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Report Prepared for
CONAMA - RM - Comission Nacional del Medio Ambiente - Santiago de Chile
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Part of the study:
“Caracterización Físicoquimica del Material Particulado Inorgánico Primario.Distribución por Tamaño y Modelo Receptor”
Prof. Paulo ArtaxoApplied Physics Department, Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Rua do
Matão, Travessa R, 187, CEP 05008-900, São Paulo, Brazil. Phone:[55](11)8187016, FAX:[55](11)8186749, e-mail: artaxo@if.usp.br
IIInnndddeeexxx1 – Introduction Pg. 22 - Aerosol sampling and analysis Pg. 2
2.1- Elemental analysis of aerosol samples by PIXE Pg. 32.2- Aerosol source apportionment and receptor modeling Pg. 6
3 - Results and discussion for the wintertime 1998 sampling campaign Pg. 73.1 – Aerosol mass concentrations Pg. 73.2 - Quality assurance of mass concentration measurements Pg. 133.3 – Black carbon aerosol concentration Pg. 163.4 – Aerosol elemental concentrations Pg. 183.5 – Aerosol source apportionment Pg. 283.6 – Aerosol source apportionment O’Higgins fine mode Pg. 283.7 – Aerosol source apportionment O’Higgins coarse mode Pg. 323.8 – Aerosol source apportionment Las Condes fine mode Pg. 353.9 – Aerosol source apportionment Las Condes coarse mode Pg. 383.10 – Aerosol source apportionment Pudahuel fine mode Pg. 403.11 – Aerosol source apportionment Pudahuel coarse mode Pg. 433.12 – Aerosol source apportionment Peldehue fine mode Pg. 453.13 – Aerosol source apportionment Peldehue coarse mode Pg. 473.14 – Aerosol source apportionment Talagante fine mode Pg. 493.15 – Aerosol source apportionment Talagante coarse mode Pg. 513.16 – Comparison of elemental sources profiles Pg. 53
4 – Aerosol size distributions Pg. 564.2 – Black carbon aerosol size distributions Pg. 58
5 – Conclusions Pg. 596 – References and bibliography Pg. 60
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 2
111 --- IIInnntttrrroooddduuuccctttiiiooonnnSantiago de Chile suffers from heavy air pollution episodes during wintertime.
Aerosol particles are one of the most important air pollutants in the Santiago airbasin. In
order to study the aerosol sources in Santiago area, an aerosol source apportionment study
was designed to measures ambient aerosol composition and size distribution for five sites
in the winter of 1998. The study was a cooperation between the Institute of Physics,
University of São Paulo and CONAMA-RM.
222 --- AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssaaammmpppllliiinnnggg aaannnddd aaannnaaalllyyysssiiisssSampling was performed during wintertime 1998, with a 12 or 24 hour sampling
time. The sampler was the “Gent” Stacked Filter Unit [Hopke et al., 1997, Parker et al.,
1977, Cahill et al., 1979], fitted with a specially designed inlet that provided a 50 % cutoff
diameter of 10 µm. Fine and coarse aerosol particles were sampled with the SFU using
Nuclepore filters. The SFU collects coarse mode particles (2.0 < dp < 10 µm) on a 47-mm-
diameter, 8-µm pore size Nuclepore filter while a 0.4-µm pore size Nuclepore filter
collects the fine mode particles (dp < 2.0 µm) [John et al., 1983]. The flow rate was
typically 17 liters per minute. Particle bounce was minimized by the use of Apiezon coated
coarse mode filters. The volume was obtained with volume integrators, calibrated with
Hastings Precision Mass Flowmeters, to within 1% accuracy. The sampling time was 12
hours, separated for day and night for each of the sites in the urban area of Santiago
(O’Higgins, Las Condes and Pudahuel) and 24 hours for the other more remote sites
(Peldehue and Talagante).
A MOUDI (Multi-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor) cascade impactor was used
to collect size-segregated aerosol samples. The 8-stages of the MOUDI cascade impactor
have d50 size cuts at 18, 3.2, 1.8, 1.0, 0.56, 0.33, 0.175, and 0.093µm equivalent
aerodynamic diameter. A Teflon after-filter collected all particles smaller than 0.093 µm.
