Accepted Manuscript

Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator

Xiao-Wei Chu, Cui-Ying Fan, Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou

PII: S0747-5632(18)30203-6

DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039

Reference: CHB 5494

To appear in: Computers in Human Behavior

Received Date: 01 December 2017

Revised Date: 14 March 2018

Accepted Date: 18 April 2018

Please cite this article as: Xiao-Wei Chu, Cui-Ying Fan, Qing-Qi Liu, Zong-Kui Zhou, Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator, Computers in Human Behavior(2018), doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.039

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese

adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a

moderator

Xiao-Wei Chua,b, Cui-Ying Fana,b, Qing-Qi Liua,b, Zong-Kui Zhoua,b

a Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education,

Wuhan 430079, Chinab School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

Corresponding author: Zong-Kui Zhou

Address: School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

E-mail: zhouzk@mail.ccnu.edu.cn

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT1

Cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety among Chinese

adolescents: Examining hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a

moderator

Abstract

Cyberbullying victimization has been identified as a significant vulnerability factor in the

development of adolescents’ depression and anxiety. However, little is known about the underlying

processes that may mediate or moderate these relationships. The present study examined

hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relations between

cyberbullying victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The sample consisted of 489

Chinese early adolescents aged from 11 to 15 years (M = 12.67, SD = .75; 43.6% girls) who

completed measures of cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, self-compassion, depression, and

anxiety. Bias-corrected bootstrap method was employed to test the proposed moderated mediation

models. Results indicated that after controlling for participants’ gender and age, hopelessness

partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and depression as well as

anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression and anxiety, and the

mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion. Specifically, these effects

were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. The present study can extend our

knowledge about how, when, and when of how cyberbullying victimization is related to depression

and anxiety. Limitations and practical implications of this study are further discussed.

Keywords

Cyberbullying victimization; hopelessness; self-compassion; depression; anxiety; adolescents

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT2

1. Introduction

In this digital age, cyberbullying has gradually become a serious social problem all over the

world, especially among adolescents. It is typically defined as “any behavior performed through

electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or

aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others” (Tokunaga, 2010, p. 278).

For example, people can slander, threaten, or insult others in an electronic context (e.g., e-mails,

instant messages, and social networking sites). Nowadays, cyberbullying has gained increased

attention from educators, parents, researchers, and the general public due to its serious impacts on

the victims, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, loneliness, and even suicidal ideation

(Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). Among these negative outcomes of

cyberbullying victimization, depression and anxiety have been targeted for particular focus.

Depression and anxiety are two common comorbid mental health problems during adolescence

(Polanczyk, Salum, Sugaya, Caye, & Rohde, 2015). Depressive symptoms involve “sad, empty or

irritable mood along with cognitive and somatic alterations which impact the individual’s

functioning” (Schäfer, Naumann, Holmes, Tuschen-Caffier, & Samson, 2017, p. 261). Anxiety

symptoms refer to “excessive anxiety-related emotional and behavioral responses (e.g., avoidance)

and related cognitive patterns” (Schäfer et al., 2017, p. 262). Depressive and anxiety symptoms can

cause adolescents substantial functional impairment and future mental health disorders (Kendall et

al., 2010; Weissman et al., 1999). A large amount of cross-sectional and longitudinal research

demonstrated that cyberbullying victimization was significantly associated with depression (e.g.,

Cole et al., 2016; Landoll, La Greca, Lai, Chan, & Herge, 2015; Wright, 2015) and anxiety (e.g.,

Fredstrom, Adams, & Gilman, 2011; Wright, 2015). These relations may be explained by some

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT3

unique features of cyberbullying including anonymity of the perpetrators, accessibility of the

victims, greater potential audience, and relative permanence of cyberbullying incident (Kowalski et

al., 2014; Von Marées & Petermann, 2012). One obvious limitation of previous studies is a lack of

attention to the mechanisms linking cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety

symptoms. Identifying mechanisms through which cyberbullying victimization is related to

internalizing symptoms has significant implications for the development of interventions aimed at

reducing the negative impacts of cyberbullying victimization. The present study aims to fill in this

gap.

1.1. Hopelessness as a mediator

One potential mechanism linking cyberbullying victimization to depression and anxiety is

hopelessness, which consists of two components: (a) an expectation that negative outcomes will

occur in the future, and (b) a belief that there is nothing one can do to affect these outcomes

(Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). Based on the hopelessness theory of depression (Abramson

et al., 1989), hopelessness is a proximal sufficient cause of depression. Empirical research has

indicated that hopelessness is associated with depressive disorders (Wang, Jiang, Cheung, Sun, &

Chan, 2015; Young et al., 1996), and prospectively predicts increases in depressive symptoms

(Alloy et al., 2012; Hamilton et al., 2013). Although hopelessness primarily has been considered

specific to the development of depression (Alloy et al., 2012; Hankin, Abramson, Miller, & Haeffel,

2004), some evidence suggests that hopelessness may also be associated with anxiety (Alloy, Kelly,

Mineka, & Clements, 1990; Marai, 2004; Miranda, Fontes, & Marroquín, 2008). From the

helplessness-hopelessness perspective of depression and anxiety (Alloy et al., 1990; Chorpita &

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT4

Barlow, 1998), depression emerges from hopelessness, whereas anxiety arises only from the

certainty about one’s helplessness (one component of hopelessness). Inconsistent with this theory,

however, Miranda et al. (2008) found that anxiety was also associated with the other component of

hopelessness, the belief in the occurrence of negative future outcomes. This suggests that anxiety

may be related to both components of hopelessness.

Negative life events have long been theorized to contribute to hopelessness among youth (Rose

& Abramson, 1992). Cyberbullying victimization is a kind of stressor in adolescents’ daily life, and

its relationship with hopelessness can be explained by some essential features of this phenomenon.

