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Research ArticleApplication of Ethnobotanical Indices on the Use ofTraditional Medicines against Common Diseases
Imran Khan,1 Naser M. AbdElsalam,2 Hassan Fouad,2,3 Akash Tariq,1
Riaz Ullah,4 and Muhammad Adnan1
1 Department of Botany, Kohat University of Science and Technology, Kohat 26000, Pakistan2 Riyadh Community College, King Saud University, Riyadh 11437, Saudi Arabia3 Department of Chemistry, Biomedical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University,P.O. Box 11792, Helwan, Egypt
4Department of Chemistry, Government College Ara Khel, FR Kohat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 26000, Pakistan
Correspondence should be addressed to Muhammad Adnan; ghurzang@hotmail.com
Received 22 February 2014; Accepted 24 April 2014; Published 20 May 2014
Academic Editor: Rainer W. Bussmann
Copyright © 2014 Imran Khan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The present study was aimed at documenting the detailed ethnomedicinal knowledge of an unexplored area of Pakistan.Semistructured interviews were taken with 55 informants randomly chosen regarding detailed ethnomedicinal and socioculturalinformation. The study exposed 67 medicinal plant species used to prepare 110 recipes and the major modes of herbal formulationwere decoction and powdering (20% each). The disease categories with the highest Fic values were gastrointestinal anddermatological (0.87 each). The study determined 3 plant species, i.e., Acacia modesta Wall., Caralluma tuberculata R.Br., andWithania somnifera (L.) Dunal with a FL of 100%. DMR results showed thatOlea ferruginea (Sol.) Steud. ranked first,Morus alba L.ranked second, andMelia azedarach L. ranked third. Among the 55 informants, the male concentration was high (61%) andmost ofthem were over 40 years old while a leading quantity of respondents (45%) was uneducated. There is a dire need to take necessarysteps for the conservation of important medicinal plants by inhibiting overgrazing and providing alternate fuel resources. Younggenerations should be educated regarding the importance of ethnomedicinal knowledge and plants with high Fic and FL valuesshould be further checked chemically and pharmacologically for future exploration of modern medicine.
1. Introduction
Medicinal plants offer a real substitute in developing coun-tries for the treatment of human and animal ailments [1].Ethnomedicine is often the single easily reached and afford-able therapy available.Theworldmarket for herbalmedicinesbased on traditional knowledge is now estimated at US$ 60billion [2]. Plant-based traditional medicine plays a key rolein the development of novelties in drug discovery [3].
Pakistan has a rich medicinal plants history having morethan 600 plants being used traditionally for medication [4].The majority of the medicinal plants are confined to north-west regions of Pakistan due to the presence of Himalayas,Karakoram, Sulaiman, and Hindu Kush mountain ranges [5]
that lie in associationwith Pak-Afghan border. Both countriesPakistan and Afghanistan share almost 2,500 kilometers ofboundary, called Durand Line, which was demarcated in 1893following an agreement between the British Empire and theAfghan king [6]. The Durand Line separates Pashtun ethnicgroup in the Pak-Afghan border areas. Culturally, Pashtunsrepresent the majority of the populace of Afghanistan andalso have significant population in Pakistan. The local lan-guage of southeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pak-istan Pashtun ethnic group is Pashtu [7]. The majority of thenorthwest areas of Pakistan living in the proximity to borderregion are rural in nature with high illiteracy rate and greatlydepend on medicinal plants for primary health care andfor generating income. In Pakistan, various ethnobotanical
Hindawi Publishing CorporationEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2014, Article ID 635371, 21 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/635371
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Tajikistan
Afghanistan
Mt Tirichmir
MastujChitral
Chitral
Kalam
DirDir
SwatKohistan
Dasu
Gilgit
Northern Areas
Mor Khun
Naran
MansehraBattagramShangla
Buner
SaiduSharif
AbbottabadHairpur
Swabi
MalakandAgency
Mardan
Nowshera
Charsadda
Peshawar
BajaurAgency
MohmandAgency India
MurreeIslamabad
Panjab
Pakistan
LandiKotal
Khyber AgencyOrakzai Agency
KohatKohatHangu
Parachinar
KurramAgency
Kalabagh
KarakBannu
MiranshahNorth
Waziristan
Waziristan
Razmak LakkiMarwat
JandolaSouth
Wana Tank
Dera IsmailKhan
Dera
Khan
ZhobBalochistan
ZarghunShar
Khowst
Gardez
Kabul Jalalabad
Charikar
Ismail
Mansehra
Mianwali
Figure 1: Map of the study area.
studies have been conducted in the different regions [8, 9](Akhtar et al. [9]; Mussarat et al. [10], Hassan et al. [11];and Begum et al. [12]). Most of the ethnobotanical studiesin Pakistan have documented just the uses of medicinalplants. Almost no studies have been documented on detailedethnomedicines preparations in the border region villages.The current research is the first effort to provide a thoroughoverview on the ethnomedicines employed by conventionalhealers and their detailed appliance in the region. Thisresearch will offer baseline data for more comprehensivestudies on effectiveness and security of these preparations,as well as the potential applications in the communal healthsystem. Moreover, the region is very rich in medicinal plantsdue to its conductive climate but this area has never beentouched so far. Therefore, it is imperative to documentthe vegetation and detailed home-grown information ofpeople about medicinal plants of this area before it is lostdue to changing cultures. The purpose of this study is toassess traditionalmedicinal plant knowledge specifically withregard to the traditional healer’s demographic characteristicssuch as gender, age, and source of income and to document
the knowledge and the uses of medicinal plants used by thetraditional healers in the Hangu region, Pakistan, to providebaseline data for future pharmacological and phytochemicalstudies by the application of ethnobotanical indices.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Study Area. The present study was conducted in Hangudistrict located in north of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan,near the border region with Afghanistan (Figure 1). Hanguis situated at 33.53 North latitude, 71.06 East longitude, and858m above the sea level comprising a total area of 1,097 km2and total population of 314,529 [13].The dominant vegetationin the study area is Acacia modesta, Olea ferruginea, Dodon-aea viscosa (L.) Jacquin, Acacia nilotica L., Periploca aphyllaDecne., Melia azedarach, and Morus alba. The temperatureof the area rises gradually from the month of January to Juneand then slowly turns down up to December. The summerseason is modest and warm but June and July are the hottestmonths. The mean highest temperature is 8.8∘C and mean
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
lowest temperature is 7∘C in the months of December andJanuary.This district also produces wheat andmaize as majorcrops. The area is rural in nature and the majority of thepopulation is illiterate and they are also deprived of modernhealth services; hence the locals rely onmedicinal flora of theregion for the healthcare and to balance their low earningsas well [14]. The inhabitants mostly rely on timber for fuelpurposes due to lack of modern fuel resources [13].