Gravimetric analysis of fine and coarse mode SFU samples allows the
determination of fine and coarse mode aerosol mass concentration. A Mettler electronic
microbalance with 1µm sensitivity in an environmental controlled room is used to weigh
the filters. Black carbon concentration was measured in the fine aerosol fraction using an
optical absorption technique, with a Diffusion System photometer.
Five sampling sites were operated in O’Higgins, Las Condes, Pudahuel, Talagante,
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 3
and Peldehue. The O’Higgins site is at Santiago downtown, and is heavily impacted by
traffic and vehicular emissions. The Las Condes site is also impacted by heavy traffic, and
is impacted by regional emissions. The Pudahuel site is located near the Santiago airport.
The two other sites, Peldehue and Talagante are sites far from downtown Santiago, but still
impacted by regional air pollution sources. These sites represent very different regions in
terms of air pollution loading and impact from the main aerosol sources in Santiago de
Chile. In the wintertime of 1996, a similar but smaller air pollution study have sampled
aerosol samples at the Gotuzo site, near O’Higgins site, and comparisons between 1996
and 1998 aerosol composition for these sites can be done. Also a sampling station in the
Las Condes site was operated in 1996, but in a site farther away from sources than the Las
Condes 1998 site, so concentrations are not directly comparable for these two sites.
Sampling was performed from July 15 to August 22, 1998. Table 2.1 presents the sampling
timing and the number of samples collected in each of the 5 sites. A significant number of
aerosol samples was collected for each sampling site.
Table 3.1 – Sampling data for the Santiago de Chile wintertime 1998 samplingprogram.
Sampling site Starting of aerosolsampling
End of aerosolsampling
Number of aerosolsamples collected
O'Higgins 15/July 20/August 60
Pudahuel 15/July 18/August 60
Las Condes 20/July 19/August 60
Talagante 17/July 17/August 28
Peldehue 23/July 22/August 30
222...111--- EEEllleeemmmeeennntttaaalll aaannnaaalllyyysssiiisss ooofff aaaeeerrrooosssooolll sssaaammmpppllleeesss bbbyyy PPPIIIXXXEEEParticle Induced X-ray Emission – PIXE [Johanson and Campbell, 1985] was used
to measure about 20 trace elements (Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu,
Zn, As, Br, Sr, Pb). Irradiation was performed at the LAMFI – Laboratório de Análises de
Materiais por Feixes Iônicos from the Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo. Figure
2.1.1 shows a schematic view of the São Paulo PIXE system.
A 2.4 MeV proton beam irradiates the samples and X-rays are produced and
collected. The system uses an innovative detection system with two Si(Li) detectors with
12µm Be window and 138 eV resolution for the Mn Kα line. A low Z detector has an
80µm Be X-ray absorber, and the high Z detector has a 380µm Mylar X-ray absorber.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 4
Irradiation time is 10 minutes at a count rate of 2500 cps for the low Z detector and 500-
cps for the high Z detector. These count rates and the use of two Si(Li) detectors avoids
problems with pile-up peaks and dead time corrections. Typical detection limits for normal
operational conditions in Santiago de Chile are presented in Figure 2.1.2.
����������������������������������������������������������������
CurrentIntegrador
Data acquisitionsystem
Beam Colimator
Aerosolsample
High energyX-ray Si(Li)
detector
Data acquisitionsystem
Protons Beam 2.4 MeV
Low EnergyX-ray Si(Li)
detector
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
������������������
Faradaycup
Low energyX-ray Si(Li)
detector
Proton Beam 2.4 MeV
High energyX-ray Si(Li)
detector
Currentintegrator
Data acquisitionsystem
Data acquisitionsystem
Aerosolsample
Beamcolimator
Faradaycup
Figure 2.1.1 - Schematic view of the irradiation conditions of the São Paulo PIXEsystem.
