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Learning

Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

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To Gain Knowledge, Understanding or Skill by Study, Instruction or Experience

Association

We learn by association Our minds naturally connect events that

occur in sequence Aristotle 2000 years ago John Locke and David Hume 200 years

ago Associative Learning

learning that two events occur together two stimuli a response and its consequences

Association

Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning

We learn to associate two stimuli

Operant Conditioning

We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two

stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an

unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian

physician/ neurophysiologist

Nobel Prize in 1904

studied digestive secretions

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

Pavlov’s Classic ExperimentBefore Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)

Classical Conditioning

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS REFLEX ACTIONwill

elicit a

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS

NEUTRAL STIMULUSREFLEX ACTION

willelicit a

CONDITIONED STIMULUSCONDITIONED STIMULUSwill

elicit aCONDITIONED

RESPONSE

NEUTRAL STIMULUSwill

elicit NO REACTION

Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response

to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously

neutral conditioned stimulus

Classical Conditioning

Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral

stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Classical ConditioningUCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

Classical Conditioning

Extinction diminishing of a CR in classical conditioning, when

a UCS does not follow a CS in operant conditioning, when

a response is no longer reinforced

Classical Conditioning

Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR

Extinction

If a stimulus is never reinforced, then the response will go away.

Generalization

A response can be generalized to other like stimuli.

Variations Within Classical Conditioning

After extinction, a response will suddenly reappear.

Spontaneous Recovery

Generalization is a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A baby will call Daddy “Dada.” When the baby sees any man, the baby calls out “Dada.”)

Discrimination is the reverse of generalization. Some stimuli have pleasant consequences and some do not. (A baby gradually learns that only one person responds with a smile when called “Dada.”)

Cognitive Processes

Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. — even in classical conditioning, it is not only the simple stimulus-response association but also the thought that counts.

Conditioning in advertising

Biological Predispositions John Garcia

Conditioned taste aversions Not all neutral stimuli can become

conditioned stimuli. Internal stimuli—associate better with taste External stimuli—associate better with pain Biological preparedness

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer PatientsUCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

Behaviorism

John B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted

by all schools of thought today

Watson & Raynor with Little Albert

Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques.

Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur

today because of the existing ethical

standards.

Conditional Training: Albert and Peter

Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned.

Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits.

Mary Cover Jones

1. By learning to associate a squirt of water with electric shock, sea snails demonstrate the process of:

a. habituation

b. spontaneous recovery

c. classical conditioning

d. observational learning

e. operant conditioning

2. John B. Watson considered himself to be a(n):

a. Physiological psychologist

b. Cognitive psychologist

c. Behaviorist

d. Psychoanalyst

e. Operant conditioner

3. In Pavlov’s experiments, the dog’s salivation triggered by the taste of food was a(n):

a. Conditioned response.

b. Unconditioned stimulus.

c. Unconditioned response.

d. Conditioned stimulus.

4. In Pavlov’s experiments, the dog’s salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was a(n):

a. Conditioned response.

b. Unconditioned stimulus.

c. Unconditioned response.

d. Conditioned stimulus.

5. If a bell causes a dog to salivate because it has regularly been associated with the presentation

of food, the bell is called a(n):

a. Unconditioned stimulus.

b. Conditioned stimulus.

c. Primary reinforcer.

d. Immediate reinforcer.

6. The initial stage of classical conditioning during which a response to a neutral stimulus is established and gradually strengthened is called:

a. Acquisition.

b. Association.

c. Observational learning.

d. Shaping.

7. When a CS is not followed by a UCS, the subsequent fading of a CR is called:

a. Discrimination.

b. Generalization.

c. Delayed reinforcement.

d. Extinction.

8. The reappearance, after a time lapse, of an extinguished CR is called:

a. Generalization.

b. Spontaneous recovery.

c. Secondary reinforcement.

d. Latent learning.

e. Shaping.

9. The tendency for a CR to be evoked by stimuli similar to the CS is called:

a. Generalization.

b. Secondary reinforcement.

c. Latent learning.

d. Spontaneous recovery.

e. Shaping.

10. The ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus is called:

a. Shaping.

b. Acquisition.

c. Discrimination.

d. Generalization.

e. Latent learning.

11. Little Albert developed a fear of rats after a white rat was presented with a loud noise. In this case, the loud noise was the:

a. Unconditioned stimulus.

b. Conditioned stimulus.

c. Secondary reinforcer.

d. Delayed reinforcer.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Law of Effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Conditioning

Operant Behavior operates (acts) on environment produces consequences

Respondent Behavior occurs as an automatic

response to stimulus behavior learned through

classical conditioning

Early Operant Conditioning

E. L. Thorndike (1898)Puzzle boxes and cats

Scratch at bars

Push at ceiling

Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box

Howl

Etc.

Etc.

Press lever

First Trialin Box

Scratch at bars

Push at ceiling

Dig at floorSituation:stimuliinside ofpuzzle box

Howl

Etc.

Etc.

Press lever

After ManyTrials in Box

Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874–1949)

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) elaborated

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

developed behavioral technology

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

Operant Chamber

Skinner Box chamber with a

bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer

contains devices to record responses

In shaping, successively closer versions of a desired response are reinforced (as in learning to play tennis).

In chaining, each part of a sequence is reinforced; the different parts are put together into a whole (as in learning the steps to a dance).