2.2. Data Collection. Field work was carried out from Octo-ber 2012 to October 2013. Data was collected by making totaleight frequent visits to the study area in four different seasons.Total 250 informants were recommended by knowledgeableelders, local authorities, and development agents. Out of250, we have randomly selected 55 (34 men and 21 women)out of the total identified key informants. The selectedinformers were local inhabitants of the area aged between20 and 89 years. Ethnobotanical survey was taken to gatherinformation on traditional plants utilized by the local healersfor the treatment of human ailments in the district followingstandard methods [15, 16]. The survey was done by usingproper semistructured interviews and group discussionsas well. A checklist of questions was prepared in Englishlanguage for undertaking interviews and discussions. Thequestionnaire contained no strict questions and informantswere allowed to speak spontaneously and without pressure.Key questions aboutmedicinal plants were on local name of aparticularmedicinal plant, types of disease treated, mode andmethod of remedy preparation, parts of the plants used, useof fresh or dry plant parts, use of single or mixture of plantsfor remedy preparation, mode of administration, and doserequirement. Sociocultural information about informantswas also collected during interview. The informants wereinterviewed in their local language Pashto. Ethically writtenacceptance was collected from the main office of the districtand also from the head person of the village. The purposeof the present study was also explained to each informant inorder to remove their hesitation and to encourage them thattheir knowledge will be a great contribution in the scientificliterature.
2.3. Specimen Collection and Identification. The reportedmedicinal plants were collected from natural vegetation andhome gardens during the field walks and habits of theplants were listed. The collected voucher specimens weretaken to the Herbarium of Kohat University of Science andTechnology, Kohat, Pakistan. Specimen identification andconfirmation were undertaken by using Flora of Pakistanand taxonomic experts. Specimens with their label werestored at the Herbarium of Kohat University of Science andTechnology, Kohat, Pakistan.
2.4. Data Organization. The collected ethnobotanical datawere entered into Excel spreadsheet 2007 and summarizedusing graphical statistical methods such as percentages. Thehabit of the plants was categorized into three categories, thatis, herbs, shrubs, and trees. The part used by the healersfor the preparation of ethnomedicines was grouped under
11 classes, that is, leaves, whole plant, root, fruit, bark, andso forth. Human ailments treated in the study area werecategorized into 18 categories like gastrointestinal, derma-tological, skeletomuscular, antidiabetic, and so forth. Routeof administration was divided into oral, dermal, and nasal.The basic categorization using questionnaire data regardinginformants’ sex, age groups, educational status or literacy rate,and occupation was also carried out.
3. Data Analyses
3.1. Informant Consensus Factor (Fic). For the analysis of thegeneral use of plants, factor informant consensus (Fic) wasused to highlight plants of particular cultural relevance andagreement in the use of plants. Informants’ consensus withina community and between cultural groups indicates whichplants are widely used and thus aids in the selection of plantsfor pharmacological and phytochemical studies [17]. In orderto use this tool, illnesses were classified into categories, asplants with high Fic are likely to be more pharmacologicallyefficient as compared to plants with low Fic [18]. Fic valueslie between “0.00 and 1.00”. Fic values are always greaterwhen single or few plants are documented to be used by largenumber of respondents to cure a specific disease, while lowFic values give an indication that informants do not agreeover which plant to use [19, 20].
The Fic can be calculated using the formula as follows:
Fic = nur − ntnur − 1
, (1)
where Fic = informants consensus factor, nur = number of usecitation in each category, and nt = number of species used.
3.2. Fidelity Level (FL). Fidelity level is useful for identifyingthe key informants’ most preferred species used for treatingcertain ailments. The medicinal plants that are widely usedby the local people have higher FL values than those that areless popular. Fidelity level shows the percentage of informantsclaiming the use of a certain plant species for the same majorpurpose. This is designed to quantify the importance of thespecies for a given purpose. Before calculating the values ofFL all of the ailments that were reported are grouped intomajor classes [21]. FL value was estimated using the formulaFL = Ip/Iu × 100, where Ip is the number of respondentswho reported the utilization of medicinal plants for a specificmain ailment and Iu is the total number of respondents whomentioned the same plant for any ailment [22]. It is assumedthat those medicinal plants which are plants that are usedin some recurring manner for the same disease category aremore likely to be biologically active [18].
3.3. Direct Matrix Ranking (DMR). DMR [15, 16] was usedto compare the use diversity of given plant species basedon the data collected from the respondents. Total eightinformants were selected for the collection of DMR data.Selected informants were asked to assign use values (5 = best,4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = least used, and 0
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
= not used) to each species. The values (average scores) givento each medicinal plant were summed up and ranked.
4. Result and Discussion
4.1. Medicinal Plants Reported. The study revealed 67 medic-inal plant species belonging to 55 genera and 39 familiesconsisting of 65 angiosperms and 2 gymnosperms in Hangudistrict (Table 1). The investigated region has a rich diversityof medicinal plants and provides a conductive habitat andideal climatic conditions for their growth as shown by thepresence of 67 medicinal plant species. The majority of themedicinal plants reported were herbs (43%) followed byshrubs (30%) and trees (27%). The high usage of herbs in thestudy area could be an indication of their abundance and itmight also be due to the fact that they are easily accessiblenear household and might have high effectiveness in thetreatment of ailments in comparison to other growth forms[23].The common use of herbs for medicinal purposes is alsoreported fromother parts of the world [24, 25].The dominantfamilies in the study area were Asteraceae and Solanaceaerepresented by the highest number of species (4 specieseach, 6%) followed by Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, Oleaceae,and Lamiaceae (3 species each, 4.47%). Other families withlow number represented by 2 species each Amaranthaceae,Acanthaceae, Alliaceae, Poaceae, Papilionaceae, Zygophyl-laceae, Arecaceae, and Rhamnaceae, while the remaining 22families had only single species representation. The widerutilization of species from dominant families like Asteraceaeand Solanaceae might relate to the presence of effectivebioactive ingredients against ailments [26]. Our results arein line with other ethnomedicinal studies conducted in otherregions of Pakistan [9, 27] where traditional healers mostlyuse Solanaceae and Asteraceae members for the preparationof ethnomedicines.