0.1
1
10
100
Elem
enta
l con
cent
ratio
n (n
g/m
³)
MgAl
SiP
SCl
KCa
TiV
CrMn
FeNi
CuZn
AsSe
BrRb
SrZr
NbMo
Pb
Elements
São Paulo PIXE System Detection LimitsSFU 20 m³ volume, 80 µC, Nuclepore
Figure 2.1.2 - Typical detection limits for the São Paulo PIXE system obtained forNuclepore filters with a volume of 20 m³, and a proton charge of about 80µC.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 5
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
1E5
Cou
nts
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Channel
AlSi
P SCl
KCa
Ti
V
Cr Mn
Fe
Fe
NiCu Zn
Pb
BrPb
Rb
ZrSr
Al
Si
P SCl K
Ca
High energy X-ray detector Low energy X-ray detector
São Paulo PIXE system spectra
Figure 2.1.3 - Typical X-ray spectra from the São Paulo PIXE system. Twospectra are shown one for low-energy X-rays, detecting elements from Sodium toCalcium. The second spectra are collected to measure elements with Z higherthan Ca.
For each analyzed aerosol sample, two spectra are recorded, one from the low-Z
detector and a second from a high-Z detector. A typical x-ray spectra from the São Paulo
PIXE system is presented in Figure 2.1.3. The reproducibility of the system irradiating the
same aerosol sample many times is about 7 % for most of the elements. Figure 2.1.4
presents some results from the quality assurance tests performed routinely as part of the
irradiation procedures in the São Paulo PIXE system. A set of standard reference materials
samples from NIST; IAEA and other agencies are routinely analyzed as “unknown”
samples. The average standard deviation for most of the detected elements is 14%. This is
a good result, because many of these samples are not with the thin sample criteria, having
grain sizes larger than 10-50µm, leading to problems in the quantification procedures due
to X-ray self absorption in the particles.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 6
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
1E5C
ertif
ied
Valu
es (µ
g/g)
1E1 1E2 1E3 1E4 1E5PIXE (µg/g)
PIXE analysis of certified standartof sediment and soil for:
Al, Si, P, S, K, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr e Pb
a)
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
Res
idue
(PIX
E-St
and.
/Cer
t. Va
lue)
Al S K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Rb Sr Zr Pb
SL-1 IAEA356 BRS LKSD-3 SOIL-7
Residue for Element in theCertified standart
+/- 14 %
b)
Figure 2.1.4 – Quality assurance of the São Paulo PIXE system. a) Comparison ofPIXE measurements in µg/g with certified values for soil and sediment referencematerials. The average agreement between measured and certified concentrationsis about 8 %; b) Relative residuals for the reference material analysis.
222...222--- AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt aaannnddd rrreeeccceeeppptttooorrrmmmooodddeeellliiinnnggg
To separate the different aerosol components, absolute principal factor analysis
(APFA) was used [Thurston and Spengler, 1985; Hopke, 1985]. APFA can provide a
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 7
quantitative elemental source profile, instead of just a qualitative factor-loading matrix as
in traditional factor analysis. The absolute elemental source profiles help in the
identification of the factors, and can be used to quantitatively compare the factor
composition with assumed aerosol sources. The APFA provides the elemental mass
contribution of each identified component by calculating the absolute principal factor
scores (APFS) for each sample [Artaxo et al., 1988, 1990]. The elemental concentrations
are subsequently regressed on the APFS to obtain the contribution of each element for each
component. The source profiles thus obtained can be compared with values from the
literature to gain information on enrichment and atmospheric chemistry processes [Hopke,
1985]. The measured aerosol mass concentration can be regressed on the APFS to obtain
the aerosol total mass source apportionment. It is important to notice that the factor model
deals with trace element variability, so if two elements that are emitted by different sources
co-vary together, they could be identified in the same component. This fact must be taken
in account in interpreting the factor analysis results.
Cluster analysis was used to measure the distances in the elemental space between
the samples and the variables. The dendogram express the distances between the variables
taking the samples as a multivariate space and measuring the distances between the aerosol
samples. The result is expressed as a distance chart, the dendogram. Ward’s error sum
strategy was used to classify the samples, and the squared Euclidean distance was used to
measure the distances. It is important to notice that cluster analysis is a completely
independent statistical analysis from factor analysis. Although factor analysis analyzes data
variability, cluster analysis analyzes distances between the samples in the elemental space.
SPSS for Windows version 8.0 was used in the receptor modeling calculations.
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The extensive set of results will be presented and discussed first with the mass and
black carbon concentrations for all the stations, and latter for the composition and aerosol
source apportionment for each sampling station separately. Finally, a comparison of results
and elemental source profiles for all sites will be presented.