Specifically, it difficult for victims to determine the perpetrators’ identity, as these people often

remain anonymous online (Patchin & Hinduja, 2006). Victims can be sent threatening messages or

hurtful comments through their mobiles or computers anywhere and at any time, which may lead to

the difficulty or inability for them to escape from cyberbullying (Slonje, Smith, & Frisén, 2013).

Furthermore, cyberbullying incidents can potentially be witnessed by a large, mostly unknown,

limitless audience, and theoretically remain in cyberspace permanently (Von Marées & Petermann,

2012). Due to the aforementioned features of cyberbullying, this repeated, on-going, and

uncontrollable act may result in victims’ three kinds of inferences: attributing cyberbullying

victimization to stable and global causes; believing that the negative consequences of the act are

irremediable, unchangeable, and affect many areas of life; and viewing themselves as worthless and

inferior. These inferences would further contribute to the development of hopelessness (Abramson

et al., 1989).

Rose and Abramson’s (1992) developmental extension of the hopelessness theory was adopted

as a conceptual framework to integrate the relationships among cyberbullying victimization,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT5

hopelessness, depression, and anxiety as a whole. Based on this conceptual model, stressors,

particularly when chronic and uncontrollable (e.g., cyberbullying victimization), contributes to the

development of hopelessness, which in turn leads to internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression and

anxiety). Specifically, individuals initially make hopefulness-oriented attributions (e.g., “Those who

bullied me online were just in a bad mood that day”) following the occurrence of negative events,

but with repeated occurrences the attributions will become more hopelessness-oriented (e.g., “I am

worthless”). Over time, individuals may consequently develop negative attributional styles, which

contribute to greater hopelessness, and in turn develop depressive or anxiety symptoms. Further,

Rose and Abramson propose that events threatening individuals’ self-worth or directly providing

negative attributions for them, such as bullying victimization, would be more likely to contribute to

the development of hopelessness.

Supporting this theory, some studies have demonstrated that hopelessness mediates the

relationship between interpersonal stressors and internalizing symptoms (Courtney, Johnson, &

Alloy, 2008; Hamilton et al., 2013). For example, Hamilton and colleagues found that hopelessness

mediated the relationships between emotional abuse and symptoms of depression and social anxiety

among adolescents. Although both cross-sectional and prospective associations between

victimization and hopelessness have been revealed among adolescents (Hamilton et al., 2015;

Siyahhan, Aricak, & Cayirdag-Acar, 2012), no research, to date, examines the relationship between

cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness, as well as the mediating role of hopelessness linking

cyberbullying victimization to depression and anxiety. Based on theoretical and empirical analyses,

the present study hypothesized that cyberbullying victimization would be associated with higher

levels of hopelessness, which in turn would be associated with higher risk for depression and anxiety.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT6

1.2. Self-compassion as a moderator

The organism-environment interaction model (Lerner, Lerner, Almerigi, & Theokas, 2006)

posits that not all individuals are equally influenced by the same environment, and that the dynamics

of individual and context interactions contribute to the person’s psychological and social adaptation.

To our knowledge, however, no research to date has examined the potential moderators that may

buffer the adverse effects of cyberbullying victimization. Examining the protective effects of certain

variables might help to formulate specific interventions aimed at alleviating victims’ psychosocial

adjustment difficulties. The present study investigated self-compassion as such a moderator in the

relations between cyberbullying victimization and its unfavorable outcomes, including depression,

anxiety, and hopelessness.

Self-compassion, a construct from Buddhist thought, has aroused the interest of western

researchers. According to the definition proposed by Neff (2003a; 2003b), self-compassion entails

three interrelated components: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Specifically,

self-kindness refers to the tendency to be kind and understanding toward oneself when confronting

personal pain and failure. Common humanity is concerned with the inclination to perceive one’s

own suffering as part of the larger human experience. Mindfulness involves holding painful

thoughts and feelings in balanced awareness. As a healthy stance toward oneself without involving

evaluations of self-worth, self-compassion can be a powerful protective factor of mental health

(Neff, 2003a, 2003b). It is often positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being

(e.g., life satisfaction, happiness, optimism, positive affect, emotional intelligence, and social

connectedness), and negatively associated with depression, anxiety, stress, anger, self-criticism,

rumination and thought suppression (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012; Neff, 2003b; Neff & Vonk, 2009).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT7

In addition to these results, self-compassion can be an important construct that facilitates

resilience and coping (Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). People with high self-

compassion tend to use adaptive strategies to cope with stressful events, such as relying heavily on

positive cognitive restructuring and less on avoidance and escape (Allen & Leary, 2010). Neff

(2003b) also views self-compassion as a useful emotional regulation strategy, in which painful or

distressing feelings are not avoided but are held in awareness with kindness, understanding, and a

sense of shared humanity (Neff, 2003b). That is, self-compassion transforms negative emotions

resulting from experiences of pain and failure into a more positive feeling state. In this sense, self-

compassion may attenuate people’s negative reactions to stressful life events (e.g., cyberbullying

victimization).

A growing body of research has demonstrated that self-compassion moderates the associations

between stressors and negative mental health outcomes (Jiang et al., 2016; Keng & Liew, 2017;

Kyeong, 2013; Leary et al., 2007; Neff, Hsieh, & Dejitterat, 2005). For example, Leary et al. (2007)

found that self-compassion buffered people against negative self-feelings when imagining

distressing social events, and moderated negative emotions after receiving ambivalent feedback,

particularly for those with low self-esteem. Jiang et al. (2016) found that the association between

peer victimization and adolescent non-suicidal self-injury was weakened under the condition of high

levels of self-compassion. Kyeong’s (2013) study showed that self-compassion moderated the

relationships between academic burn-out and psychological well-being as well as depression. Taken

together, we speculated that self-compassion may buffer the relations between cyberbullying

victimization and its negative outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety, and hopelessness).