4.2. Common Ailments in the Study Area. Traditional healersuse 67 medicinal plants for the treatment of a variety ofdisorders in the studied region. These were grouped into 18major disease categories like gastrointestinal, dermatological,antipyretic, blood disorders, and so forth. The natives ofthe region use total 25 plant species for gastrointestinaldisorders followed by 13 for dermatological infections. Theresults are in agreement with other studies conducted inother parts of Pakistan and other countries [28, 29]. The useof a large number of medicinal plants for the treatment ofgastrointestinal and dermatological ailments in the regioncould be due to the high occurrence of these problemsin the study area due to bad hygiene, fuel wood smokeinside houses, and other factors like water and air pollution[30]. Informant consensus results have also shown a highdegree of consensus for gastrointestinal and dermatological(0.87 each) ailments, which were followed by blood disorderlike diabetes (0.84) (Table 2). The highest plant use citationwas for gastrointestinal (200) followed by dermatologicalailments (100). High Fic value gives an indication that thesediseases are more prevalent in the Hangu region that mightbe due to the poor socioeconomic and sanitary conditions of
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Num
ber o
f pla
nts
Plant parts
Leav
es
Who
le p
lant
Frui
t
Root
s
Seed
s
Bark
Stem
Flow
er
Aeria
l par
ts
Late
x
Gum
Figure 2: Plant parts used for remedy preparation.
the people. According to Heinrich et al. [19], high Fic valuesare very useful in the selection of specific plants for furthersearch of bioactive compounds. The medicinal plants thatare widely used by the local people have higher FL valuesthan those that are less popular. The present study revealed20 medicinal plants having high FL value. FL values in thisstudy varied from 1.0% to 100%. The study determined 3plant species (Acacia modesta, Caralluma tuberculata, andWithania somnifera) with a FL of 100% followed by 7 (Alliumsativa L., Mentha arvensis L., Mentha longifolia L., Cannabissativa L., Punica granatum L., Morus alba, and Morus nigraL.) species with more than 90% and less than 100%, whichmight be taken as a signal of the excellent curative potentialof the plants (Table 3). All these plants that reported higherFL values are not only being frequently used in study regionbut also in other regions of the Pakistan [8, 31]. Theseplants possess different phytochemicals responsible for theirtherapeutic actions.Withania somnifera contains compoundwithanolides, which are believed to account for its extraor-dinary medicinal properties [32]. Caralluma tuberculatacontains pregnane glycosides, flavones glycosides, and otherphytochemical responsible for its antidiabetic and anticanceractivities [33]. It is understood that plants used in recurringmanner are more phytochemically active [16]. High FL valueplants might be selected for further chemical screening toinvestigate the bioactive compounds responsible for theirhigh curative potential [34, 35].
4.3. Ethnomedicinal Preparations. Traditional healers mostlyuse leaves (40%) of the plants followed by whole plant(28%) and fruits (19%) for the preparation of differentethnomedicines.The current investigation showed (Figure 2)that leaves (40%) are the most collected plant parts formedicinal purposes. This might be due to easy availabilityand containing high amount of chemicals and could beeasily extracted and used in different forms but it needsbiochemical analysis and pharmaceutical screening to cross-check the local information. Use of leaves of plants does notcause damaging effect on the plant life cycle as comparedwith other parts like roots and flower, and so forth. Due to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table1:Medicinalplantsandtheirp
reparatio
nmetho
dsandadministratio
n.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Acaciamodesta
Wall.
Palosa
Mim
osaceae
Tree
Gum
,leaves
Backache
Gum
andpo
wdero
ffresh
leaves
ofAc
aciamodesta
are
mixed
with
wheatflo
urand
desigh
eeandmakeH
alwa
thatisused
forb
ackache.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Acacianilotica(L.)Delile
Kikar
Mim
osaceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Narcotic
Extractio
nof
fresh
root
and
leaves
aretaken
asalcoho
l(Sharab).
Oral
Asn
eeded
Aphrod
isiac
Four
gram
sofgum
istaken
aspaste
with
water.
Oral
Oncea
day
Earache
Abou
t30flo
wersa
reheated
in10mLmustard
oiland
filtered.
Throug
hear
Twoto
four
drop
sfor
5days
Alliu
mcepa
L.Py
aaz
Alliaceae
Herb
Leaves
Antipyretic
Equalamou
ntof
extracto
fon
ionbu
lbandmintare
mixed
andused
against
cholera.
Oral
One
teaspo
onof
this
mixture
istakenper
hour
fora
perio
das
needed.
Skin
infection
Poultic
eofo
nion
bulbis
used
againstabscesses.
Topical
Twotim
esa
dayforo
neweek
Alliu
msativ
umLinn
.Ugga
Alliaceae
Herb
Leaves,
roots
Bloo
ddisorders
Smallpieceso
fAllium
sativ
umarec
hewed
toredu
cebloo
dpressure.
Oral
Twicea
day
Gastro
intestinal
Thep
owdero
fleavesa
ndrootsa
realso
used
against
stomachprob
lems.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Aloe
barbadensis
Mill.
Zarpati
Aloeaceae
Herb
Leaves
Veterin
ary
(gastro
intestinal)
Twoleaves
arem
ade
spinele
ssandeach
oneis
dividedleng
thwise
into
2or
3slices.Th
eses
lices
ofleaves
alon
gwith
common
saltareg
iven
tothea
nimals
forstomachdisorders.
Oral
Threed
oses
after
every48
hoursp
eriod
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Amaranthus
virid
isL.
Sarkoo
mal.
Amaranthaceae
Herb
Leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Leaves
arec
rushed
with
sugara
ndtakenalon
gwith
blackteafor
curin
gconstip
ation.
Oral
Four
times
aday
Skin
infection
Poultic
eofleafisp
repared
alon
gwith
mustard
oilfor
thetreatmento
fabscesses.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Anagallis
arvensisL.
Dhabb
arPrim
ulaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Rheumatism
Thew
holeplantisc
rushed
into
powdera
fterd
rying.
Twogm
ofthep
owderw
ith5g
mof
wheatflo
uris
mixed
forthe
treatmento
frheumatism
.
Oral
Oncea
day
fora
week
Cann
abissativaL.
Bhaang
Cann
abaceae
Herb
Leaves,
flowering
tops,and
seed
Narcotic
Thefruitandleaves
are
used
asnarcotic,com
mon
lycalled“C
haras.”