333...111 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll mmmaaassssss cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnnsssThe aerosol mass concentration is the most important parameter when it is
necessary to compare air pollution measurements with the legislation, or to assess the
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 8
health impact on the affected population. The aerosol mass concentration in urban areas is
generally dominated by organic aerosol that accounts for 40 – 70 % of the aerosol mass in
fine or coarse mode.
Table 3.1.1 shows the average gravimetric and black carbon concentrations for the
wintertime 1998 sampling campaign. High levels of PM10 aerosol were observed in the
three urban sites and also elevated concentrations were observed in the two more remote
sites. The same Table 3.1.1 shows average values measured in sampling campaigns in
1996 for the sites Gotuzo, Las Condes and Buin. For O’Higgins and Pudahuel, coarse
mode aerosol concentrations are higher than the fine fraction, indicating that soil dust
ressuspension has an important air pollution impact in these sites. In the Las Condes,
Talagante and Peldehue sites, each of the two size fractions, fine and coarse mode aerosols
account for approximately 50 % of PM10 aerosol concentration. Also black carbon
concentrations are high in all sites, averaging 12 µg/m³ in O’Higgins, and 15 µg/m³ in Las
Condes. In The O’Higgins sites, black carbon accounts for a high 20.5% of the fine mode
aerosol mass, indicating a strong impact of buses and automobile traffic sources in
downtown Santiago. The variability in the aerosol concentration is high, with peak 12-hour
averages exceeding 200 to 300 µg/m³ several times during the sampling period and for
several of the sampling sites.
Table 3.1.1 – Average aerosol mass concentrations in Santiago wintertime 1998.Also shown for comparison, measurements made in Santiago during wintertime1996 and in São Paulo downtown in 1997 using the same aerosol sampler. (*)
Sampling Site FPM(µg/m³)
CPM(µg/m³)
PM10(µg/m³)
FPM/PM10(%)
CPM/PM10(%)
BC(µg/m³)
BC/FPM(%)
O'Higgins 39.74 92.61 132.35 30.02 69.97 8.46 21.28
Las Condes 40.29 40.43 80.72 49.35 49.52 5.46 13.55
Pudahuel 32.59 83.20 115.79 28.15 71.85 5.79 17.77
Peldehue 37.53 40.43 77.96 48.14 51.86 3.39 9.03
Talagante 31.00 34.38 65.38 47.42 52.58 2.68 8.65
Gotuzo 96 54.40 94.00 148.40 36.66 63.34 10.35 19.0
Las Condes 96 35.70 41.10 76.80 46.48 53.52 3.53 9.89
Buin 96 29.10 23.20 52.30 55.64 44.36 2.31 7.94
São Paulo 97 39.02 57.91 96.93 40.26 59.74 8.58 21.99
(*); FPM - Fine mode aerosol mass concentration, particles with aerodynamicdiameter dp<2 µm. CPM - Coarse mode aerosol mass concentration, particles withaerodynamic diameter 2<dp<10µm. PM10 - Inhalable particle mass concentration
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 9
(particles smaller than 10 µm). BC is the black carbon concentration in the finemode.
It is difficult to find in the scientific literature data to compare with our
measurements, because of different aerosol samplers and different sampling period along
the year. Only one work is similar to the one performed by us, and was made in 1990 by
Carlos Rojas (Rojas et al., 1990), with sampling done at the University of Chile campus
during January and February 1987. Rojas et al. reports average fine mode concentrations of
34.0 µg/m³, CPM of 66.0 µg/m³ and PM10 average of 100 µg/m³, values similar to the ones
measured by us in the Pudahuel and Las Condes sampling sites. PM10 values for downtown
São Paulo are in the vicinity of 75 - 100µg/m³, values similar to the ones measured in
Santiago. For both cities, São Paulo and Santiago, traffic is the major source of
atmospheric pollutants.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Con
cent
ratio
n (µ
g/m
³)
O'Higgins Las Condes Pudahuel Peldehue Talagante Gotuzo 96 Las Condes 96 Buin 96 São Paulo 97
FPM CPM PM10
Santiago de Chile Aerosol Winter 1998Average Gravimetric Concentrations
Samples from Winter 98 Samples from Winter 96 São Paulo 1997
Figure 3.1.1 - Average fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol concentrations measuredin the Santiago 1998 sampling program for the five sampling sites. Also shown arethe averages for the sampling campaigns of 1996 and 1995, using the samemethodology.
