflect

the somehow generally accepted less sig-

nificant status of women some of which

are embedded in mythologies, riddles and

proverbs. However, these images on which

African socialization systems thrive have

not yet received any thought-provoking

inquiry (Gachukia Kabira, 1991;B unyi,

2004 ). For instance, gender-differentiated

prospect for future incom e; wom en's labor

and household chores; open and hidden

dissuasion from pursuing particular track

of study, educational attainment of par-

ents,

religious and ethical guideline of

family, are some of the major problems

stemming from these socio-cultural images

(Mulemwa, 1999;Samoff 2003).

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotype is another glaring

problem. Widespread acceptance of stereo-

typing of scient i s t s and engineers as

predominantly male domain from ele-


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This refers to the practices of attributing

roles,

behaviors, and aspirations to indi-

viduals or groups solely on the basis of

gender. Discriminations based on gender

stereotype surface in many ways in the

school context. It may occur, for exa mp le,

through teachers samples of group place-

ments and activity assignments, the content

of compliments and criticism.. Examples

range from the treatment of females in text-

b o o k s a n d c u r r i c u lu m ma te r i a l s t o

differential treatment of males and fem ales

in the classroom, to mistaken beliefs about

attitudes and cognitive abilities (Woolfolk,

1998; Mulemwa, 1999; Mewborn, 1999;

Wood, 2000; Martorella et

al. 2005;

Saitoti,

2005).

The tradi t ional female s tereotypes

emphasize dependence, personal relation-

ships,

and feelings (Smith, 1992). These

stereotypes prom ote female achievement

through conformity, by accepting the

notions that success is achieved through

being well-behaved, and obedient (Ad ams,

1996). These stereotypes encourage girls

to adopt self-conceptions and values that

reduce the importance of interest and

achievement in science and m athematics.

Unlike

boys,

these self-conceptions among

females lead to a pattern of internalized

helplessness with respect of science and

ma them atics, with failure credited to lack

of ability and success to luck (Smith, 1992;

Adams, 1996). In Botswana, for instance,

boys are still channeled into the so-called

masc uline areas such as mathem atics, sci-

ence and technology, while g ir ls are

concentrated in the so-called feminine dis-

ciplines like home economics, language

boys are treated more tolerably than girls

for outbursts of temper in the classrooms

(Graham, 2001).

THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT AND

GEND ER ISSUES IN AERICA

The Afr ican educ a t iona l sy s tem s

inability to address the gender issues in

terms of power relation s in the private and

public area cuts across all levels of edu-

cation, from prim ary to tertiary education.

It should come as no surprise then that the

schools have contributed in no small mea-

sure in bringing about gender inequity in

mathematics and science education in

Africa and the issues involved are captured

in the proceeding discussions.

ttitudes and Instructional Methods of

Teachers

There is a strong belief among some

teachers that mathem atics and science sub-

jects are a male preserve. Many teachers,

including women teachers, despite much

pservice to the equality ofgirlsand boys,

just do not believe that girls have the abil-

ity to study mathem atics and scien ce. The

result is that teachers have low expecta-

tions of girls ability to perform well in

sc ience and mathem at ics (O Con nor ,

2000). Female Education in M athematics

and ScienceinAfrica (FEM SA) studies in

eight African countries namely, Burkina

Faso,

Kenya, Mali, Malawi, M ozambique,

Senegal, Swaziland, and Zambia (cited in

O Connor

2000) found teachers attitudes


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state of affairs across all the countries.

Again, teachers generally tended to accept

the situation as heing out of their control

and inevitable and therefore, saw nothing

wrong in terms of their at t i tudes and

instructional styles (O'Connor, 2000).

Therefore, poor expectation of girls'

performance in the mathematics and sci-

ence subjects is a common spectacle. The

following set of statements has been a com-

mon feature in science and mathematics

classes:

Comfort Owusu,38%.Con nie You

have really made an effort during

this test

Kwadwo Mensah, 74%. Hey, my

rother

You did not try

enough

You

must really work harder next term

Statements like these send mixed sig-

nals that, it is not unheard of, if females

under-perform in mathematics and science

examinations but very much unacceptable

if a male student's performance is above

average. After over a decade of enhan ced

awareness of the need for more gender-

equitable treatments, the messages that

such comm ents can convey to students can-

not be overlooked.