Oral
Asn
eeded
Veterin
ary
Thed
ecoctio
nof
seedsis
givento
cattlefor
increasin
gmilk
.Oral
Asn
eeded
Carallu
matuberculata
R.Br
Pawany
Ascle
piadaceae
Shrub
Who
leplant
Antidiabetic
and
antic
ancer
Who
leplantisd
ried,
powdered,andtakenwith
water.Fresh
plantis
directlyeatenby
diabetic
patie
ntandisvery
effectiv
ein
cancer
treatmentasw
ell.
Oral
Oncea
day
Cuscutareflexa
Roxb.
Chum
bud
Cuscutaceae.
Herb
Stem
and
seeds
Wou
nd
Apaste
ofthep
lant
powder
inbu
tterisp
reparedandis
externallyappliedfor
wou
nds.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Skin
infection
Thew
holeplantisc
rushed
andthen
boiledin
8liters
ofwater
fora
nho
ur.Itis
filteredandthep
atient
isadvisedto
take
abathwith
thisdecoctionwith
out
usingsoap
forscabies.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Carthamus
oxycantha
Co.Cr.
Spenaz
agai
Asteraceae
Herb
Seed
oil
Jaun
dice
Seedsa
recollected,drie
dun
dershade,and
grou
ndto
obtain
powdera
ndtakento
treatjaun
dice.
Oral
1teaspoo
nof
powderis
takentwicea
dayfor3
-4weeks
Skin
infection
Fewdrop
sofh
oney
are
addedin
seed
powderto
makep
aste.Th
ispaste
isappliedon
theface.Itis
effectiv
etoremovew
hite
spotso
fskin.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Citru
ssinensis
Malta
Rutaceae
Shrub
Fruit,
leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Fruitise
aten
forreducing
constip
ation.
Oral
2fruitsper
day
Cynodondactylonvar.
coursii
(A.C
amus)
J.R.H
arlanandde
Wet
Wakha
Poaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Wou
nds
Thep
astemadeo
ffresh
leaves
isappliedon
cuts
andbleeding
wou
nds.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Piles
Samea
sabo
veTo
pical
Asn
eeded
Gastro
intestinal
Juiceo
fthe
plantisg
iven
indiarrhea.
Oral
Twicea
day
Antipyretic
Samea
sabo
veOral
Twicea
day
DalbergiasissooDC.
Shaw
aPapilio
naceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Piles
70gm
ofyoun
gleaves
ofbu
dsarec
rushed.O
neglass
ofwater
isaddedto
itand
strained.Th
estrained
decoctionistakendaily.
Oral
Takendaily
for10days
Jaun
dice
Samea
sabo
veOral
Takendaily
for10days
Daturastram
onium
L.To
ratorii.
Solanaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Earache
Thejuice
offlo
wer
isuseful
fore
arache.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Narcotic
Seedsa
ndleaves
are
smoked
fortheirnarcotic
actio
n.Oral
Asn
eeded
Dicliptera
bupleuroides
Nees.
Somni
Acanthaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Skin
infection
Poultic
eisu
sedforscabies.
Topical
Oncea
day
Digeramurica
ta(L.)
Mart.
Tand
ola
Amaranthaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Gastro
intestinal
Juiceise
xtracted
from
the
who
leplantsandused
aslaxativ
e.Oral
Asn
eeded
Dodonaeaviscosa(L.)
Jacquin
Zetawon
iSapind
aceae
Shrub
Leaves
Rheumatism
Theleavesa
rewarmed
and
kept
onjointsto
relieve
pains.
Topical
Oncea
day
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Eriobotrya
japanica
(Thun
b.)L
indl.
Lokat
Rosaceae
Tree
Fruit
Chestp
roblem
sFruitistaken
directlyto
treatcoug
h.Oral
Asn
eeded
Eucalyptus
lanceolatus
Dehnh
.Lachi
Myrtaceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Gastro
intestinal
Leaves
andbark
areb
oiled
inwater.Filtrateand
decoctionareu
sedfor
abdo
minalpains.Fruitis
addedto
greenteaa
ndtakenas
antie
metic.
Oral
Twicea
day
EuphorbiahelioscopiaL.
Katta
saarai
Euph
orbiaceae
Herb
Leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Matureleaves(5g
)are
mixed
with
3spoo
nfulso
fsugartopreparer
ecipeto
treatconstip
ation
Oral
Twicea
day
EuphorbiahirtaL.
Chapatray.
Euph
orbiaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Diabetes
Leaves
juiceistaken
for
diabetes
Oral
Asn
eeded
Fagoniaindica
Burm
.f.Mazgh
aKai.
Zygoph
yllaceae.
Herb
Aeria
lparts
Bloo
dpu
rifier
Extracto
faerialp
artsis
used
Oral
Thric
eaday
Skin
infection
Samea
sabo
veTo
pical
Thric
eaday
Diabetes
Samea
sabo
veOral
Thric
eaday
Antipyretic
Halfk
gof
thew
holeplant
isbo
iledin
2literso
fwater;
patie
ntsw
ithhepatitisare
advisedto
take
bath
with
thisdecoction.
Topical
Thric
eaday
Ficuscarica
L.Inzeer
Moraceae
Tree
Fruit
Piles
Twoto
four
fruitsare
soaked
inwater
ormilk
atnightand
used
inthe
morning
onem
pty
stomach.
Oral
Dailyfor10
days
Ficuselastica
Roxb.ex
Hornem.
Rubb
erPlant
Moraceae
Tree
Leaves,
Bark
Antipyretic
Leaves
andbark
are
crushedandtakenalon
gho
neyin
smallquantity
toredu
cefever.
Oral
Oncea
day
FicusreligiosaL.
Pepp
alMoraceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Vomiting
Decoctio
nof
bark
isused.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Foenicu
lum
vulga
reMill.
Soon
phf
Umbelliferae
Herb
Seedsa
ndroots
Gastro
intestinal
Take
sonf
with
whitezeera,
grindit,
andusea
fterm
eal;
itisgood
toremoveu
lcer
andsto
machpain
Oral
Asn
eeded
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Fumariaindica
(Hausskn
.)Pu
gsley
Khatees
oii.
Fumariaceae
Herb
Aeria
lparts
Bloo
dpu
rificatio
n
Twokg
ofaeria
lpartsis
driedun
dershade
and
crushedto
obtain
powder;
2-3g
mpo
wderw
ithon
eglasso
fwater
istaken.
