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Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator
Xiao-Wei Chu, Cui-Ying Fan, Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou
PII: S0747-5632(18)30203-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039
Reference: CHB 5494
To appear in: Computers in Human Behavior
Received Date: 01 December 2017
Revised Date: 14 March 2018
Accepted Date: 18 April 2018
Please cite this article as: Xiao-Wei Chu, Cui-Ying Fan, Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou, Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator, Computers in Human Behavior(2018), doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039
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Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese
adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a
moderator
Xiao-Wei Chua,b, Cui-Ying Fana,b, Qing-Qi Liua,b, Zong-Kui Zhoua,b
a Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education,
Wuhan 430079, Chinab School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
Corresponding author: Zong-Kui Zhou
Address: School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China
E-mail: zhouzk@mail.ccnu.edu.cn
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Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese
adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a
moderator
Abstract
Cyberbullying victimization has been identified as a significant vulnerability factor in the
development of adolescents’ depression and anxiety. However, little is known about the underlying
processes that may mediate or moderate these relationships. The present study examined
hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relations between
cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The sample consisted of 489
Chinese early adolescents aged from 11 to 15 years (M = 12.67, SD = .75; 43.6% girls) who
completed measures of cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, self-compassion, depression, and
anxiety. Bias-corrected bootstrap method was employed to test the proposed moderated mediation
models. Results indicated that after controlling for participants’ gender and age, hopelessness
partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and depression as well as
anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression and anxiety, and the
mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion. Specifically, these effects
were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. The present study can extend our
knowledge about how, when, and when of how cyberbullying victimization is related to depression
and anxiety. Limitations and practical implications of this study are further discussed.
Keywords
Cyberbullying victimization; hopelessness; self-compassion; depression; anxiety; adolescents
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1. Introduction
In this digital age, cyberbullying has gradually become a serious social problem all over the
world, especially among adolescents. It is typically defined as “any behavior performed through
electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or
aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others” (Tokunaga, 2010, p. 278).
For example, people can slander, threaten, or insult others in an electronic context (e.g., e-mails,
instant messages, and social networking sites). Nowadays, cyberbullying has gained increased
attention from educators, parents, researchers, and the general public due to its serious impacts on
the victims, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, loneliness, and even suicidal ideation
(Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Among these negative outcomes of
cyberbullying victimization, depression and anxiety have been targeted for particular focus.
Depression and anxiety are two common comorbid mental health problems during adolescence
(Polanczyk, Salum, Sugaya, Caye, & Rohde, 2015). Depressive symptoms involve “sad, empty or
irritable mood along with cognitive and somatic alterations which impact the individual’s
functioning” (Schäfer, Naumann, Holmes, Tuschen-Caffier, & Samson, 2017, p. 261). Anxiety
symptoms refer to “excessive anxiety-related emotional and behavioral responses (e.g., avoidance)
and related cognitive patterns” (Schäfer et al., 2017, p. 262). Depressive and anxiety symptoms can
cause adolescents substantial functional impairment and future mental health disorders (Kendall et
al., 2010; Weissman et al., 1999). A large amount of cross-sectional and longitudinal research
demonstrated that cyberbullying victimization was significantly associated with depression (e.g.,
Cole et al., 2016; Landoll, La Greca, Lai, Chan, & Herge, 2015; Wright, 2015) and anxiety (e.g.,
Fredstrom, Adams, & Gilman, 2011; Wright, 2015). These relations may be explained by some
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unique features of cyberbullying including anonymity of the perpetrators, accessibility of the
victims, greater potential audience, and relative permanence of cyberbullying incident (Kowalski et
al., 2014; Von Marées & Petermann, 2012). One obvious limitation of previous studies is a lack of
attention to the mechanisms linking cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety
symptoms. Identifying mechanisms through which cyberbullying victimization is related to
internalizing symptoms has significant implications for the development of interventions aimed at
reducing the negative impacts of cyberbullying victimization. The present study aims to fill in this
gap.