Overall, it was reasonable for this study to include both hopelessness and self-compassion in

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT8

the same conceptual models (see Fig. 1). According to Brown and Harris’s (1978) psychosocial

model of depression, the impact of negative events (e.g., cyberbullying victimization) is moderated

by self-esteem and mediated by hopelessness. Further, this theory can be viewed as including

diathesis-stress and mediation components (i.e., low self-esteem is the diathesis and hopelessness is

the mediator). The above hypotheses raised by Brown and Harris (1978) have been demonstrated in

previous research (Abela, 2002; Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993; Whisman & Kwon,

1993). The present study examined self-compassion, rather than self-esteem, as a potential buffer

against the detrimental effects of life stress for certain reasons. Self-compassion may entail many

of the psychological benefits that have been associated with self-esteem, but with fewer of its pitfalls.

These two constructs share a positive self-view, however, self-compassion focuses on the feelings

of compassion toward oneself and the recognition of one’s common humanity rather than makes

(positive or negative) self-judgments (Neff, 2003a). Thus, it actually counters the tendencies toward

narcissism and self-centeredness that may stem from attempts to maintain high self-esteem

(Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Neff & Vonk, 2009). In addition, given that self-compassion

does not require individuals to adopt an unrealistic view of themselves, it should be easier and more

effective to raise people’s self-compassion than to raise their self-esteem (Neff, 2003a).

The present study constructed two moderated mediation models (see Fig. 1) to examine

hopelessness as a mediator in the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and symptoms

of depression and anxiety, and whether the direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on

depression/anxiety and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion.

It was hypothesized that hopelessness would mediate the relationships between cyberbullying

victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT9

victimization on depression and anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness would be

moderated by self-compassion, with these effects being stronger for adolescents with lower self-

compassion.

Self-compassion

Anxiety

Hopelessness

Cyberbullying

victimization

Model 2

Self-compassion

Depression

Hopelessness

Cyberbullying

victimization

Model 1

Fig. 1. Hypothesized conceptual models.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants and procedure

The present study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university.

Convenient sampling method was used to recruit the participants. We selected one ordinary junior

high school in Wuhan (a city in central China) as the targeted school. After obtaining the informed

consent from the school and all students involved, a total of 489 adolescents (43.6% girls)

participated in this research in the psychological health education course. The research was

conducted by the trained graduate students majoring in psychology. Participants ranged in age from

11 to 15 years (M = 12.67, SD = .75). Before starting the survey, participants were informed that

they were free to refuse or discontinue participation at any time without penalty. Researchers clearly

stated and emphasized the fact that any information the participants provided would not be revealed

to anyone. Last, participants completed the paper-pencil questionnaire written in Chinese during

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT10

one class hour, and no one refused or discontinued to participate.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Cyberbullying victimization

Participants completed a Chinese version (Zhou et al., 2013) of the cyberbullying victimization

subscale of the Cyberbullying Inventory (CBI; Erdur-Baker & KavŞut, 2007). Eighteen activities

of cyberbullying victimization are depicted in this subscale. Example activities include “Someone

spread rumors about me online” and “Someone sent anonymous text messages to threaten or

intimidate me”. Respondents were asked to indicate the number of times that they had engaged in

specific cyberbullying victimization activities in the past year on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 =

more than 5 times). This subscale has shown adequate reliability and validity among Chinese

adolescents (Fan, Chu, Zhang, & Zhou, 2016; Zhou et al., 2013). Cronbach’s alpha for the

cyberbullying victimization subscale in the present study was .82

2.2.2. Hopelessness

Hopelessness was assessed using the Hopelessness Scale for Children (HSC; Kazdin, Rodgers,

& Colbus, 1986). For this measure with a two-factor structure, adolescents answered 17 true or false

questions to reflect their negative expectancies toward future. The first factor comprised the

negatively worded items of the scale indicating negative expectations about the future. The second

factor comprised the positively worded items indicating some hope for change in the more distant

future. Example items include ‘‘I don’t think I’ll get what I really want’’ and ‘‘When I grow up, I

think I will be happier than I am now’’. The mean score was calculated for each participant, with

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT11

higher scores indicating greater hopelessness. The HSC has demonstrated adequate validity and

internal consistency among children and adolescents (Kazdin et al., 1986; Spirito, Williams, Stark,

& Hart, 1988). The Chinese version of HSC was translated from the original, back-translated, and

adjusted for cultural adaptation by two PhD students in psychology. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale

in the present study was .70.

2.2.3. Self-compassion

The Self-compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003b) was used to assess self-compassion.

Participants answered 26 items on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).

Example items include “I’m kind to myself when I’m experiencing suffering” and “When things

are going badly for me, I see the difficulties as part of life that everyone goes through”. The mean

score was calculated for each participant, with higher scores indicating higher levels of self-

compassion. The Chinese version of SCS was translated and revised by Chen, Yan, and Zhou (2011),

with adequate reliability and validity under Chinese background. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in

the present study was .82.

2.2.4. Depression

Depression was measured by the Chinese version (Wang, Wang, & Ma, 1999) of Center for

Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977). Participants rated 20 depressive

symptoms on a 4-point scale (1 = never, 4 = always) to which extent he or she has experienced them

during the last week. Example symptoms include “I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was

doing” and “I thought my life had been a failure”. The mean score was calculated for each

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT12

participant, with higher scores indicating severer depressive symptoms. Cronbach’s alpha for this

scale in the present study was .85.

2.2.5. Anxiety

Anxiety was measured by the Chinese version (Wang et al., 1999) of Beck Anxiety Inventory

(BAI; Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988). Participants rated 21 anxiety symptoms on a 4-point

scale (1 = not at all, 4 = I could barely stand it) to which extent he or she has experienced them

during the last week. Example symptoms include “Hands trembling” and “Fear of losing control”.