Furthermore, Female Educat ion in

M at hem a t i c s and Sc i ence i n A f r i ca

(FEMSA)'s eight countries research pro-

ject ( cited in O'Connor, 2000) further

revealed that poor expectations of girls'

performance on the part of teachers leads

to the kind of science and mathematics

classroom dynam ics, where girls are treat-

ed very differently from boys. Their studies

revealed that teachers do not encourage

lessons, and in fact, at times, actively dis-

courage them. One way they do this is by

directing more challenging, high order

thinking questions to males, while only

simple recall type of questions to females

(Rosser, 1990; Kenway & Gough, 1998;

Mulemwa, 1999). This kind of treatment

can only reinforce and confirm in the minds

of both boys and girls what society and lit-

erature peddles around 'that science is for

boys only. ' Boys therefore, over time,

develop at these subjects which they con-

sider a ma le doma in. Therefore, g irls shy

away from any active participation during

science and mathem atics for fear of being

taunted ytheir male classmates. The study

further showed that girls complain that

boys call them names when they attempt

to ask teachers questions. Boys on the other

hand, fault girls for being unable to take

jokes and name calling sometimes coined

out of concepts leam ed in science classes.

This situation is tolerated by many teach-

ers and school administrations (O'Co nnor,

2000). Thus teachers' classroom instruc-

tional and management practices are not

always conducive to learning especially

for girls in science and mathematics cours -

es (FAWE, 2001).

Furthermore, one of the best docu-

mented findings of the past years is that

teachers interact more often and in more

detail with boys than with girls. This has

been observed in students from preschool

to college. Teachers ask males m ore ques-

tions and give them more feedback (e.g.

praise, criticism, correction), and give them

more valuable and specific comments

(Adams, 1996; Graham,

2001,

Guzzetti &

Williams, 1996). Small group activities


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tribute to gender inequity. Girls often

engage in passive activities such as record-

ing data, while boys get the opportunity to

handle equipment, dissect, and engage in

hands-on problem-solving (Guzzetti &

Williams, 1996; Mewborn, 1999). The

above discussed problems are aptly sum-

mar ized by Mulemwa (1999) in the

UN ESC O Special project on Scientific,

Techn ica l and Voca t iona l E duca t ion

(STVE ) of Girls in Africa in the follow-

ing fashion:

Many o fthe factors that inhibit girls'

participation and good performance

in the STVE field have been found

to be similar across countries and

regions. Those that are common

include gender biased curriculum

and other education m aterials; poor

teaching methods and classroom

pract ices and hence point ing to

teacher training; lack of appropriate

guidance and counseling of students,

particularly girls; and the lack of

encouragement and motivation of

the girls to pursue studies in these

fields

(p .

3)

applies to the boys.

Some researchers (Rop , 1998, Martin

& Newcomer, 1999) have attributed one

ofthe causes of gender inequity in science

and mathematics to the disciplines them-

selves. Science discipl ine, especial ly

physical sciences, has usually discouraged

women into the field, causing attrition of

more female than male students leaving

the

field

Traditional physical science class-

es are extremely competitive, and do not

make room for diversity of learning styles

(Graham, 2001).

Furthermore, the absence of senior

women scientists and mathematicians in

most public arena in Africa translate that

girls have few role models with whom to

identify, and few female mentors to encour-

age them (Nancy, 1 999). Again career

advisors in the schools are themselves ill-

prepared to extol the virtues of a caree r in

science and technology for girls; and pri-

mary school teachers teaching the science

subjects are themselves, more often than

not, unfamiliar with science lessons and

are therefore not equipped enough to m ake

the subject exciting (Nancy, 1999).

Lack of confidence in Science as a Discipline

One difference among girls and boys

in math and science education that is sug-

gested by gender researchers in many

countries is the difference in self-confi-

dence (Kenway & Gough, 1998;Andre et

al., 1999). Studies have shown that even

when girls tend to perform just as well as

boys,

their confidence relating to their abil-

Gender Biased Materials in Schools

Another wel l -es t ab l i shed form of

stereotyping and gender-bias comes from

textbooks and other learning materials

(Woolfolk, 1998; M ewborn, 1999; Wood,

2000). Many have documented through

content analysis that most ofthe textbooks

published tend to depict both males and

females in sexually stereotyped posifions.

There is the tendency to present women in


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makers, and care givers, with limited role

as professionals (Stromquist, 2005). A

study conducted in 1975 on Women on

Words and Images established that the

entire number of stories dealing with males

were four times as great as those dealing

with females. In add ition, this study found

that while men were usually more vibrant

and daring, females tended to be shown in

the home, behaving submissively and con-

veying incompetence (Woolfolk, 1998).