1.1. Hopelessness as a mediator
One potential mechanism linking cyberbullying victimization to depression and anxiety is
hopelessness, which consists of two components: (a) an expectation that negative outcomes will
occur in the future, and (b) a belief that there is nothing one can do to affect these outcomes
(Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). Based on the hopelessness theory of depression (Abramson
et al., 1989), hopelessness is a proximal sufficient cause of depression. Empirical research has
indicated that hopelessness is associated with depressive disorders (Wang, Jiang, Cheung, Sun, &
Chan, 2015; Young et al., 1996), and prospectively predicts increases in depressive symptoms
(Alloy et al., 2012; Hamilton et al., 2013). Although hopelessness primarily has been considered
specific to the development of depression (Alloy et al., 2012; Hankin, Abramson, Miller, & Haeffel,
2004), some evidence suggests that hopelessness may also be associated with anxiety (Alloy, Kelly,
Mineka, & Clements, 1990; Marai, 2004; Miranda, Fontes, & Marroquín, 2008). From the
helplessness-hopelessness perspective of depression and anxiety (Alloy et al., 1990; Chorpita &
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Barlow, 1998), depression emerges from hopelessness, whereas anxiety arises only from the
certainty about one’s helplessness (one component of hopelessness). Inconsistent with this theory,
however, Miranda et al. (2008) found that anxiety was also associated with the other component of
hopelessness, the belief in the occurrence of negative future outcomes. This suggests that anxiety
may be related to both components of hopelessness.
Negative life events have long been theorized to contribute to hopelessness among youth (Rose
& Abramson, 1992). Cyberbullying victimization is a kind of stressor in adolescents’ daily life, and
its relationship with hopelessness can be explained by some essential features of this phenomenon.
Specifically, it difficult for victims to determine the perpetrators’ identity, as these people often
remain anonymous online (Patchin & Hinduja, 2006). Victims can be sent threatening messages or
hurtful comments through their mobiles or computers anywhere and at any time, which may lead to
the difficulty or inability for them to escape from cyberbullying (Slonje, Smith, & Frisén, 2013).
Furthermore, cyberbullying incidents can potentially be witnessed by a large, mostly unknown,
limitless audience, and theoretically remain in cyberspace permanently (Von Marées & Petermann,
2012). Due to the aforementioned features of cyberbullying, this repeated, on-going, and
uncontrollable act may result in victims’ three kinds of inferences: attributing cyberbullying
victimization to stable and global causes; believing that the negative consequences of the act are
irremediable, unchangeable, and affect many areas of life; and viewing themselves as worthless and
inferior. These inferences would further contribute to the development of hopelessness (Abramson
et al., 1989).
Rose and Abramson’s (1992) developmental extension of the hopelessness theory was adopted
as a conceptual framework to integrate the relationships among cyberbullying victimization,
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hopelessness, depression, and anxiety as a whole. Based on this conceptual model, stressors,
particularly when chronic and uncontrollable (e.g., cyberbullying victimization), contributes to the
development of hopelessness, which in turn leads to internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression and
anxiety). Specifically, individuals initially make hopefulness-oriented attributions (e.g., “Those who
bullied me online were just in a bad mood that day”) following the occurrence of negative events,
but with repeated occurrences the attributions will become more hopelessness-oriented (e.g., “I am
worthless”). Over time, individuals may consequently develop negative attributional styles, which
contribute to greater hopelessness, and in turn develop depressive or anxiety symptoms. Further,
Rose and Abramson propose that events threatening individuals’ self-worth or directly providing
negative attributions for them, such as bullying victimization, would be more likely to contribute to
the development of hopelessness.
Supporting this theory, some studies have demonstrated that hopelessness mediates the
relationship between interpersonal stressors and internalizing symptoms (Courtney, Johnson, &
Alloy, 2008; Hamilton et al., 2013). For example, Hamilton and colleagues found that hopelessness
mediated the relationships between emotional abuse and symptoms of depression and social anxiety
among adolescents. Although both cross-sectional and prospective associations between
victimization and hopelessness have been revealed among adolescents (Hamilton et al., 2015;
Siyahhan, Aricak, & Cayirdag-Acar, 2012), no research, to date, examines the relationship between
cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness, as well as the mediating role of hopelessness linking
cyberbullying victimization to depression and anxiety. Based on theoretical and empirical analyses,
the present study hypothesized that cyberbullying victimization would be associated with higher
levels of hopelessness, which in turn would be associated with higher risk for depression and anxiety.
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1.2. Self-compassion as a moderator
The organism-environment interaction model (Lerner, Lerner, Almerigi, & Theokas, 2006)
posits that not all individuals are equally influenced by the same environment, and that the dynamics
of individual and context interactions contribute to the person’s psychological and social adaptation.