The mean score was calculated for each participant, with higher scores indicating severer anxiety

symptoms. Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in the present study was .90.

2.3. Statistical analyses

All the statistical analyses were conducted with SPSS 19.0 software package. Two-way

ANOVA was employed to examine the gender and age differences in the research variables.

Pearson’s correlation analyses were adopted to explore the potential relationships among

cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, self-compassion, depression, and anxiety. We tested the

hypothesized conceptual models (moderated mediation models) using the PROCESS macro for

SPSS (Model 8) developed by Hayes (2013). This approach has been extensively used in many

studies to test complex models including moderated mediation model (e.g., Chung, Allen, & Dennis,

2013; Liu et al., 2017). Bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) derived from 5,000

bootstrap resamples are estimated to test for the significance of conditional direct and indirect

effects. The effects are considered significant if the CI values do not include zero.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT13

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive and correlational analyses

In the current sample, 74.6% (n = 365) of the participants reported that they had been

cyberbullied by someone at least once in the past year. These adolescents consisted of 213 boys

(77.2%) and 152 girls (71.4%); 172 students at years 11-12 (74.1%), 138 students at year 13 (74.2%),

and 55 students at years 14-15 (77.5%). To detect the gender and age differences in the research

variables, we used the mean score of each of the variables to perform a 2 (Gender: male and female)

× 3 (Age: 11-12, 13, and 14-15 years) between-participants ANOVA. Analyses only revealed main

effects of age on cyberbullying victimization [F(2, 483) = 4.37, p < .05], depression [F(2, 483) = 7.21, p

< .001], and self-compassion [F(2, 483) = 8.26, p < .001]. Post hoc tests showed that older students

tended to report higher levels of cyberbullying victimization and depression, as well as lower levels

of self-compassion.

All research variables were significantly correlated in the predicted directions. As shown in

Table 1, cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with hopelessness, depression, and

anxiety. Hopelessness was positively associated with depression and anxiety. Self-compassion was

negatively associated with cyberbullying victimization, hopelessness, depression, and anxiety.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables

M SD 1 2 3 4

1. Cyberbullying victimization 1.19 .24

2. Hopelessness 0.27 .18 .30

3. Self-compassion 3.30 .51 -.20 -.44

4. Depression 1.64 .43 .40 .48 -.51

5. Anxiety 1.36 .44 .42 .48 -.40 .54

Note. All the correlation coefficients were significant (p < .001).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT14

3.2. Testing for hypothesized conceptual Model 1

Two regression models were used to test for the first moderated mediation model (see Fig. 1).

Participants’ gender and age were controlled in regression equations. As presented in Table 2,

cyberbullying victimization positively predicted hopelessness (β = .18, p < .001), and hopelessness

positively predicted depression (β = .24, p < .001). The direct relationship between cyberbullying

victimization and depression was also significant (β = .20, p < .001), which indicated that

hopelessness partially mediated the relation between cyberbullying victimization and depression.

Besides, the interaction term of cyberbullying victimization and self-compassion had significant

effects on hopelessness (β = -.15, p < .001) and depression (β = -.16, p < .001). These results

suggested that self-compassion moderated the associations between cyberbullying victimization and

hopelessness as well as depression. Simple slope tests showed that for low self-compassionate

individuals (one SD below the mean), cyberbullying victimization was associated with hopelessness

(βsimple = .70, p < .001) and depression (βsimple = .36, p < .05). However, for high self-compassionate

individuals (one SD above the mean), the effects of cyberbullying victimization on hopelessness

and depression were weak (βsimple = .31, p < .01) and non-significant (βsimple = -.10, p = .40) (see

Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Testing the conditional effects (at values of the moderator: M – 1 SD, M, and M

+ 1 SD), when the values of self-compassion were -1 and 0, both the conditional direct and indirect

effects were significantly different from zero. Namely, the positive direct effect of cyberbullying

victimization on depression and the positive indirect effect of cyberbullying victimization on

depression through hopelessness were revealed when self-compassion was moderate to low, but not

when it was high.

Table 2. Regressions testing hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relationship

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT15

between cyberbullying victimization and depression.

Regression Models β SE t value LLCI ULCI R2 F value

Model 1 .26 33.38***

Outcome: Hopelessness

Predictors: Gender .10 .08 1.29 -.054 .259

Age -.07 .05 -1.35 -.176 .033

CV .18 .04 4.08*** .091 .261

SCS -.41 .04 -10.14*** -.492 -.332

CV × SCS -.15 .05 -3.19** -.239 -.057

Model 2 .42 59.27***

Outcome: Depression

Predictors: Gender -.03 .07 -0.42 -.168 .108

Age .08 .05 1.79 -.008 .176

Hopelessness .24 .04 5.89*** .157 .315

CV .20 .04 5.12*** .122 .274

SCS -.35 .04 -8.98*** -.432 -.277

CV × SCS -.16 .04 -3.96*** -.245 -.082 　 　

Conditional direct effect SCS values Effect SE LLCI ULCI

-1 (M – 1 SD) .36 .05 .270 .453

0 (M) .20 .04 .122 .274

　 1 (M + 1 SD) .03 .07 -.093 .163

Conditional indirect effect SCS values Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI

-1 (M – 1 SD) .08 .02 .041 .128

0 (M) .04 .02 .019 .080

　 1 (M + 1 SD) .01 .02 -.034 .046 　 　

Note. N = 489. Gender was dummy coded (male = 1; female = 0). CV = Cyberbullying victimization; SCS = Self-

compassion Scale; LL = lower limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. The research variables (excluding

gender and age) in regression models were standardized.**p < .01.***p < .001.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT16

0

0.200000003

0.400000006

0.600000009

0.800000012

1.000000015Low SCS High SCS

Cyberbullying victimization

Hop

eles

snes

s

Fig. 2. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness.