Figure 3.1.1 shows the average fine, coarse and PM10 gravimetric concentrations
measured in the Santiago 1998 sampling program. Also shown in the same figure are
averages for the sampling campaigns of 1996 and São Paulo, using the same methodology.
There was a reduction in PM10 at downtown Santiago, as can be seen comparing
measurements in Gotuzo 1996 and O’Higgins 1998. This reduction occurred for both fine
and coarse aerosol fraction, but the largest reduction was in the fine mode aerosol. This is
the component that has the largest health effects. Comparing to São Paulo, concentrations
in Santiago are higher, mainly due to coarse mode soil dust, because the Chilean climate is
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 10
much dryer than São Paulo. Fine mode concentrations in São Paulo is identical to the fine
mode component in O’Higgins and Las Condes, indicating similar traffic impact.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13 C
once
ntra
tion
(µg/
m³)
O'HigginsLas Condes
PudahuelPeldehue
Talagante Gotuzo 96Las Condes 96
Buin 96 São Paulo 97
Santiago de Chile Aerosol Winter 1998Average Black Carbon Concentrations
Samples from Winter 98 Samples from Winter 96 São Paulo 1997
Figure 3.1.2 - Average black carbon concentrations measured in the fine modeaerosol from Santiago 1998 sampling program for the five sampling sites. Alsoshown are the averages for the sampling campaigns of 1996, and measurementsdone in São Paulo, using the same methodology.
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Perc
enta
ge o
f BC
in F
PM (%
)
O'HigginsLas Condes
PudahuelPeldehue
Talagante Gotuzo 96Las Condes 96
Buin 96 São Paulo 97
Santiago de Chile Aerosol Winter 1998Average Ratio Black Carbon to FPM
Samples from Winter 98 Samples from Winter 96 São Paulo 1997
Figure 3.1.3 - Average ratio of black carbon to fine mode mass concentrationmeasured in the fine mode aerosol from Santiago 1998 sampling program for thefive sampling sites.
The Figure 3.1.2 shows the average black carbon concentrations measured in the
fine mode aerosol from Santiago 1998 sampling program for the five sampling sites. BC is
much higher in O’Higgins than in the other four sites, indicating the impact of diesel
emissions downtown Santiago. Comparing values from 1996, BC concentrations are about
20 % lower, indicating progresses in the control of diesel emissions. Black carbon
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 11
concentrations in downtown Santiago and São Paulo are very similar, again indicating
similar impact from traffic. The ratio of black carbon to fine aerosol mass in O’Higgins is
identical to São Paulo. The values are similar to the ones measured in Gotuzo in 1996.
From the concentrations in Peldehue, Talagante and Buin (1996), the background black
carbon concentrations in these sites are about 8 µg/m³, an elevated value.
0 20 40 60 80
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
O'H
iggi
ns F
PM, C
PM a
nd P
M10
(µg/
m³)
OHI 01 F OHI 03 F
OHI 05 F
OHI 07 F OHI 09 F
OHI 11 F
OHI 13 F OHI 15 F
OHI 17 F
OHI 19 F OHI 21 F
OHI 23 F
OHI 25 F OHI 27 F
OHI 29 F
OHI 31 F OHI 33 F
OHI 35 F
OHI 37 F OHI 39 F
OHI 41 F
OHI 43 F OHI 45 F
OHI 47 F
OHI 49 F OHI 51 F
OHI 53 F
OHI 55 F OHI 57 F
OHI 59 F
Fine Mode Coarse Mode
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolO'Higgins FPM, CPM and PM10
Figure 3.1.4 – Time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass concentrationfor the O’Higgins sampling site.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Las
Con
des
FPM
, CPM
and
PM
10 (µ
g/m
³)
LCD 01 F LCD 03 F
LCD 05 F
LCD 07 F LCD 09 F
LCD 11 F
LCD 13 F LCD 15 F
LCD 17 F
LCD 19 F LCD 21 F
LCD 23 F
LCD 25 F LCD 27 F
LCD 29 F
LCD 31 F LCD 34 F
LCD 36 F
LCD 38 F LCD 40 F
LCD 42 F
LCD 44 F LCD 46 F
LCD 48 F
LCD 50 F LCD 52 F
LCD 54 F
LCD 56 F LCD 58 F
LCD 60 F
Fine Mode Coarse Mode
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolLas Condes FPM, CPM and PM10
Figure 3.1.5 - – Time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass concentrationfor the Las Condes sampling site.