To our knowledge, however, no research to date has examined the potential moderators that may
buffer the adverse effects of cyberbullying victimization. Examining the protective effects of certain
variables might help to formulate specific interventions aimed at alleviating victims’ psychosocial
adjustment difficulties. The present study investigated self-compassion as such a moderator in the
relations between cyberbullying victimization and its unfavorable outcomes, including depression,
anxiety, and hopelessness.
Self-compassion, a construct from Buddhist thought, has aroused the interest of western
researchers. According to the definition proposed by Neff (2003a; 2003b), self-compassion entails
three interrelated components: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Specifically,
self-kindness refers to the tendency to be kind and understanding toward oneself when confronting
personal pain and failure. Common humanity is concerned with the inclination to perceive one’s
own suffering as part of the larger human experience. Mindfulness involves holding painful
thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness. As a healthy stance toward oneself without involving
evaluations of self-worth, self-compassion can be a powerful protective factor of mental health
(Neff, 2003a, 2003b). It is often positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being
(e.g., life satisfaction, happiness, optimism, positive affect, emotional intelligence, and social
connectedness), and negatively associated with depression, anxiety, stress, anger, self-criticism,
rumination and thought suppression (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012; Neff, 2003b; Neff & Vonk, 2009).
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In addition to these results, self-compassion can be an important construct that facilitates
resilience and coping (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). People with high self-
compassion tend to use adaptive strategies to cope with stressful events, such as relying heavily on
positive cognitive restructuring and less on avoidance and escape (Allen & Leary, 2010). Neff
(2003b) also views self-compassion as a useful emotional regulation strategy, in which painful or
distressing feelings are not avoided but are held in awareness with kindness, understanding, and a
sense of shared humanity (Neff, 2003b). That is, self-compassion transforms negative emotions
resulting from experiences of pain and failure into a more positive feeling state. In this sense, self-
compassion may attenuate people’s negative reactions to stressful life events (e.g., cyberbullying
victimization).
A growing body of research has demonstrated that self-compassion moderates the associations
between stressors and negative mental health outcomes (Jiang et al., 2016; Keng & Liew, 2017;
Kyeong, 2013; Leary et al., 2007; Neff, Hsieh, & Dejitterat, 2005). For example, Leary et al. (2007)
found that self-compassion buffered people against negative self-feelings when imagining
distressing social events, and moderated negative emotions after receiving ambivalent feedback,
particularly for those with low self-esteem. Jiang et al. (2016) found that the association between
peer victimization and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury was weakened under the condition of high
levels of self-compassion. Kyeong’s (2013) study showed that self-compassion moderated the
relationships between academic burn-out and psychological well-being as well as depression. Taken
together, we speculated that self-compassion may buffer the relations between cyberbullying
victimization and its negative outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety, and hopelessness).
Overall, it was reasonable for this study to include both hopelessness and self-compassion in
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the same conceptual models (see Fig. 1). According to Brown and Harris’s (1978) psychosocial
model of depression, the impact of negative events (e.g., cyberbullying victimization) is moderated
by self-esteem and mediated by hopelessness. Further, this theory can be viewed as including
diathesis-stress and mediation components (i.e., low self-esteem is the diathesis and hopelessness is
the mediator). The above hypotheses raised by Brown and Harris (1978) have been demonstrated in
previous research (Abela, 2002; Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993; Whisman & Kwon,
1993). The present study examined self-compassion, rather than self-esteem, as a potential buffer
against the detrimental effects of life stress for certain reasons. Self-compassion may entail many
of the psychological benefits that have been associated with self-esteem, but with fewer of its pitfalls.
These two constructs share a positive self-view, however, self-compassion focuses on the feelings
of compassion toward oneself and the recognition of one’s common humanity rather than makes
(positive or negative) self-judgments (Neff, 2003a). Thus, it actually counters the tendencies toward
narcissism and self-centeredness that may stem from attempts to maintain high self-esteem
(Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Neff & Vonk, 2009). In addition, given that self-compassion
does not require individuals to adopt an unrealistic view of themselves, it should be easier and more
effective to raise people’s self-compassion than to raise their self-esteem (Neff, 2003a).
The present study constructed two moderated mediation models (see Fig. 1) to examine
hopelessness as a mediator in the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and symptoms
of depression and anxiety, and whether the direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on
depression/anxiety and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion.
It was hypothesized that hopelessness would mediate the relationships between cyberbullying
victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying
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victimization on depression and anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness would be
moderated by self-compassion, with these effects being stronger for adolescents with lower self-
compassion.