According to Duncan (1989), schools in

Botswana continue to use gender-biased

instructional materials and other forms of

sexism in the school environment.

CONSEQUENCES

The consequences of gender bias in sci-

ence education create problems both for

individuals and for society. It is well doc-

umented that girls, early on, suffer from

lack of self-esteem and self-confidence

(Graham , 200 1, Jones , How e, & Rua,

2000; Po llina, 1995). In addition, they have

low perceived ability in science, negative

attitudes toward science classes, and lack

of motivation to pursue advanced studies

in science and mathem atics (DeBacker &

Nelson, 2000). The costs of low perfor-

mance in mathem atics and science subjects

are that women and girls are unable to enter

science-related careers. A study carried out

in Ghana on post-secondary school sub-

ject choices indicates the following:

Only 12 ofgirlselect to study sci-

e n c e (p h y s i c s , c h e mis t ry , a n d

biology).

Only 5 of girls enroll for mathe-

Less than 1 of girls enter middle-

level technical training institutions

(Andam, 1990).

The above studies show that generally

women are invisible when one talks about

science and technology education which

have long been recognized as the co me r-

stone of development

in

Ghana

in

particular

and Africa in general.

SOLUT IONS What Should Be Done?

If the above discussed problems are

some of the reasons why women are not

to be found in greater numbers in science

and technology, what further can be done

to address the under-representativeness?

In spite ofth mounting problems militat-

ing against women in mathematics and

science education in Africa, I am of the

opinion that something positive could be

done about these problems to make m ath-

e ma t i c s a n d s c i e n c e su b je c t s mo re

appealing to women. The following are

some of the solutions recommended by the

paper.

GENDER RESPONSIVE POLICIES IN

THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT

The schools' endeavor to address the

gender problems can take many forms. A

pohcy is a statement of guiding principle,

which defines main beliefs that guide plans,

actions and practices. Gender responsive

policy is a set of guidelines, which char-

acterize principles on how to address

imbalances and inequalities that have


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structed differences between men and

wom en in a given

society.

A gender respon-

sive policy, therefore, seeks to redress the

historical and socio-cultural imbalances

that have created gender hierarchies and

limited the extent to which wom en realize

their basic human needs as in the case of

Africa.

ccommodating

arious

Learning S tyles and

Viewpoints

Numerous scholars have explored the

imp lications of attending to various learn-

ing styles in the teaching-learning process

(Anderson & Adam s, 1992; Guild, 1997;

Johnson, 1998). There is consensus among

scholars that attending to the unique w ays

in which students leam should be part of

the teaching and learning process. Silver

et al. (1997) indicate that learning styles

emphasize the different ways people think

and feel as they solve problems, create

products, and interact...Learning styles

are concerned with differences in the

process of learnin g (P. 22).

Many teachers have choreographed the

curriculum to cater to male student popu-

lation and expect females to conform.

Science teachers, however, must include

pedagogical practices that have relevance

and meaning to gender issues for as Dewey

(1933) rem inds us that Every thing the

teacher does, as well as the manner in

which he does it , incites the child to

respond in some way or another, and each

respon se tends to get the child's attitude in

some way or the other (p. 59).

process gender responsive in all learning

environments including the family by

restructuring the curriculum and training

teachers on different teaching m ethod olo-

gies in all contexts including how to deal

with students with special needs. It also

involves providing friendly learning envi-

ronm ents that are inclusive, affordable and

accessible to all students.

We have seen how all factors both in

and out of school contribute to gender

inequity in science and mathematics. How-

ever, teachers are somehow limited in their

ability to control the influences that soci-

ety has outside ofth school environment.

However, even with these restrictions,

teachers can still contribute tremendously

to the minimization of gender bias within

the classroom.

Educational policies that govern edu-

cat ion do not a lways favor gir ls and

wom en. In the provision of school places,

equipment , teachers ' d is tr ibut ion and

deploym ent, the gender approach needs to

be addressed to ensure non discriminato-

ry practices. An increasing body of research

suggests that equating learning styles with

teaching and learning activities contributes

to meeting each individual's unique needs

(Stewart, 1990).

Linking Science and Mathematics Concepts

to life Ex periences

The curriculum in many African coun-

tries needs to be revisited for relevance and

appropriateness as some countries contin-

ue to use curricula inherited from the

colonial times (Asimeng-Boahene, 1999).