The Figure 3.1.4 shows the time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass
concentration for the O’Higgins sampling site. It is possible to observe that during air
pollution episodes the PM10 concentrations can exceed 200 µg/m³. The interesting point is
that during these air pollution episodes, the coarse mode fractions increase more than the
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 12
fine fraction. A strategy to control road dust trough road cleaning can help in this situation.
The figure 3.1.5 shows the time series for Las Condes. In Las Condes only one important
episode with concentrations higher than 150µg/m³ was observed. Proportionally, it is
possible to observe in Las Condes a higher impact of fine particles than O’Higgins. Figure
3.1.6 shows the time series of FPM, CPM and PM10 Pudahuel sampling site. Several air
pollution episodes can be observed, mostly caused by coarse mode particles.
0 20 40 60 80
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Puda
huel
FPM
, CPM
and
PM
10 (µ
g/m
³)
PAD 01 F PAD 03 F
PAD 05 F
PAD 07 F PAD 09 F
PAD 11 F
PAD 13 F PAD 15 F
PAD 17 F
PAD 19 F PAD 21 F
PAD 23 F
PAD 25 F PAD 27 F
PAD 29 F
PAD 31 F PAD 33 F
PAD 35 F
PAD 37 F PAD 39 F
PAD 41 F
PAD 43 F PAD 45 F
PAD 47 F
PAD 49 F PAD 51 F
PAD 53 F
PAD 55 F PAD 57 F
PAD 59 F
Fine Mode Coarse Mode
Santiago Wintertime 98 AerosolPudahuel FPM, CPM and PM10
Figure 3.1.6 - – Time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass concentrationfor the Pudahuel sampling site.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Peld
ehue
FPM
, CPM
and
PM
10 (µ
g/m
³)
PEL 01 F PEL 02 F
PEL 03 F
PEL 04 F PEL 05 F
PEF 06 F
PEL 07 F PEL 08 F
PEL 09 F
PEL 10 F PEL 11 F
PEL 12 F
PEL 13 F PEL 14 F
PEL 15 F
PEL 16 F PEL 17 F
PEL 18 F
PEL 19 F PEL 20 F
PEL 21 F
PEL 22 F PEL 23 F
PEL 24 F
PEL 25 F PEL 26 F
PEL 27 F
PEL 28 F PEL 29 F
PEL 30 F
Fine Mode Coarse Mode
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolPeldehue FPM, CPM and PM10
Figure 3.1.7 – Time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass concentrationfor the Peldehue sampling site.
Figure 3.1.7 shows the Peldehue results, with a strong presence of fine particles for
a type of more remote sampling site. A similar feature happens in Talagante, as can be
observed in Figure 3.1.8. Concentrations in Talagante in the fine mode are much more
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 13
constant than the other sites, reflecting a more regional feature, and that it is less impacted
by local air pollution sources.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 110 120 130 140
Tala
gant
e FP
M, C
PM a
nd P
M10
(µg/
m³)
TGT 01 F TGT 02 F
TGT 03 F
TGT 04 F TGT 05 F
TGT 06 F
TGT 07 F TGT 08 F
TGT 10 F
TGT 11 F TGT 12 F
TGT 13 F
TGT 14 F TGT 15 F
TGT 16 F
TGT 17 F TGT 18 F
TGT 19 F
TGT 20 F TGT 21 F
TGT 22 F
TGT 23 F TGT 24 F
TGT 25 F
TGT 26 F TGT 27 F
TGT 28 F
TGT 29 F TGT 30 F
Fine Mode Coarse Mode
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolTalagante FPM, CPM and PM10
Figure 3.1.8 - – Time series of fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol mass concentrationfor the Talagante sampling site.