Self-compassion
Anxiety
Hopelessness
Cyberbullying
victimization
Model 2
Self-compassion
Depression
Hopelessness
Cyberbullying
victimization
Model 1
Fig. 1. Hypothesized conceptual models.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
The present study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university.
Convenient sampling method was used to recruit the participants. We selected one ordinary junior
high school in Wuhan (a city in central China) as the targeted school. After obtaining the informed
consent from the school and all students involved, a total of 489 adolescents (43.6% girls)
participated in this research in the psychological health education course. The research was
conducted by the trained graduate students majoring in psychology. Participants ranged in age from
11 to 15 years (M = 12.67, SD = .75). Before starting the survey, participants were informed that
they were free to refuse or discontinue participation at any time without penalty. Researchers clearly
stated and emphasized the fact that any information the participants provided would not be revealed
to anyone. Last, participants completed the paper-pencil questionnaire written in Chinese during
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one class hour, and no one refused or discontinued to participate.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Cyberbullying victimization
Participants completed a Chinese version (Zhou et al., 2013) of the cyberbullying victimization
subscale of the Cyberbullying Inventory (CBI; Erdur-Baker & KavŞut, 2007). Eighteen activities
of cyberbullying victimization are depicted in this subscale. Example activities include “Someone
spread rumors about me online” and “Someone sent anonymous text messages to threaten or
intimidate me”. Respondents were asked to indicate the number of times that they had engaged in
specific cyberbullying victimization activities in the past year on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 =
more than 5 times). This subscale has shown adequate reliability and validity among Chinese
adolescents (Fan, Chu, Zhang, & Zhou, 2016; Zhou et al., 2013). Cronbach’s alpha for the
cyberbullying victimization subscale in the present study was .82
2.2.2. Hopelessness
Hopelessness was assessed using the Hopelessness Scale for Children (HSC; Kazdin, Rodgers,
& Colbus, 1986). For this measure with a two-factor structure, adolescents answered 17 true or false
questions to reflect their negative expectancies toward future. The first factor comprised the
negatively worded items of the scale indicating negative expectations about the future. The second
factor comprised the positively worded items indicating some hope for change in the more distant
future. Example items include ‘‘I don’t think I’ll get what I really want’’ and ‘‘When I grow up, I
think I will be happier than I am now’’. The mean score was calculated for each participant, with
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higher scores indicating greater hopelessness. The HSC has demonstrated adequate validity and
internal consistency among children and adolescents (Kazdin et al., 1986; Spirito, Williams, Stark,
& Hart, 1988). The Chinese version of HSC was translated from the original, back-translated, and
adjusted for cultural adaptation by two PhD students in psychology. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale
in the present study was .70.
2.2.3. Self-compassion
The Self-compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b) was used to assess self-compassion.
Participants answered 26 items on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).
Example items include “I’m kind to myself when I’m experiencing suffering” and “When things
are going badly for me, I see the difficulties as part of life that everyone goes through”. The mean
score was calculated for each participant, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-
compassion. The Chinese version of SCS was translated and revised by Chen, Yan, and Zhou (2011),
with adequate reliability and validity under Chinese background. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in
the present study was .82.
2.2.4. Depression
Depression was measured by the Chinese version (Wang, Wang, & Ma, 1999) of Center for
Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Participants rated 20 depressive
symptoms on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 = always) to which extent he or she has experienced them
during the last week. Example symptoms include “I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was
doing” and “I thought my life had been a failure”. The mean score was calculated for each
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participant, with higher scores indicating severer depressive symptoms. Cronbach’s alpha for this
scale in the present study was .85.
2.2.5. Anxiety
Anxiety was measured by the Chinese version (Wang et al., 1999) of Beck Anxiety Inventory
(BAI; Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988). Participants rated 21 anxiety symptoms on a 4-point
scale (1 = not at all, 4 = I could barely stand it) to which extent he or she has experienced them
during the last week. Example symptoms include “Hands trembling” and “Fear of losing control”.
The mean score was calculated for each participant, with higher scores indicating severer anxiety
symptoms. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in the present study was .90.
2.3. Statistical analyses
All the statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 19.0 software package. Two-way
ANOVA was employed to examine the gender and age differences in the research variables.