11/19


so that science and mathematics leamed

in school be meaningful and practical for

female students. As demon strate by Paulus

Gerdes in his book, Geometry of Africa;

the business acumen of market women,

street vendors quick-thinking mathemati-

cal computation, on the spot determination

of what is a good buy or a good sale; the

kind of geometry involved in hair styles,

basket weaving, pot making, bead work,

cloth w eaving can be used in m athematics

and science classes for illustrations (Cited

in O'Conno r, 2000). Thus interests of the

students, and also the applications of sci-

ence concep ts , pa r t icu la r ly phys ica l

science, to life learning and life skills

should feature prominently in the science

classrooms (Brown U niversity,

1996,

cited

in Tindall and Ham il, 2004).

Environment of Self Conftdence and

Success

Com mu nicating loudly and clearly that

both boys and girls would be equally

expected to do well in mathematics and

science courses by teachers can go a long

way in motivating science and mathemat-

ics students (Wood, 20 00, cited in Tindall

& Ham il, 2004). However, teachers need

to pay mo re attention to girls as they m ay

not be able, due to environmental circum-

stances, to do as well in science and

mathem atics as boys. Thu s, the role of the

teacher in praising students and verbaliz-

ing expectations is critical in fostering

self-confidence in girls. For instance , it is

very important to give regular feedbacks

in the form of un-stereotyped comments

thereby highlighting female studen ts' con-

fidence in terms of the content of course

age participation and foster self-confidence

by giving consistent positive reinforcement

for their comm ents and questions (Guzzetti

& Williams, 1996, Mewbom, 1999).

Female Role Models as Guest Speakers

Increasing representation of female role

models is a potential force to prom ote girls

education in mathematics and science.

Schools could invite women who have

excelled in the field of science and tech-

nology to their schools or classroom to talk

about their experiences. For example, in

Kenya, schools could invite Dr. Wangari

M aathai, the Kenyan first African wom an

to win a Nobel Peace Prize for her work

on environmental issues and human rights

to the schools to talk about environment.

Her award could be a perfect and reward-

ing exercise for women studying science

and mathematics in Kenya. Ardent advo-

cates for using wom en as effective teaching

tools in science classrooms justify it by the

positive effects that woman resource per-

son may have on students in general and

wom en in particular. The use of women as

resource perso ns cannot only serve as role

mo dels for science girls, but their presence

in the science classrooms is important to

male students and teachers too. Further-

more , the p resence o f female gues t

speakers in the schools can serve as psy-

c h o so c ia l t h e ra p y b o o s t in g f e ma le

students' self-esteem, helping to raise the

aspiration, motivation, and academic lev-

els of female science students in Africa.

The importance of this concept is further

reiterated by Braithwaithe (1995), when

he sums up that, process of dialogue with

those who suffer from acts of irresponsi-


12/19


most effective ways of bringing home to

us as human beings ones obligations to

take responsibility for our dee ds (P. 21).

Networking among Female Scientists

Networking among female scientists in

Africa should be promoted through publi-

cations, meetings, and virtual discussion

groups. Marriner-Tomey (1993) describes

networking as a means in which people

communicate, share ideas and informa-

tion, and give support and direction to each

other. The inclusion of women in the math-

ematics and science education networking

circles of the men at the center of power

would be of further great benefit (Nancy,

1999).

Thus, the science/mathematics

women teachers need a network with other

profess ionals to help them function effec-

tively. Networking promotes bonds with

people throughout the profession, both

within and outside the work environment.

Also,

it creates new opportunities and

makes it easier for the exchange of ideas,

knowledge, and informat ion. Science

teachers can develop a network by a)

attending local, regional and national con-

ferences, b) joining the alumni association

and attending alumni meetings,c joining

and participating in professional organi-

za t ions , and d) soc ia l i z ing wi th

professional colleagues (O'Leary et al.,

1986,

cited in Asimeng-Boahene, 1999).