Oral
Twicea
day
foro
neweek
Jaun
dice
Samea
sabo
veOral
Twicea
day
foro
neweek
Gastro
intestinal
Juiceo
ffresh
partsisu
sed
aslaxativ
e.Oral
Oncea
day
forfou
rdays
Antipyretic
Juiceo
ffresh
partsisu
sed
toredu
cefever.
Oral
Oncea
day
fortwodays
Jasm
inum
humile
f.kensuense
Zeetchum
beli
Oleaceae
Shrub
Flow
er,
root,and
latex.
Skin
infection
Flow
ersa
ndrootsa
rebo
iledto
makep
asteand
rubon
skin
fortreating
pimples.
Topical
Twicea
day
foro
neweek
Jasm
inum
officin
aleL
.Ch
umbeli
Oleaceae
Shrub
Who
leplant.
Gastro
intestinal
Decoctio
nof
leaves
and
rootsa
reprepared
andused
asanthelmintic.
Oral
Oncea
day
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Crushedleaves
arem
ixed
with
flour
andtakenalon
gwater
totre
atkidn
eysto
nes.
Oral
Twicea
day
foro
nemon
th
Justicia
adhatoda
LSh
naBa
zaAc
anthaceae
Shrub
Leaves
Diabetes
Halfk
gof
fresh
leaves
ofthisplantise
xtracted
with
500m
Lwater
andused
againstd
iabetes.
Oral
10mLof
extractis
used
twicea
day
Bloo
dpu
rificatio
nSamea
sabo
veOral
10mLof
extractis
used
twicea
day
Chestinfectio
n
Leaves
andflo
wersa
replucked,driedun
dershade,
grou
ndto
obtain
powder;
50gm
ofthispo
wderis
mixed
in15mLof
honey.
Oral
Half
teaspo
ontwicea
day
for15days
Skin
infection
Halfk
gleaves
areb
oiledin
4literso
fwater
and
decoctionisused.
Oral
Twicea
day
Lathyrus
aphaca
L.JeeW
areen
Papilio
naceae
Herb
Seed
and
flower
Skin
infection
Decoctio
nisused
forskin
prob
lems.
Topical
Asn
eeded
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Malva
negle
ctaWallr.
Pand
erak
Malvaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Rootsa
retakenandbo
iled
in2glasseso
fwater
and
after
boiling
when1g
lassof
water
remains,itistaken
fork
idneysto
nes.
Oral
Oncea
day
for4
0days
MeliaazedarachL.
Tora
Draka
Meliaceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Diabetes
Powdero
fseeds
isused.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Gastro
intestinal
Fruitisg
roun
dandits
juice
ismixed
with
oiland
taken
asanthelmintic
.Oral
Asn
eeded
MenthaarvensisL.
Podeena.
Lamiaceae.
Herb
Leaves
Gastro
intestinal
70gm
driedleaves
ofwild
mintand
30–4
0gm
ofbishop
s’weedareg
roun
dtogether
and10–12g
mof
common
saltisalso
added.
Itisused
forg
asprob
lems
andsto
machpain.
Oral
Thric
eaday
after
meal
Vomiting
Teao
fdrie
dleaves
istaken
tosto
pvomiting
.Oral
Asn
eeded
Menthalongifolia
L.Ve
nalai
Lamiaceae
Herb
Leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Decoctio
nof
leaves
isused
ascarm
inative.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Monotheca
buxifolia
(Falc.)
A.D
C.Gorgola
Sapo
taceae
Shrub
Fruit,ste
mSkin
infection
Poulticeisu
sedagainstskin
infection.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Morus
alba
L.To
otMoraceae
Tree
Fruit,
leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Crushedleaves
aretaken
alon
gho
neyto
treat
diarrhea.
Oral
Twicea
day
Morus
nigraL.
TorT
oot
Moraceae
Tree
Fruit,
leaves
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Fruitisd
irectlyeatenas
diuretic.
Oral
Twicea
day
Nann
orrhopsritchiana.
(Griff
.)Aitch.
Mazzari
Arecaceae/Palmae
Shrub
Leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Crushedleaves
areu
sedas
carm
inative.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Veterin
ary
Freshleaves
areg
iven
toanim
alsa
spurgativ
e.Oral
Asn
eeded
Neriu
moleand
erL.
Gandderai
Apocyn
aceae
Shrub
Leaves
Dentalp
ain
Wou
nd
Thefresh
leaves
arew
ashed
andcrushed,andthen
3cups
ofwater
area
dded.
Thefi
ltrateisg
iven
tothe
patie
ntssuff
eringfro
mdentalpain.
Oral
Twicea
day
for5
days
Poultic
eofleavesisa
pplied
externallyto
redu
cesw
ellin
g.To
pical
Twicea
day
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Olea
ferruginea(Sol.)
Steud.
Kawwaan
Oleaceae.
Tree
Fruit,
leaves,
seeds,and
bark
Dental
Decoctio
nisused
for
toothache.
Oral
The
decoctionof
fresh
leaves
iskept
inthe
mou
that
nighttill
recovery.
Rheumatism
Theo
ilextractedfro
mthe
fruitsisused
asmassage
inthetreatmento
frheumatism
.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Skele
tomuscular
Samea
sabo
veTo
pical
Asn
eeded
Otoste
gialim
bata
Benth.
Spin
azgh
aiLamiaceae
Shrub
Who
leplant
Throatinfection
50gm
fresh
leaves
are
grou
ndand3-4teaspo
ons
ofwater
area
dded
toit.
Thismixture
isfiltered
throug
hac
loth
andisgiven
tothep
atient
sufferin
gfro
mmou
thgumsa
ndthroatpains.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Wou
ndCr
ushedleaves
area
pplied
forc
uringof
wou
nds.
Topical
Oncea
day
Oxalis
cornicu
lata
L.To
keep
i.Oxalid
aceae
Herb
Leaves,
root
Gastro
intestinal
Juiceo
fleavesa
ndrootsa
reused
againststomach
prob
lem.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Peganu
mharm
alaL.
Spin
nali
Zygoph
yllaceae
Herb
Seeds
Spiritual
Thes
mokefrom
burning
seedsa
ndleaves
isbelieved
tobe
devilrepellent
and
also
used
asprotectio
nagainstevileyes.
Perip
loca
aphylla
Decne.
Barada
Perip
locaceae
Shrub
Stem
,bark,and
latex.
Gastro
intestinal
Branches
andflo
wer
are
driedun
dershade,groun
dto
obtain
powder,and
takenalon
gwater
for
constip
ationandsto
mach
ulcer.