Pearson’s correlation analyses were adopted to explore the potential relationships among
cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, self-compassion, depression, and anxiety. We tested the
hypothesized conceptual models (moderated mediation models) using the PROCESS macro for
SPSS (Model 8) developed by Hayes (2013). This approach has been extensively used in many
studies to test complex models including moderated mediation model (e.g., Chung, Allen, & Dennis,
2013; Liu et al., 2017). Bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) derived from 5,000
bootstrap resamples are estimated to test for the significance of conditional direct and indirect
effects. The effects are considered significant if the CI values do not include zero.
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3. Results
3.1. Descriptive and correlational analyses
In the current sample, 74.6% (n = 365) of the participants reported that they had been
cyberbullied by someone at least once in the past year. These adolescents consisted of 213 boys
(77.2%) and 152 girls (71.4%); 172 students at years 11-12 (74.1%), 138 students at year 13 (74.2%),
and 55 students at years 14-15 (77.5%). To detect the gender and age differences in the research
variables, we used the mean score of each of the variables to perform a 2 (Gender: male and female)
× 3 (Age: 11-12, 13, and 14-15 years) between-participants ANOVA. Analyses only revealed main
effects of age on cyberbullying victimization [F(2, 483) = 4.37, p < .05], depression [F(2, 483) = 7.21, p
< .001], and self-compassion [F(2, 483) = 8.26, p < .001]. Post hoc tests showed that older students
tended to report higher levels of cyberbullying victimization and depression, as well as lower levels
of self-compassion.
All research variables were significantly correlated in the predicted directions. As shown in
Table 1, cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with hopelessness, depression, and
anxiety. Hopelessness was positively associated with depression and anxiety. Self-compassion was
negatively associated with cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, depression, and anxiety.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables
M SD 1 2 3 4
1. Cyberbullying victimization 1.19 .24
2. Hopelessness 0.27 .18 .30
3. Self-compassion 3.30 .51 -.20 -.44
4. Depression 1.64 .43 .40 .48 -.51
5. Anxiety 1.36 .44 .42 .48 -.40 .54
Note. All the correlation coefficients were significant (p < .001).
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3.2. Testing for hypothesized conceptual Model 1
Two regression models were used to test for the first moderated mediation model (see Fig. 1).
Participants’ gender and age were controlled in regression equations. As presented in Table 2,
cyberbullying victimization positively predicted hopelessness (β = .18, p < .001), and hopelessness
positively predicted depression (β = .24, p < .001). The direct relationship between cyberbullying
victimization and depression was also significant (β = .20, p < .001), which indicated that
hopelessness partially mediated the relation between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
Besides, the interaction term of cyberbullying victimization and self-compassion had significant
effects on hopelessness (β = -.15, p < .001) and depression (β = -.16, p < .001). These results
suggested that self-compassion moderated the associations between cyberbullying victimization and
hopelessness as well as depression. Simple slope tests showed that for low self-compassionate
individuals (one SD below the mean), cyberbullying victimization was associated with hopelessness
(βsimple = .70, p < .001) and depression (βsimple = .36, p < .05). However, for high self-compassionate
individuals (one SD above the mean), the effects of cyberbullying victimization on hopelessness
and depression were weak (βsimple = .31, p < .01) and non-significant (βsimple = -.10, p = .40) (see
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Testing the conditional effects (at values of the moderator: M – 1 SD, M, and M
+ 1 SD), when the values of self-compassion were -1 and 0, both the conditional direct and indirect
effects were significantly different from zero. Namely, the positive direct effect of cyberbullying
victimization on depression and the positive indirect effect of cyberbullying victimization on
depression through hopelessness were revealed when self-compassion was moderate to low, but not
when it was high.
Table 2. Regressions testing hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relationship
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between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
Regression Models β SE t value LLCI ULCI R2 F value
Model 1 .26 33.38***
Outcome: Hopelessness
Predictors: Gender .10 .08 1.29 -.054 .259
Age -.07 .05 -1.35 -.176 .033
CV .18 .04 4.08*** .091 .261
SCS -.41 .04 -10.14*** -.492 -.332
CV × SCS -.15 .05 -3.19** -.239 -.057
Model 2 .42 59.27***
Outcome: Depression
Predictors: Gender -.03 .07 -0.42 -.168 .108
Age .08 .05 1.79 -.008 .176
Hopelessness .24 .04 5.89*** .157 .315
CV .20 .04 5.12*** .122 .274
SCS -.35 .04 -8.98*** -.432 -.277
CV × SCS -.16 .04 -3.96*** -.245 -.082
Conditional direct effect SCS values Effect SE LLCI ULCI
-1 (M – 1 SD) .36 .05 .270 .453
0 (M) .20 .04 .122 .274
1 (M + 1 SD) .03 .07 -.093 .163
Conditional indirect effect SCS values Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI
-1 (M – 1 SD) .08 .02 .041 .128
0 (M) .04 .02 .019 .080
1 (M + 1 SD) .01 .02 -.034 .046
Note. N = 489. Gender was dummy coded (male = 1; female = 0). CV = Cyberbullying victimization; SCS = Self-
compassion Scale; LL = lower limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. The research variables (excluding
gender and age) in regression models were standardized.**p < .01.***p < .001.