0

1

2

3

4 Low SCS High SCS

Cyberbullying victimization

Dep

ress

ion

Fig. 3. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and depression.

3.3. Testing for hypothesized conceptual Model 2

The same statistical procedure was performed to test for the second moderated mediation

model (see Fig. 1). As presented in Table 3, cyberbullying victimization positively predicted

hopelessness (β = .18, p < .001), and hopelessness positively predicted anxiety (β = .27, p < .001).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT17

The direct relationship between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety was also significant (β

= .22, p < .001), which indicated that hopelessness partially mediated the relation between

cyberbullying victimization and anxiety. Besides, the interaction term of cyberbullying

victimization and self-compassion had significant effects on hopelessness (β = -.15, p < .001) and

anxiety (β = -.22, p < .001). These results suggested that self-compassion moderated the associations

between cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness as well as anxiety. Simple slope tests showed

that for low self-compassionate individuals, cyberbullying victimization was associated with

hopelessness (βsimple = .70, p < .001) and anxiety (βsimple = .40, p < .01). However, for high self-

compassionate individuals, the effects of cyberbullying victimization on hopelessness and anxiety

were weak (βsimple = .31, p < .01) and non-significant (βsimple = .12, p = .33) (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 4).

Testing the conditional effects, when the values of self-compassion were -1 and 0, both the

conditional direct and indirect effects were significantly different from zero. Namely, the positive

direct effect of cyberbullying victimization on anxiety and the positive indirect effect of

cyberbullying victimization on anxiety through hopelessness were revealed when self-compassion

was moderate to low, but not when it was high.

Table 3. Regressions testing hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator in the relationship

between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety.

Regression Models β SE t value LLCI ULCI R2 F value

Model 1 .26 33.38***

Outcome: Hopelessness

Predictors: Gender .10 .08 1.29 -.054 .259

Age -.07 .05 -1.35 -.176 .033

CV .18 .04 4.08*** .091 .261

SCS -.41 .04 -10.14*** -.492 -.332

CV × SCS -.15 .05 -3.19** -.239 -.057

Model 2 .39 51.99***

Outcome: Anxiety

Predictors: Gender -.14 .07 -1.92 -.280 .003

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT18

Age .00 .05 0.10 -.090 .100

Hopelessness .27 .04 6.54*** .189 .350

CV .22 .04 5.62*** .145 .302

SCS -.24 .04 -5.82*** -.316 -.156

CV × SCS -.22 .04 -5.19*** -.303 -.137 　 　

Conditional direct effect SCS values Effect SE LLCI ULCI

-1 (M – 1 SD) .44 .05 .350 .537

0 (M) .22 .04 .145 .302

　 1 (M + 1 SD) .003 .07 -.128 .135

Conditional indirect effect SCS values Effect Boot SE Boot LLCI Boot ULCI

-1 (M – 1 SD) .09 .03 .044 .156

0 (M) .05 .02 .020 .096

　 1 (M + 1 SD) .01 .02 -.039 .052 　 　

Note. N = 489. Gender was dummy coded (male = 1; female = 0). CV = Cyberbullying victimization; SCS = Self-

compassion Scale; LL = lower limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit. The research variables (excluding

gender and age) in regression models were standardized.**p < .01.***p < .001.

0

1

2

3

4 Low SCS High SCS

Cyberbullying victimization

Anx

iety

Fig. 4. Self-compassion (SCS) moderated the relationship between cyberbullying victimization and anxiety.

4. Discussion

The present study examined hopelessness and self-compassion as two potential mechanisms

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT19

linking cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety symptoms. Results indicated that

hopelessness partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization and

depression as well as anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression and

anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion. To be

specific, these effects were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. These

findings extend the previous literature by explaining how, when, and when of how cyberbullying

victimization is related to depression and anxiety.

Consistent with the psychosocial model of depression proposed by Brown and Harris (1978),

our results indicate that the associations between cyberbullying victimization and its negative

impacts (i.e., depression and anxiety) are mediated by hopelessness and moderated by self-

compassion. These findings are in line with the prior studies demonstrating self-esteem as moderator

and hopelessness as a mediator in the stress-depression relationship (Abela, 2002; Metalsky et al.,

1993; Whisman & Kwon, 1993). The present study, however, can largely extend the theory and

previous research by examining self-compassion (a more positive emotional stance toward oneself

compared with self-esteem) as a buffer against the negative effects of a specific type of stressors

(i.e., cyberbullying victimization). In this sense, low self-compassion may be viewed as a more

salient diathesis in the Brown and Harris’s (1978) theory, as high self-esteem is associated with

some negative development characteristics, such as narcissism and self-centeredness (Baumeister,

Smart, & Boden, 1996; Neff & Vonk, 2009). Also, the present study can enrich the theory and

previous research by focusing on cyberbullying victimization, a specific online stressor that appears

among adolescents in recent years (rather than general life events or daily hassles), and investigating

both depression and anxiety as the outcomes. Although the results provide support for the extensions

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT20

of the psychosocial model of depression, the evidence is limited due to the cross-sectional nature of

this study. Thus, future research should test for this theoretical problem further.

The hypothesis that hopelessness mediates the relationships between cyberbullying

victimization and depression as well as anxiety is supported. This finding is novel and can provide

certain evidence for the developmental extension of the hopelessness theory (Rose & Abramson,

1992). Specifically, cyberbullying victimization, as a kind of repeated, chronic, and uncontrollable

stressor, can evoke victims’ strong negative emotions (e.g., fear, helplessness, and feeling

vulnerable), diminish their self-worth, and induce their self-blaming attributions (Bauman, 2010).