Oral
2–4g
mof
ispo
wdertwice
aday
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Phoenixdactylifer
aL.
Khajoor
Arecaceae
Tree
Fruit,
leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Take
four
driedkh
obani
andthreek
hajoor
andkeep
itin
milk
andbo
ilit.
Afte
rcoolingtake
iton
anem
pty
stomachwith
1teaspoo
nof
isapagu
l;itisgood
for
controlling
constip
ation.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Sexpo
wer
Samea
sabo
veOral
Asn
eeded
Pinu
sroxburghiiSarg.
Nakthar
Pinaceae
Tree
Allaeria
l
Dental
Juiceise
xtracted
from
fresh
leavesandbark
bygrinding
.Th
isismixed
with
water
andtakenfortoo
thache.
Oral
Twicea
day
before
meal
andatbed
time
Gastro
intestinal
Similarly
,the
bark
and
leaves
ofPinu
sare
dried
andcrushed,andthen
the
powderisd
issolvedin
cold
water
andtakenfor
diarrhea.
Oral
Twicea
day
before
meal
andatbed
time
Skin
infection
Leaves
ofthep
lant
are
boiledandthee
xtractis
obtained
andtakenbefore
mealasrem
edyforscabies.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Pista
ciachinensis
Bung
e.Shenai
Tree
Who
leplant
Gastro
intestinal
Powderedgalls
friedwith
ghee
areg
iven
internallyin
dysentery.
Oral
Oncea
day
Skin
infections
Thes
tem
gum
isaddedto
them
ustard
oil,warmed,
andmixed.Th
eprepared
poultic
eisthenappliedto
ther
upturedheelsa
tnight.
Topical
Atnightfor
once
Plantago
lanceolata
L.Gwayozhabe
Plantaginaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Dental
Leaves
arec
rushed
and
kept
inmou
thto
relieve
toothache.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Gastro
intestinal
Seedsa
ndfruitsared
runk
aspu
rgativea
ndlaxativ
e.Oral
Asn
eeded
Skin
infections
Freshleaves
arec
rushed
for
athlete’s
foot.
Topical
Asn
eeded
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Plantanu
sorie
ntalisL.
Chenar
Platanaceae
Tree
Who
leplant
Gastro
intestinal
Thep
eelofthe
fruitis
dried,soaked,and
grou
nd.
Thep
owdersoform
ed,
called“N
arsaway,”ismixed
insm
allquantity
inac
upof
curd
andisused
for
dysentery.
Oral
Twiceina
daytill
recovery
for
thetreatment
Punica
granatum
L.Anar
Punicaceae
Shrub
Fruit,bark
Gastro
intestinal
Thefruitperic
arpisdried,
powdered,mixed
with
sugar,andused
ford
iarrhea
anddysentery.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Chestinfectio
nsTh
efruitperic
arpismixed
with
teaa
ndisgivenfor
who
opingcoug
h.Oral
Asn
eeded
Bloo
dpu
rifier
Fruitisd
irectlyeaten.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Rumex
dentatus
L.Re
enzakai
Polygonaceae
Herb
Leaves
Sexenhancer
Decoctio
nof
leaves
isused.
Oral
Oncea
tnight
Skele
tomuscular
Samea
sabo
veOral
Asn
eeded
Ricin
uscommun
isL.
Raanda
Euph
orbiaceae
Shrub
Seeds,leaf,
bark,
androot.
Gastro
intestinal
Thes
mallquantity
ofoilis
rubb
edon
thea
bdom
en,
which
isslo
wlyand
gradually
absorbed
throug
hsw
eatg
land
storelease
constip
ation.
Topical
Twicea
day
foro
neday
Sageretia
thea
(Osbeck)
M.C.Joh
nst.
Mam
oti
Rham
naceae
Shrub
Fruit,
roots
Jaun
dice
Thee
xtractionof
rootsis
used
ascoolingagentin
jaun
dice.
Oral
Oncea
day
Saccharum
spontaneum
L.Shaat
Poaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Chestinfectio
nJuiceo
fwho
leplantsis
mixed
with
milk
forthe
treatmento
fcou
gh.
Oral
Twicea
day
fortwodays
Solanu
mincanu
mL.
Tarkha
Mow
tngee
Solanaceae
Shrub
Leaves
and
roots
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Decoctio
nof
leaves
and
rootsa
reused
tobreak
kidn
eysto
nes.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Solanu
mvillosum
Miller.
Koot
soab
Solanaceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Decoctio
nof
leaves
and
rootsa
reused
tobreak
kidn
eysto
nes.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Sonchu
sarvensis
L.Kr
ooKo
nai
Asteraceae
Herb
Who
leplant
Wou
nds
Thew
holeplantisc
rushed
toform
apaste.Th
epasteis
appliedas
apou
ltice
onwou
ndsa
ndbo
ils.
Topical
Asn
eeded
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
Silyb
ummarianu
m(L.)
Azghai
Asteraceae
Herb
Leaves,
seeds,and
flowers
head
Antipyretic
Jaun
dice
Liverp
roblem
s
Seedsa
recollected,drie
dun
dershade,and
roastedin
vegetableo
il.Ro
astedseeds
areg
roun
dto
obtain
powder.Th
isisused
totre
athepatitis.
Oral
Half
teaspo
onof
thispo
wder
istaken
thric
eaday
fora
mon
th
Samea
sabo
veOral
Samea
sabove
Samea
sabo
veOral
Samea
sabove
Taraxacum
officin
ale
F.H.W
igg.
Asteraceae
Herb
Leaves,
root
Jaun
dice
20–30g
mdriedaeria
lparts
areb
oiledin
1litero
fwater
for15–20
min
towhich
15–20g
msugarisa
dded.
Thisdecoctionisfiltered
andused
againstjaund
ice.
Oral
Halfcup
isgiventwicea
day
Diabetes
Halfk
gdriedaeria
lparts
areb
oiledin
2litersw
ater
anddecoctionisfiltered
andused
ford
iabetes.
Oral
One
cupof
this
decoctionis
takentwicea
day
Term
inaliaarjuna
L.Com
bretaceae
Tree
Bark,
fruits,
and
leaves
Cardiovascular
Fruitsandleaves
are
grou
ndto
makep
owder
andmixwith
essential
additiv
es.
Oral
Oncea
day
Vitexnegund
oL.