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0
0.200000003
0.400000006
0.600000009
0.800000012
1.000000015Low SCS High SCS
Cyberbullying victimization
Hop
eles
snes
s
Fig. 2. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness.
0
1
2
3
4 Low SCS High SCS
Cyberbullying victimization
Dep
ress
ion
Fig. 3. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression.
3.3. Testing for hypothesized conceptual Model 2
The same statistical procedure was performed to test for the second moderated mediation
model (see Fig. 1). As presented in Table 3, cyberbullying victimization positively predicted
hopelessness (β = .18, p < .001), and hopelessness positively predicted anxiety (β = .27, p < .001).
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The direct relationship between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety was also significant (β
= .22, p < .001), which indicated that hopelessness partially mediated the relation between
cyberbullying victimization and anxiety. Besides, the interaction term of cyberbullying
victimization and self-compassion had significant effects on hopelessness (β = -.15, p < .001) and
anxiety (β = -.22, p < .001). These results suggested that self-compassion moderated the associations
between cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness as well as anxiety. Simple slope tests showed
that for low self-compassionate individuals, cyberbullying victimization was associated with
hopelessness (βsimple = .70, p < .001) and anxiety (βsimple = .40, p < .01). However, for high self-
compassionate individuals, the effects of cyberbullying victimization on hopelessness and anxiety
were weak (βsimple = .31, p < .01) and non-significant (βsimple = .12, p = .33) (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 4).
Testing the conditional effects, when the values of self-compassion were -1 and 0, both the
conditional direct and indirect effects were significantly different from zero. Namely, the positive
direct effect of cyberbullying victimization on anxiety and the positive indirect effect of
cyberbullying victimization on anxiety through hopelessness were revealed when self-compassion
was moderate to low, but not when it was high.
Table 3. Regressions testing hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relationship
between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety.
Regression Models β SE t value LLCI ULCI R2 F value
Model 1 .26 33.38***
Outcome: Hopelessness
Predictors: Gender .10 .08 1.29 -.054 .259
Age -.07 .05 -1.35 -.176 .033
CV .18 .04 4.08*** .091 .261
SCS -.41 .04 -10.14*** -.492 -.332
CV × SCS -.15 .05 -3.19** -.239 -.057
Model 2 .39 51.99***
Outcome: Anxiety
Predictors: Gender -.14 .07 -1.92 -.280 .003
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Age .00 .05 0.10 -.090 .100
Hopelessness .27 .04 6.54*** .189 .350
CV .22 .04 5.62*** .145 .302
SCS -.24 .04 -5.82*** -.316 -.156
CV × SCS -.22 .04 -5.19*** -.303 -.137
Conditional direct effect SCS values Effect SE LLCI ULCI
-1 (M – 1 SD) .44 .05 .350 .537
0 (M) .22 .04 .145 .302
1 (M + 1 SD) .003 .07 -.128 .135
Conditional indirect effect SCS values Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI
-1 (M – 1 SD) .09 .03 .044 .156
0 (M) .05 .02 .020 .096
1 (M + 1 SD) .01 .02 -.039 .052
Note. N = 489. Gender was dummy coded (male = 1; female = 0). CV = Cyberbullying victimization; SCS = Self-
compassion Scale; LL = lower limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. The research variables (excluding
gender and age) in regression models were standardized.**p < .01.***p < .001.
0
1
2
3
4 Low SCS High SCS
Cyberbullying victimization
Anx
iety
Fig. 4. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety.
4. Discussion
The present study examined hopelessness and self-compassion as two potential mechanisms
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linking cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety symptoms. Results indicated that
hopelessness partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and
depression as well as anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression and
anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion. To be
specific, these effects were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. These
findings extend the previous literature by explaining how, when, and when of how cyberbullying
victimization is related to depression and anxiety.