With repeated occurrences of cyberbullying victimization incident (that may more readily “snowball”

out of the control of the bully and victim), individuals may shift initially hopeful attributions to

hopeless attributions, which lead to greater hopelessness, and in turn increase the risk for depression

and anxiety. This study further enriches Rose and Abramson’s (1992) conceptual model by

revealing anxiety as a possible outcome of stressors and hopelessness. Our finding is also similar to

the previous studies demonstrating hopelessness as a mediator between emotional abuse and

depression or social anxiety (Courtney et al., 2008; Hamilton et al., 2013). However, the present

study largely extends these previous findings by examining adolescents’ victimization in the virtual

environment.

One additional point needs to be mentioned. Although the mediation effect of hopelessness is

significant, this effect is not strong compared with the direct effect of cyberbullying victimization

on depression/anxiety. A possible explanation may be that there are short-term and long-term effects

of cyberbullying victimization on individuals’ negative emotions. Specifically, in the short term,

after being cyberbullied, adolescents may easily feel depressive and anxious as an immediate

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT21

response to this negative event. In the long term, adolescents may tend to develop the feelings of

hopelessness due to the continued and chronic cyberbullying victimization experiences, which in

turn leads to their depressive and anxiety symptoms. Future research can use experimental and long-

term prospective design to test for this hypothesis. Besides, this result may imply that there are some

other factors playing mediating roles in the association between cyberbullying victimization and

depression/anxiety, and future research may examine more mediators to better understand the

undesirable consequences of cyberbullying victimization. The results indicate that both

cyberbullying victimization and hopelessness are vulnerability factors for depression and anxiety,

and warrant greater attention in adolescents. Programs aimed at preventing cyberbullying

perpetration or victimization, such as the ViSC Social Competence Program (Gradinger, Yanagida,

Strohmeier, & Spiel, 2016), should be highlighted. Furthermore, interventions designed to reduce

the impacts of cyberbullying victimization should focus on reducing levels of negative cognition

including hopelessness. Appropriate support and training for coping strategies, particular by

targeting hopelessness in adolescents can be provided to reduce the risk of being depressive or

anxious.

The present study is the first to examine self-compassion as a potential moderator between

cyberbullying victimization and psychological health. The results suggest that self-compassion

buffers the associations between cyberbullying victimization and depression, anxiety, and

hopelessness. Specifically, adolescents with lower self-compassion are more likely to experience

feelings of depression, anxiety, and hopelessness after encountering cyberbullying victimization.

These results support the organism-environment interaction model (Lerner et al., 2006), which

proposes that the dynamics of individual and context interactions influence the individuals’

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT22

psychological and social adaptation. Our findings are also similar to some previous studies revealing

self-compassion as a moderator between stressors and psychological difficulties (Jiang et al., 2016;

Keng & Liew, 2017; Kyeong, 2013; Leary et al., 2007). This research, however, further extends

these previous findings by focusing on a specific domain of interpersonal stressors (i.e.,

cyberbullying victimization), instead of general life stressors.

The moderating effects of self-compassion can be explained in several ways. First, self-

compassionate people usually demonstrate more emotional resilience confronting negative events

(e.g., cyberbullying victimization) (Neff & Vonk, 2009). For example, Leary and colleagues (2007)

found that self-compassion alleviated individuals’ negative emotional reactions when imagining

distressing social events, receiving ambivalent interpersonal feedback, and remembering past

negative life events. Second, self-compassion involves a positive self-attitude and greater self-

concept accuracy (Neff & Vonk, 2009), which can protect adolescents from being consumed by

negative self-judgment and from suffering the negative effects of stressors (Bluth et al., 2016). After

being cyberbullied, self-compassionate adolescents are inclined to be kind to themselves and be

understandable to their victimization experiences, instead of harshly criticizing or blaming

themselves. Besides, self-compassion can be regarded as an adaptive coping resource (e.g., positive

cognitive restructuring). Adolescents high in self-compassion tend to hold their victimization

experiences in mindful balance and more successfully deal with painful thoughts and feelings

resulting from cyberbullying victimization, rather than avoiding these experiences or exaggerating

the extent of their personal suffering.

Our study suggests that developing ways to strengthen self-compassion in adolescents is

advantageous in alleviating the detrimental effects of cyberbullying victimization (i.e., depression,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT23

anxiety, and hopelessness). There are some intervention programs that could enhance self-

compassion including compassionate mind training, imagery work, the gestalt two-chair technique,

mindfulness based stress reduction, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment

therapy (Barnard & Curry, 2011). These programs may raise people’s self-compassion by producing

self-soothing and self-reassuring thoughts, by extending empathy to self and challenging self-

judgmental beliefs, by developing skills to modulate emotions and behaviors, and by cultivating

mindfulness and other facets of self-compassion. For example, Neff and her colleagues (2007)

conducted a two-chair technique with 40 students to raise their self-compassion by extending

empathy to self and challenging their self-judgmental, maladaptive beliefs. Students were asked to

think about a situation in which they were self-critical, and then to move between two chairs acting

and speaking like the judgmental self in one chair and the self experiencing the judgment in the

other. The intervention process would terminate provided the students resolved the conflict or it

seemed apparent that the resolution was unlikely. The results indicate that the gestalt two-chair

technique may raise self-compassion and reduce anxiety, depression, rumination, and thought-

suppression. Further research is still needed to examine the technique’s specific impact on self-

compassion, and how it compares to other active treatments.

The present study has several limitations. First, this study used a cross-sectional research

design. Readers should realize that the causal relationships cannot be inferred. Future longitudinal

or experimental studies can further determine the direction of the effects. Second, this study relied

on a convenience sample of Chinese early adolescents, and the participants were recruited just from

one middle school. This may limit the generalizability of the research findings. Third, the data were

collected only through self-report measures. Self-reports may be subject to increased biases (e.g.,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT24

socially desirable response) and inflated associations between antecedent and outcome variables

(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). Reports from multiple informants (e.g., parents,

teachers, and peers) should be considered in the future research.