Operant Conditioning

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DANCING DOG

Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows Negative Reinforcement

The removal of a punishment or an aversive stimulus

It STRENGTHENS behavior

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning Processes

Primary Reinforcement is unlearned and usually necessary for survival. Food is the best example of a primary reinforcer.

Secondary Reinforcement is anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer such as praise from a friend or a gold star on a homework assignment. Also called conditioned reinforcer.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Immediate Reinforcers To our detriment, small but immediate

reinforcements are sometimes more alluring than big, but delayed reinforcements

Continuous Reinforcement reinforcing the desired response each time it

occurs

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a

specified number of responses faster you respond the more

rewards you get different ratios very high rate of responding like piecework pay

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an

unpredictable number of responses

average ratios like gambling, fishing very hard to extinguish because

of unpredictability

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed Interval (FI) reinforces a response only after

a specified time has elapsed response occurs more

frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Interval (VI) reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding like pop quiz

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

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Punishment

Punishment aversive event that

decreases the behavior that it follows

powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Punishment

Problems with Punishment

Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior

May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear

Likely to be temporaryMay model aggression

Updating Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure. Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.

Cognitive Approach

This approach emphasizes abstract and subtle learning that could not be achieved through conditioning or social learning alone.

Some learning is not intentional, but occurs almost accidentally—a situation called latent learning. Learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Expectancies are beliefs about our ability to perform an action and to get the desired reward. Expectancies affect learning.

Latent Learning

Cognitive Map (E.C. Tolman)A mental representation of the layout of one’s environmentExample: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Cognitive Maps

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Overjustification Effect the effect of promising a reward

for doing what one already likes to do

the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Cognition and Operant Conditioning

Intrinsic Motivation Desire to perform a behavior for

its own sake and to be effective Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

Applications ofOperant Conditioning

• School

• Work

• Home

1. Ever since his mother began to give Julio gold stars for keeping his bed dry all night, Julio discontinued his habit of bedwetting. His change in behavior best illustrates the value of:

a. Primary reinforcement.

b. Classical conditioning.

c. Spontaneous recovery.

d. Operant conditioning.

e. Latent learning.

2. B.F. Skinner’s work elaborate what E.L. Thorndike had called:

a. shaping

b. behaviorism

c. observational learning

d. the law of effect

e. latent learning

3. Dr. Kevorkian places a rat in a small, glass-enclosed chamber where it learns to press a bar to obtain a food pellet. Obviously, Dr.Kevorkian is using a _________________ to study learning.

a. Pavlovian maze

b. Bandura compartment

c. Skinner box

d. Garcia operant chamber

4. The process of reinforcing successively closer approximations to a desired behavior is called:

a. Shaping.

b. Partial reinforcement.

c. Generalization.

d. Secondary reinforcement.

e. Modeling.

5. An event that increases the frequency of the behavior that it follows is a(n):

a. Conditioned stimulus.

b. Respondent.

c. Unconditioned stimulus.

d. Reinforcer.

e. Operant.

6. Because Bertha would always pick up her newborn daughter when she began to cry, her daughter is now a real crybaby. In this case, picking up the infant served as a(n) ____________for crying.

a. Negative reinforcer

b. Conditioned stimulus

c. Positive reinforcer

d. Unconditioned stimulus

7. Escape from an aversive stimulus is a _________________ reinforcer.

a. Positive

b. Secondary

c. Negative

d. Partial

e. Delayed

8. Innately satisfying stimuli that satisfy biological needs are called ________________ reinforcers.

a. Fixed

b. Primary

c. Positive

d. Continuous

9. A stimulus that acquires reinforcing power by association with another reinforcer is called a _________________ reinforcer.

a. Negative

b. Primary

c. Partial

d. Secondary

e. Positive

10. Resistance to extinction is most strongly encouraged by _______________ reinforcement.

a. Delayed

b. Negative

c. Secondary

d. Partial

11. A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n):

a. Specified time period has elapsed.

b. Unpredictable time period has elapsed.

c. Specified number of responses have been made.

d. Unpredictable number of responses have been made.

12. Gamblers who insert coins in a slot machine are reinforced on a __________________ schedule.

a. Fixed-interval

b. Variable-interval

c. Fixed-ratio

d. Variable-ration

13. A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which a response is reinforced only after a(n):

a. Specified time period has elapsed.

b. Unpredictable time period has elapsed.

c. Specified number of responses have been made.

d. Unpredictable number of responses have been made.

14. On the first day of class Mrs. Quigley tells her history students that pop quizzes will be given at unpredictable times throughout the semester. Clearly, studying for Mrs. Quigley’s surprise quizzes will be reinforced on a ____________________- schedule.

a. Fixed-interval

b. Fixed-ratio

c. Variable-interval

d. Variable-ratio

15. B.F. Skinner’s critics have claimed that he neglected the importance of the individual’s:

a. personal freedom

b. early childhood experiences

c. pleasure-seeking tendencies

d. cultural background

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Social Learning Theory

Observational Learning

Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) learning by observing and imitating

others Modeling

process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior

This series of photographs shows children observing and modeling aggressive behavior.

Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Observational Learning

Mirror Neurons frontal lobe neurons that fire

when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Do what I say, not what I do—

This will teach you to hit your brother—

Why do you do that, you know you get in trouble for it—

Famous last words???