Consistent with the psychosocial model of depression proposed by Brown and Harris (1978),
our results indicate that the associations between cyberbullying victimization and its negative
impacts (i.e., depression and anxiety) are mediated by hopelessness and moderated by self-
compassion. These findings are in line with the prior studies demonstrating self-esteem as moderator
and hopelessness as a mediator in the stress-depression relationship (Abela, 2002; Metalsky et al.,
1993; Whisman & Kwon, 1993). The present study, however, can largely extend the theory and
previous research by examining self-compassion (a more positive emotional stance toward oneself
compared with self-esteem) as a buffer against the negative effects of a specific type of stressors
(i.e., cyberbullying victimization). In this sense, low self-compassion may be viewed as a more
salient diathesis in the Brown and Harris’s (1978) theory, as high self-esteem is associated with
some negative development characteristics, such as narcissism and self-centeredness (Baumeister,
Smart, & Boden, 1996; Neff & Vonk, 2009). Also, the present study can enrich the theory and
previous research by focusing on cyberbullying victimization, a specific online stressor that appears
among adolescents in recent years (rather than general life events or daily hassles), and investigating
both depression and anxiety as the outcomes. Although the results provide support for the extensions
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of the psychosocial model of depression, the evidence is limited due to the cross-sectional nature of
this study. Thus, future research should test for this theoretical problem further.
The hypothesis that hopelessness mediates the relationships between cyberbullying
victimization and depression as well as anxiety is supported. This finding is novel and can provide
certain evidence for the developmental extension of the hopelessness theory (Rose & Abramson,
1992). Specifically, cyberbullying victimization, as a kind of repeated, chronic, and uncontrollable
stressor, can evoke victims’ strong negative emotions (e.g., fear, helplessness, and feeling
vulnerable), diminish their self-worth, and induce their self-blaming attributions (Bauman, 2010).
With repeated occurrences of cyberbullying victimization incident (that may more readily “snowball”
out of the control of the bully and victim), individuals may shift initially hopeful attributions to
hopeless attributions, which lead to greater hopelessness, and in turn increase the risk for depression
and anxiety. This study further enriches Rose and Abramson’s (1992) conceptual model by
revealing anxiety as a possible outcome of stressors and hopelessness. Our finding is also similar to
the previous studies demonstrating hopelessness as a mediator between emotional abuse and
depression or social anxiety (Courtney et al., 2008; Hamilton et al., 2013). However, the present
study largely extends these previous findings by examining adolescents’ victimization in the virtual
environment.
One additional point needs to be mentioned. Although the mediation effect of hopelessness is
significant, this effect is not strong compared with the direct effect of cyberbullying victimization
on depression/anxiety. A possible explanation may be that there are short-term and long-term effects
of cyberbullying victimization on individuals’ negative emotions. Specifically, in the short term,
after being cyberbullied, adolescents may easily feel depressive and anxious as an immediate
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT21
response to this negative event. In the long term, adolescents may tend to develop the feelings of
hopelessness due to the continued and chronic cyberbullying victimization experiences, which in
turn leads to their depressive and anxiety symptoms. Future research can use experimental and long-
term prospective design to test for this hypothesis. Besides, this result may imply that there are some
other factors playing mediating roles in the association between cyberbullying victimization and
depression/anxiety, and future research may examine more mediators to better understand the
undesirable consequences of cyberbullying victimization. The results indicate that both
cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness are vulnerability factors for depression and anxiety,
and warrant greater attention in adolescents. Programs aimed at preventing cyberbullying
perpetration or victimization, such as the ViSC Social Competence Program (Gradinger, Yanagida,
Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2016), should be highlighted. Furthermore, interventions designed to reduce
the impacts of cyberbullying victimization should focus on reducing levels of negative cognition
including hopelessness. Appropriate support and training for coping strategies, particular by
targeting hopelessness in adolescents can be provided to reduce the risk of being depressive or
anxious.
The present study is the first to examine self-compassion as a potential moderator between
cyberbullying victimization and psychological health. The results suggest that self-compassion
buffers the associations between cyberbullying victimization and depression, anxiety, and
hopelessness. Specifically, adolescents with lower self-compassion are more likely to experience
feelings of depression, anxiety, and hopelessness after encountering cyberbullying victimization.