Marmandi
Verbenaceae
Shrub
Leaves,
root,stem,
andseeds
Gastro
intestinal
60gm
driedseedso
fthis
plant,30
gmBishop’sweed,
and2-3teaspo
onof
common
saltareg
roun
dtogether
topo
wder.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Antipyretic
Samea
sabo
veOral
Asn
eeded
Jaun
dice
Thed
ecoctio
nof
leaves
isused
forjaund
ice.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Kidn
eyprob
lem
Thes
eeds
areg
roun
dto
obtain
powdera
ndare
takenwith
water
fork
idney
stone.
Oral
Halfspo
onon
cead
ay
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15
Table1:Con
tinued.
Scientificn
ames
Localn
ames
Families
Habit
Partused
Medicinaluses
Herbalformulation
Administratio
nDosage
With
aniasomnifer
a(L.)
Dun
alKa
pyanga
Solanaceae
Herb
Leaves,
roots,and
seeds
Kidn
eyprob
lems
Thed
ecoctio
nof
leaves
istakento
breakkidn
eysto
nes.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Zizip
husm
auritiana
var.
abyssin
ica(H
ochst.ex
A.
Rich.)Fiori
Bera
Rham
naceae
Tree
Fruit,root,
andleaves
Gastro
intestinal
Thed
ecoctio
nof
fruitand
bark
istakenwith
acup
ofmilk
totre
atconstip
ation
anddysentery.
Oral
Asn
eeded
Zizip
husn
ummularia
(Burm.f.)Wight
and
Arn.
Karkata
Rham
naceae
Shrub
Fruit,
leaves
Gastro
intestinal
Powdero
ffruits
andleaves
areu
sedto
treat
constip
ation.
Oral
Thric
eaday
for2
days
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 2: Fic values of traditional medicinal plants for treating human ailments in district Hangu.
S. Number Disease categories Nur Nt Fic1 Gastrointestinal 200 25 0.872 Dermatological 100 13 0.873 Skeletomuscular 7 2 0.834 Blood disorders 58 10 0.845 Chest infections 24 7 0.736 Jaundice 14 7 0.537 Ear nose throat problems 12 3 0.818 Antipyretic 32 7 0.809 Narcotic 3 2 0.5410 Sex power 8 3 0.7111 Kidney problems 22 7 0.7112 Wounds 3 2 0.5413 Rheumatism 9 3 0.7514 Veterinary 9 3 0.7515 Dental 12 4 0.7116 Piles 9 3 0.7517 Liver problems 7 1 118 Cardiovascular 9 1 1
Table 3: Fidelity level value of medicinal plants commonly reported against a given ailment.
Number Medicinal plants Ailments lp lu FL value %01 Acacia modesta Skeletomuscular 19 19 10002 Caralluma tuberculata Antidiabetic 19 19 10003 Withania somnifera Gastrointestinal 26 26 10004 Allium sativum Blood pressure 18 19 94.705 Mentha arvensis Gastrointestinal 23 25 9206 Mentha longifolia Gastrointestinal 23 25 9207 Cannabis sativa Narcotic 11 12 91.608 Punica granatum Blood purifier 21 23 91.309 Morus alba Respiratory tract 19 21 90.410 Morus nigra Respiratory tract 19 21 90.411 Oxalis corniculata Gastrointestinal 17 19 89.412 Fagonia indica Dermatological 17 19 89.413 Fagonia indica Blood purifier 26 30 86.614 Ricinus communis Pregnancy 06 08 7515 Olea ferruginea Dermatological 12 16 7516 Olea ferruginea Sore throat 11 15 73.317 Justicia adhatoda Skeletomuscular 07 10 7018 Cuscuta reflexa Dermatological 11 16 68.719 Ziziphus nummularia Antidiabetic 06 10 6020 Sageretia thea Antidiabetic 08 14 57.1
good rainfall conditions about eight months in the year, theleaves remain green and abundant for most of the months.Our findings of the frequent use of green leaves in thepreparation of remedies corroborate the results of [36, 37].Traditional healers are involved in preparation of 110 recipespreparation and the major modes of ethnomedicines prepa-ration in the studied regionwere decoction (20%), powdering(20%), crushing (12%), extracting juice (10%), and so forth
(Figure 3). Decoction and grinding of medicinal plants forthe preparation of ethnomedicines could be due to their higheffectiveness for the curing of various ailments. Accordingto Deeba [38], decoction, grinding or crushing, and boilingmethods are the most commonly followed methods for theextraction of active compounds. Monotherapy preparationsusing single medicinal plant were found to bemore abundantin comparison with herbal concoction that was prepared by
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17
0
5
10
15
20
(%)
Mode of preparation of remedies
Dec
octio
n
Pow
der
Crus
hed
Juic
e
Extr
act
Paste
Poul
tice
Smok
e
Tea
Figure 3: Methods of preparation of ethnomedicines.
mixing two or three species; for example, healers take equalamount of extract of onion bulb and mint and mix them forthe treatment of cholera. Another example is taking 70 gmdried leaves of wild mint and 30–40 g of “bishops” weedand grinding them together and 10–12 gm of common saltis also added to them and taken for the treatment of gastricproblem and stomach pain. The use of mixture of plantshas recently been shown to increase the effectiveness of theherbal medicine [39]. Out of total 110 ethnomedicines, 91%were prepared by using fresh plant materials, whereas 9%were prepared using dried parts (Table 1). The high usage offreshly prepared ethnomedicines is an indication of the highabundance of medicinal plants in the surrounding areas tobe harvested anytime. These findings are in line with otherstudies conducted in other areas [40, 41]. The other reasonbehind the repeated use of fresh plant material could bedue to the fact that the drying process contributes to theloss of volatile oil and sometimes due to the fact that hightemperature protein becomes denature. Higher use of freshplant material on the other hand is not a sustainable practiceas it may threaten the plants due to recurrent harvesting.
4.4. Route of Administration and Dosage. The current surveyrevealed that most of the plant remedies are taken orallyand topically in the investigated region while only singlerecipe is taken through ear (Table 1). As mentioned earlier,gastrointestinal and skin problems are common in the regionand that might be the reason why the majority of the plantsare being used orally and topically while some of the plantsare being used through ears. Ethnomedicines are taken alongdifferent types of additives generally called vectors like honey,salt, sugar, milk, desi ghee, and wheat flour for the purposeof increasing flavor and to reduce the astringent taste ofthe remedies. This means that since traditional medicinescould have sour or bitter tastes in most cases, the additivesreduce such tastes and may even improve the efficacy of themedicine. The measurements used to determine the dosagesare not standardized and depend on the age and physicalappearance of the patient, sociocultural explanation of theillness, diagnosis, and experience of individual herbalist [42].