To conclude, the present study extends our knowledge about the mechanisms linking

cyberbullying victimization to depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescence. We specifically

examined hopelessness as a mediator and self-compassion as a moderator to account for how, when,

and when of how cyberbullying victimization was associated with depression and anxiety. Results

indicated that hopelessness partially mediated the relationships between cyberbullying victimization

and depression as well as anxiety. The direct effects of cyberbullying victimization on depression

and anxiety, and the mediation effects of hopelessness were moderated by self-compassion.

Specifically, these effects were much stronger for adolescents with lower self-compassion. Our

findings highlight the importance of centering on hopelessness and self-compassion when

formulating interventions aimed at reducing the negative impacts of cyberbullying victimization.

References

Abela, J. R. (2002). Depressive mood reactions to failure in the achievement domain: A test of the integration of the

hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26(4), 531552.

Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of

depression. Psychological Review, 96(2), 358–372.

Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010). Self-compassion, stress, and coping. Social and Personality Psychology

Compass, 4(2), 107–118.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT25

Alloy, L. B., Black, S. K., Young, M. E., Goldstein, K. E., Shapero, B. G., Stange, J. P., . . . Abramson, L. Y. (2012).

Cognitive vulnerabilities and depression versus other psychopathology symptoms and diagnoses in early

adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41(5), 539–560.

Alloy, L. B., Kelly, K. A., Mineka, S., & Clements, C. M. (1990). Comorbidity of anxiety and depressive disorders:

A helplessness-hopelessness perspective. In J. D. Maser & C. R. Cloninger (Eds.), Comorbidity of mood and

anxiety disorders (pp. 499–543). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of

General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303.

Bauman, S. (2010). Cyberbullying in a rural intermediate school: An exploratory study. The Journal of Early

Adolescence, 30, 803–833.

Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The

dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103(1), 5–33.

Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety:

Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 893–897.

Bluth, K., Roberson, P., Gaylord, S., Faurot, K., Grewen, K., Arzon, S., & Girdler, S. (2016). Does self-compassion

protect adolescents from stress? Journal of Child & Family Studies, 25(4), 1098–1109.

Brown, G. W, & Harris, T. (1978). Social origins of depression. New York: Free Press.

Chen, J., Yan, L.-s., & Zhou, L.-h. (2011). Reliability and validity of Chinese version of Self-compassion Scale.

Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19(6), 734–736.

Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment.

Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 3–21.

Chung, M. C., Allen, R. D., & Dennis, I. (2013). The impact of self-efficacy, alexithymia and multiple traumas on

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT26

posttraumatic stress disorder and psychiatric co-morbidity following epileptic seizures: A moderated mediation

analysis. Psychiatry Research, 210(3), 1033–1041.

Cole, D. A., Zelkowitz, R. L., Nick, E., Martin, N. C., Roeder, K. M., Sinclair-McBride, K., & Spinelli, T. (2016).

Longitudinal and incremental relation of cybervictimization to negative self-cognitions and depressive

symptoms in young adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(7), 1321–1332.

Courtney, E. A., Johnson, J. G., & Alloy, L. B. (2008). Associations of childhood maltreatment with hopelessness

and depression among adolescent primary care patients. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 4–

17.

Erdur-Baker, Ö., & KavŞut, F. (2007). Cyber bullying: A new face of peer bullying. Eurasian Journal of Educational

Research, 27, 31–42.

Fan, C.-Y., Chu, X.-W., Zhang, M., & Zhou, Z.-K. (2016). Are narcissists more likely to be involved in

cyberbullying? Examining the mediating role of self-esteem. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance

online publication.

Fredstrom, B. K., Adams, R. E., & Gilman, R. (2011). Electronic and school-based victimization: Unique contexts

for adjustment difficulties during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(4), 405–415.

Gradinger, P., Yanagida, T., Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2016). Effectiveness and sustainability of the ViSC Social

Competence Program to prevent cyberbullying and cyber-victimization: Class and individual level moderators.

Aggressive Behavior, 42(2), 181–193.

Hamilton, J. L., Connolly, S. L., Liu, R. T., Stange, J. P., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). It gets better:

Future orientation buffers the development of hopelessness and depressive symptoms following emotional

victimization during early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(3), 465–474.

Hamilton, J. L., Shapero, B. G., Stange, J. P., Hamlat, E. J., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2013). Emotional

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT27

maltreatment, peer victimization, and depressive versus anxiety symptoms during adolescence: Hopelessness

as a mediator. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42(3), 332–347.

Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Miller, N., & Haeffel, G. J. (2004). Cognitive vulnerability-stress theories of

depression: Examining affective specificity in the prediction of depression versus anxiety in three prospective

studies. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 28(3), 309–345.

Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based

approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Jiang, Y., You, J., Hou, Y., Du, C., Lin, M.-P., Zheng, X., & Ma, C. (2016). Buffering the effects of peer

victimization on adolescent non-suicidal self-injury: The role of self-compassion and family cohesion. Journal

of Adolescence, 53, 107–115.

Kazdin, A. E., Rodgers, A., & Colbus, D. (1986). The Hopelessness Scale for Children: Psychometric characteristics

and concurrent validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 241–245.

Kendall, P. C., Compton, S. N., Walkup, J. T., Birmaher, B., Albano, A. M., Sherrill, J., . . . Piacentini, J. (2010).

Clinical characteristics of anxiety disordered youth. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(3), 360–365.

Keng, S.-L., & Liew, K. W. L. (2017). Trait mindfulness and self-compassion as moderators of the association

between gender nonconformity and psychological health. Mindfulness, 8(3), 615–626.

Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical

review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073–1137.

Kyeong, L. W. (2013). Self-compassion as a moderator of the relationship between academic burn-out and

psychological health in Korean cyber university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(8), 899–

902.

Landoll, R. R., La Greca, A. M., Lai, B. S., Chan, S. F., & Herge, W. M. (2015). Cyber victimization by peers:

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT28

Prospective associations with adolescent social anxiety and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 42,

77–86.

Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Allen, A. B., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to

unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 92(5), 887–904.

Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Almerigi, J., & Theokas, C. (2006). Dynamics of individual-context relations in human

development: A developmental systems perspective. In J. C. Thomas, D. L. Segal, M. Hersen, J. C. Thomas,

D. L. Segal, & M. Hersen (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of personality and psychopathology. Personality

and everyday functioning, Vol. 1 (pp. 23–43). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Liu, Q.-Q., Zhou, Z.-K., Yang, X.-J., Kong, F.-C., Niu, G.-F., & Fan, C.-Y. (2017). Mobile phone addiction and

sleep quality among Chinese adolescents: A moderated mediation model. Computers in Human Behavior, 72,

108–114.

MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-

compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545–552.

Marai, L. (2004). Anxiety and hopelessness in two South Pacific countries: Exploratory studies. Social Behavior &

Personality, 32(8), 723–730.

Metalsky, G. I., Joiner, T. E., Hardin, T. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (1993). Depressive reactions to failure in a

naturalistic setting: A test of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal

Psychology, 102(1), 101109.

Miranda, R., Fontes, M., & Marroquín, B. (2008). Cognitive content-specificity in future expectancies: Role of

hopelessness and intolerance of uncertainty in depression and GAD symptoms. Behaviour Research and

Therapy, 46(10), 1151–1159.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT29

Neff, K. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self &

Identity, 2(2), 85–101.

Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self & Identity, 2(3),

223–250.

Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2009). Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways of relating to oneself.

Journal of Personality, 77(1), 23–50.

Neff, K. D., Hsieh, Y.-P., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic

failure. Self & Identity, 4(3), 263–287.

Neff, K., Kirkpatrick, K., & Rude, S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of

Research in Personality, 41, 139–154

Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying.

Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148–169.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research

and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 539–569.

Polanczyk, G. V., Salum, G. A., Sugaya, L. S., Caye, A., & Rohde, L. A. (2015). Annual research review: A meta-

analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Child

Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 56(3), 345–365.

Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied

Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

Rose, D. T., & Abramson, L. Y. (1992). Developmental predictors of depressive cognitive style: Research and theory.

In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester symposium of developmental psychopathology, Vol. IV (pp. 323–

349). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT30

Schäfer, J. Ö., Naumann, E., Holmes, E. A., Tuschen-Caffier, B., & Samson, A. C. (2017). Emotion regulation

strategies in depressive and anxiety symptoms in youth: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Youth and

Adolescence, 46(2), 261–276.

Siyahhan, S., Aricak, O. T., & Cayirdag-Acar, N. (2012). The relation between bullying, victimization, and

adolescents’ level of hopelessness. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 1053–1059.

Slonje, R., Smith, P. K., & Frisén, A. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying, and strategies for prevention. Computers

in Human Behavior, 29(1), 26–32.

Spirito, A., Williams, C. A., Stark, L. J., & Hart, K. J. (1988). The Hopelessness Scale for Children: Psychometric

properties with normal and emotionally disturbed adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16(4),

445–458.

Von Marées, N., & Petermann, F. (2012). Cyberbullying: An increasing challenge for schools. School Psychology

International, 33(5), 467–476.

Wang, X. D., Wang, X. L., & Ma, H. (1999). Rating Scales for Mental Health. Beijing: Chinese Mental Health

Journal Press.

Wang, Y.-y., Jiang, N.-z., Cheung, E. F. C., Sun, H.-w., & Chan, R. C. K. (2015). Role of depression severity and

impulsivity in the relationship between hopelessness and suicidal ideation in patients with major depressive

disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 183, 83–89.

Weissman, M. M., Wolk, S., Wickramaratne, P., Goldstein, R. B., Adams, P., Greenwald, S., . . . Steinberg, D.

(1999). Children with prepubertal-onset major depressive disorder and anxiety grown up. Archives of General

Psychiatry, 56(9), 794–801.

Whisman, M. A., & Kwon, P. (1993). Life stress and dysphoria: The role of self-esteem and hopelessness. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(5), 10541060.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT31

Wright, M. F. (2015). Cyber victimization and perceived stress: Linkages to late adolescents’ cyber aggression and

psychological functioning. Youth & Society, 47(6), 789–810.

Young, M. A., Fogg, L. F., Scheftner, W., Fawcett, J., Akiskal, H., & Maser, J. (1996). Stable trait components of

hopelessness: Baseline and sensitivity to depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(2), 155–165.

Zhou, Z., Tang, H., Tian, Y., Wei, H., Zhang, F., & Morrison, C. M. (2013). Cyberbullying and its risk factors among

Chinese high school students. School Psychology International, 34(6), 630–647.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by Major Program of National Social Science Foundation of China [Project No. 11&ZD151], Humanities and Social Sciences Research Funds from the Ministry of Education of China [Project No. 15YJA190001], Fundamental Research Funds of Central China Normal University [Project No. CCNU14Z02004], and Research Program Funds of the Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University [Project No. 2016-04-003-BZK01; 2016-04-009-BZK01]. The authors have declared that they have no competing or potential conflicts of interest.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Cyberbullying victimization (CV) was positively related to depression/anxiety.Hopelessness mediated the relations between CV and depression/anxiety.Self-compassion moderated the direct relations between CV and depression/anxiety.Self-compassion moderated the mediating effects of hopelessness.