These results support the organism-environment interaction model (Lerner et al., 2006), which
proposes that the dynamics of individual and context interactions influence the individuals’
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psychological and social adaptation. Our findings are also similar to some previous studies revealing
self-compassion as a moderator between stressors and psychological difficulties (Jiang et al., 2016;
Keng & Liew, 2017; Kyeong, 2013; Leary et al., 2007). This research, however, further extends
these previous findings by focusing on a specific domain of interpersonal stressors (i.e.,
cyberbullying victimization), instead of general life stressors.
The moderating effects of self-compassion can be explained in several ways. First, self-
compassionate people usually demonstrate more emotional resilience confronting negative events
(e.g., cyberbullying victimization) (Neff & Vonk, 2009). For example, Leary and colleagues (2007)
found that self-compassion alleviated individuals’ negative emotional reactions when imagining
distressing social events, receiving ambivalent interpersonal feedback, and remembering past
negative life events. Second, self-compassion involves a positive self-attitude and greater self-
concept accuracy (Neff & Vonk, 2009), which can protect adolescents from being consumed by
negative self-judgment and from suffering the negative effects of stressors (Bluth et al., 2016). After
being cyberbullied, self-compassionate adolescents are inclined to be kind to themselves and be
understandable to their victimization experiences, instead of harshly criticizing or blaming
themselves. Besides, self-compassion can be regarded as an adaptive coping resource (e.g., positive
cognitive restructuring). Adolescents high in self-compassion tend to hold their victimization
experiences in mindful balance and more successfully deal with painful thoughts and feelings
resulting from cyberbullying victimization, rather than avoiding these experiences or exaggerating
the extent of their personal suffering.
Our study suggests that developing ways to strengthen self-compassion in adolescents is
advantageous in alleviating the detrimental effects of cyberbullying victimization (i.e., depression,
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anxiety, and hopelessness). There are some intervention programs that could enhance self-
compassion including compassionate mind training, imagery work, the gestalt two-chair technique,
mindfulness based stress reduction, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment
therapy (Barnard & Curry, 2011). These programs may raise people’s self-compassion by producing
self-soothing and self-reassuring thoughts, by extending empathy to self and challenging self-
judgmental beliefs, by developing skills to modulate emotions and behaviors, and by cultivating
mindfulness and other facets of self-compassion. For example, Neff and her colleagues (2007)
conducted a two-chair technique with 40 students to raise their self-compassion by extending
empathy to self and challenging their self-judgmental, maladaptive beliefs. Students were asked to
think about a situation in which they were self-critical, and then to move between two chairs acting
and speaking like the judgmental self in one chair and the self experiencing the judgment in the
other. The intervention process would terminate provided the students resolved the conflict or it
seemed apparent that the resolution was unlikely. The results indicate that the gestalt two-chair
technique may raise self-compassion and reduce anxiety, depression, rumination, and thought-
suppression. Further research is still needed to examine the technique’s specific impact on self-
compassion, and how it compares to other active treatments.
The present study has several limitations. First, this study used a cross-sectional research
design. Readers should realize that the causal relationships cannot be inferred. Future longitudinal
or experimental studies can further determine the direction of the effects. Second, this study relied
on a convenience sample of Chinese early adolescents, and the participants were recruited just from
one middle school. This may limit the generalizability of the research findings. Third, the data were
collected only through self-report measures. Self-reports may be subject to increased biases (e.g.,
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socially desirable response) and inflated associations between antecedent and outcome variables
(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). Reports from multiple informants (e.g., parents,
teachers, and peers) should be considered in the future research.
To conclude, the present study extends our knowledge about the mechanisms linking
cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescence. We specifically
examined hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator to account for how, when,
and when of how cyberbullying victimization was associated with depression and anxiety. Results
indicated that hopelessness partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization
and depression as well as anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression
and anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion.
Specifically, these effects were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. Our
findings highlight the importance of centering on hopelessness and self-compassion when
formulating interventions aimed at reducing the negative impacts of cyberbullying victimization.
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Major Program of National Social Science Foundation of China [Project No. 11&ZD151], Humanities and Social Sciences Research Funds from the Ministry of Education of China [Project No. 15YJA190001], Fundamental Research Funds of Central China Normal University [Project No. CCNU14Z02004], and Research Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University [Project No. 2016-04-003-BZK01; 2016-04-009-BZK01]. The authors have declared that they have no competing or potential conflicts of interest.
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Cyberbullying victimization (CV) was positively related to depression/anxiety.Hopelessness mediated the relations between CV and depression/anxiety.Self-compassion moderated the direct relations between CV and depression/anxiety.Self-compassion moderated the mediating effects of hopelessness.
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