Mostly the treatment of the patient is completed within asingle day or couple of days. When the patients did not showany indication of improvement from their sickness followingtreatment completion, they were recommended to modernhealth centres in urban area for further examination by thephysician.
4.5. Multipurpose Medicinal Plants and Threats to TheirExtinction. The results of the DMR implementation on mul-tipurpose medicinal plants enabled us to recognize which ofthe multipurpose plants are more under stress in the areaand the causes that threaten the plant (Table 4). Accordingly,Olea ferruginea ranked first,Morus alba ranked second,Meliaazedarch ranked third, and Acacia modesta ranked fourthwhileAcacia nilotica ranked fifth.Thesemultipurpose speciesare basically trees and therefore these species are facing greatpressures as the local people are unsustainably harvestingthese species for a variety of purposes.The factors responsiblefor the declining of these species abundance in the areawere their overharvesting for agricultural tool, construction,fodder, and fire wood purposes. Beside these major threats,locals of the region also use these plants for handicraftsmanufacturing. Free grazing is the common practice in thearea. Before the commencement of winter, the grasses areharvested, dried, and put into a stake. The harvesting is donecollectively, and then during the bare and cold months ofwinter, these are fed to the domestic animals. Fuel consump-tion per home in the studied area is often considered morethan the consumption on feeding and other requirementsbecause of severe winters. Thus, the results require urgentconservation strategies to save the declining population ofmultipurpose plant species in the study region. References[43, 44] have also stated the identical pattern of maximumexploitation of multipurpose medicinal plants for uses otherthan their traditional medicinal importance in southeasternEthiopia. Traditional healers mostly use the whole plant ofthese multipurpose species or individual roots (Table 1) ofsome species for the preparation of ethnomedicinal recipesand this is an unsustainable practice as compared to leaves.Therefore, there is a dire need to take necessary steps for theconservation of these species before their extinction.
4.6. Indigenous Knowledge Associated with Gender, Age, andSocioeconomic Status of the People. Among the 55 infor-mants, 34 (61.81%) were male and 21 (38.18%) were female(Table 5). It is witnessed that males had better knowledgeregarding ethnomedicines than females. The reason behindthatmen have well indigenous knowledge thanwomenmightbe due to the fact that the men are usually favoured in theshift of the knowledge; however, in many cultures womenare responsible for the family’s health. The highest numberof informants aged above 40 years. The result shows thattraditional knowledge is prevalent among the communitymembers; however, it is under threat of transferring to theyounger generation to come. The decreasing rate of transferof indigenous knowledge might be due to the lack of interestamong the younger generation to learn and practice it,which might be attributed to the ever increasing influence
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table4:DMRscoreo
ffifte
enkeyinform
antsfore
levenmedicinalplantsspeciesw
ithadditio
nalu
sesb
esides
medicinalvalue.
Use
diversity
A.modesta
P.chinensis
D.viscosa
D.sissoo
M.azedarach
M.albanigra
O.fer
ruginea
F.religiosa
P.roxburghii
A.nilotica
Z.mauritiana
Total
Rank
Agriculturaltoo
l2
03
04
55
01
50
254
Con
structio
n0
40
55
55
54
32
383
Fodd
er5
30
00
53
30
04
235
Fire
woo
d5
35
35
45
43
53
451
Medicine
53
33
45
52
33
339
2To
tal
1713
1111
1820
2314
1116
12Ra
nk4
79
93
21
69
58
Basedon
usec
riteria(5
=best;
4=very
good
;3=good
;2=lessused;1
=leastu
sed;and0=no
value).
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19
Table 5: Gender, age group and literacy level frequencies, andoccupation of the interviewed people in the region.
Total PercentageGender
Male 34 61.81Female 21 38.18
Age groups20–29 2 3.6330–39 3 5.4540–49 7 12.7250–59 7 12.7260–69 15 27.2770–79 12 21.8180–89 9 16.3
Educational attainmentIlliterate 25 45.45Primary 16 29.09Middle 10 18.18Secondary 2 3.63University 2 3.63
OccupationFemales
House wives 19 90.47Primary teacher 2 9.52
MalesShopkeepers 10 29.4Farmers 13 38.2Labours 6 17.6Primary teachers 5 14.7
of modernization [8]. Almost half of the respondents inter-viewed were illiterate (45.45%), whilst most of those withan education had merely primary (29.09%) which reflectthe unavailability of standard educational institution in thearea (Table 5). Literate people in the study area were foundto have less knowledge of medicinal plants as compared toilliterate ones as the former are more likely to be exposedto modernization as also revealed by studies conductedelsewhere [8, 45, 46]. The inhabitants of the study area arenot very well off due to less literacy rate and therefore theyare heavily dependent on medicinal plants for a variety ofpurposes in order to compensate their income.
5. Conclusions
The present study has recorded 67 medicinal plants used forthe treatment of a variety of human ailments in the ruralarea near Pak-Afghan border region. In the study area herbsconstituted the highest proportion of medicinal plants tobe utilized. Mostly the leaves of the plants are harvestedfor different ethnomedicines preparation. Decoction andpowdering are the most common methods of drug prepa-ration and remedies are mostly taken orally in the studiedregion. A high number of plants have been reported to treat
gastrointestinal and dermatological problems.The medicinalplants in the region are also facing some threats like unsus-tainable collection method of some plants, collection forfuel wood, for construction, and for fodder, and agriculturaltools. For sustainable utilization of medicinal plants and toavoid further loss, the District Agricultural Office needs toteam up with the local people, by providing the communitywith planting materials of the most threatened and preferredmedicinal and multipurpose species so that they can growthem in their home gardens. Moreover, the documentedmedicinal plants with high degree of consensus can serve asa basis for future investigation of modern drug.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper.
Authors’ Contribution
Muhammad Adnan and Akash Tariq have designed theresearch project. Imran Khan conducted the field work andwrote the draft of the paper. Akash Tariq has equally con-tributed in writing the paper with Imran Khan. MuhammadAdnan, Naser M. AbdElsalam, and Riaz Ullah providedcomments on the draft and helped in finalizing the paper. Allthe authors read and approved the final paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Deanship of ScientificResearch, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, forfunding the work through the research Group project NoRGP-VPP-210. The authors are thankful to the local peoplefor sharing their valuable indigenous knowledge.
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