Thus,

women in science and mathematics

must m aintain outside contacts if they are

to manage a fulfilling and effective pro-

fessional career as this can help them find

new opportunities and also attract men-

Gender based Affirmative Action

Since the existing po licies and practices

have failed to address the unjust realities

in terms of gender inequity in science and

ma them atics, it is not too late for the insti-

tutions to go out of their way to assure

justice through gender-based affirmative

action. Affirmative action, in general, is a

policy whereby preference is given to

underrepresented minority applicants. It is

one of

the

most talked about and most con-

troversial issues in the field of academia

(Grofman & Merrill, 2004). This sugges-

tion may be controversial as critics argue

that admissions to institutions of higher

leaming are based on merits and therefore,

allowing women to enter at lower cut off

points than their male counterparts 'waters

down' standards. This approach further

endorses the notion of women as intellec-

tually weaker gender and thus denies them

the prestige they would achieve by mak-

ing it on their own (Sowell, 2004). Sow ell

(2004) further concludes from his analy-

sis of affirmative action that des pite

sweeping claims made for affirmative

action programs, an examination of their

actual consequences m akes it hard to sup-

port those claims or even to say that these

programs have been beneficial on the net

ba lan ce ... (P. 120). However, advocates

who believe in this adjusted admission

advantage for wom en talk about the oppor-

tunity cost of admission preferences by

viewing the policy to be, if at all,

positive

discrimination and a necessary

evil As

such, stake holders must be prepared to

subscribe to the view that any amount of

social redress, however, small, is worth


13/19

ender Inequity 1122

ing to Szockyj and Frank (Cited in Szock-

yj and Fox, 1995), preserving the gender

queue bestows advantages on all men by

reinforcing their dominant position in

employm ent, and by extension, in society

(p. 16).

This paper is of the opinion that 'soft-

ening' the admission criteria by modest

degree for females seems to be an appro-

priate measure to help reduce the gender

gap. The pol icy addresses the demo-

graph ics o f sex inequ i t ies and

discrimination in school admissions as

emphasis is on achieving equality of oppor-

tun i ty in the educa t ion and work

environment.

During my eight years teaching expe-

rience in Nigeria, for instance, places in

university are required to reflect the fed-

eral character of Nigeria. This mean s that

there are quotas for all the large ethnic

groups in the country. I am ofth e view that

the same can be done to reflect the gender

character ofthe Federal Republic of Nige-

ria. Thus given the current dismal picture

of females in science and mathem atics edu-

cation in Africa, introducing

preferential

policies in the form of gender-based affir-

mative action seems to be an immediate

option if not an all time remedy towards

maintaining a gender equity community

in academia.

orks ops and In Service Training for

Teachers

Gender awareness training in the form

of workshops and in-service training for

mathem atics and science educators should

becom e an integral part of the school cur-

necessary to help produce current and com-

petent teachers. This will require the

development of focused institutionalized

and regular in-servicing of mathematics

and science teachers. Basically, gender

awareness training allows teachers to incor-

p o ra t e g e n d e r p a ra me te r s i n t h e i r

instruction. The training should focus on,

among others, the concepts, scope and con-

tent, the methods of teaching and assessing

the end product of the subject, and text-

book development and production, etc.

Such schools-based w orkshops to improve

science and mathematics teachers' method-

ologies and skills and update on new

techniques is vital force to help reduce the

stigma that has been attached to females

subordinate position in mathematics and

science education in Africa. A lso, as stat-

ed by George Saitoti, Kenya's Educafion

Minister when launching the Association

for

the

Development of Education

in

Africa

Working Group on Mathem atics and Sci-

ence Education in Nairobi This approach

will help to demystify the learning of math-

e ma t i c s a n d s c i e n c e su b je c t s

www.allafrica.com/stories.html (Accessed

3 March 2005).

This can also be done through outreach

activities in conjunction with other stake

holders like Non-governmental Organiza-

tions focusing on gender issues. Th is could

take the form of a production of docu-

mentary videos or films about wom en and

science and mathematics education to be

distributed within the country involved to

schools and communities. Also career guid-

ance counselors have to visit various parts

ofth e country to organize sessions for stu-

d e n t s ,

p a r e n t s , c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s


14/19


15/19

ender Inequity

1125

CONCLUSION

I have addressed in the paper why gen-

der inequity in mathematics and science

still exists in African schools, and also

offered several strategies for the purpose

of discovering long-term solutions to this

problem. I strongly believe that investment

in science and mathematics education for

women would yield broad economic ben-

efitsinAfrica, ifw are to take co gnizance

of the saying that 'If you educate a man,

you educ ate an individual; but if you edu-

cate a woman, you educate a nation. '

African women are absolutely central to

sustainable development and socio-eco-

n o mic a d v a n c e me n t o n th e Af r i c a n

continent. With the new flying phrases

being scientific and technological advance-

ments, let all stake holders in Africa, be

they families, schools, communities, gov-

e rn me n t s e t c , t h ro u g h th e i r sk i l l s ,

innovations and intellect, chart a new era

of development for African women by

being g ender-sensitive in all their endeav-

ors and thereby helping in uplifting wom en

in mathematics and science subjects on the

continent of Africa.

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