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Quality assurance of measured concentrations is an integral part of all air pollution
study. We performed several quality control procedures trough all phases of our
experiment.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 110 120 130 140
Con
cent
ratio
ns (µ
g/m
³)
O'Higgins Las Condes Pudahuel Peldehue Talagante
SFU PM10 TEOM PM10
Comparison PM10 for SFU and TEOMSantiago 1998 Average Concentrations
Figure 3.2.1 – Comparison of PM10 measurements performed by the StackedFilter Unit and the TEOM sampler.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 14
Figure 3.2.1 shows the comparison of co-located Stacked Filter Units (SFU) and
TEOM (Tapered Oscilating Microbalance) aerosol monitors. The agreement between the
two independent measurements is excellent. It is important to notice that the measurement
principle of TEOM and the SFU are completely different. In figure 3.2.2 it can be
observed the largest variability in PM10 that affects both measurements are caused by the
coarse faction. Fine fraction is almost constant along the five sampling sites, with lower
concentrations in Talagante.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Con
cent
ratio
ns (µ
g/m
³)
FPM CPM SFU PM10 TEOM PM10
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel Peldehue Talagante
Santiago de Chile Aerosol 1998Average Gravimetric Concentrations
Figure 3.2.2 – Average gravimetric concentrations of FPM, CPM, SFU PM10 andTEOM PM10.
São Paulo Experiment - FMSP 1997 WinterComparison of PM10 Concentration
SFU x TEOM
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
12-A
ug
14-A
ug
15-A
ug
17-A
ug
18-A
ug
20-A
ug
21-A
ug
23-A
ug
24-A
ug
26-A
ug
27-A
ug
29-A
ug
30-A
ug1-S
ep2-S
ep4-S
ep5-S
ep7-S
ep8-S
ep
Conc
entr
atio
n (µ
g/m
³)
SFU TEOM
SFU = 99 µg/m³TEOM = 83 µg/m³
Figure 3.2.3 – Comparison of PM10 measurements performed by the StackedFilter Unit and the TEOM sampler for São Paulo, winter of 1997. The regressionequation between the samplers is TEOM = 0.86*SFU - 2.33, with an R² of 0.96.
Similar comparisons between a TEOM sampler and the SFU were performed in
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 15
São Paulo. Figure 3.2.3 shows a time series of such comparison. The SFU in São Paulo
measures higher concentrations than the TEOM. Both instruments agree very well, with
TEOM concentrations lower by about 14% in average. The TEOM sampler heats up the
aerosol to remove humidity that interferes with the measurement procedure. This can cause
some loss of organic components.
0 20 40 60 80
100 120 140 160 180
PM10
Mas
s C
once
ntra
tion
(ug/
m3)
165166
168
169171
172
174176
178
180182
184
187189
192
194196
198
203205
207
209211
213
215217
219
221223
226
228230
236
240
1994 Julian DayPM10 SFU Gent PM10 Beta
São Paulo Aerosol CharacterizationPM10 Mass Concentration 1994
Figure 3.2.3 – São Paulo Inhalable aerosol mass concentration (PM10) providedby the beta gauge aerosol monitoring instrument operated by the state air pollutioncontrol agency (CETESB) nearby SFU equipped with an PM10 inlet.
0 20 40 60 80
100 120 140 160 180
PM10
Bet
a G
auge
(ug/
m3)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 PM10 Gent SFU (ug/m3)
São Paulo Aerosol Characterization 94PM10 - Beta Gauge versus Gent SFU
PM10 Beta = PM10 SFU*0.992 - 2.214 (R2=0.86)
Figure 3.2.4 – Regression curve between the measurements from the two
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 16
instruments (Beta gauge and SFU) for PM10 in São Paulo. Same data series asplotted in figure 3.2.2.
Figure 3.2.3 shows a comparison between SFU and beta gauge sampled in parallel
in São Paulo. The ratio between the two samplers showed in figure 3.2.4 is 0.992,
indicating that the SFU can very reliably express aerosol mass concentrations.
333...333 --- BBBlllaaaccckkk cccaaarrrbbbooonnn aaaeeerrrooosssooolll cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnnBlack carbon is an excellent tracer for the urban impact of diesel and vehicles
emissions. A small fraction of BC could be due to combustion processes in the industrial
sector. The Figure 3.3.1 shows the time series of black carbon aerosol concentrations
measured in the O’Higgins sampling site. According to German air pollution standards, BC
concentrations should not exceed 10 µg/m³. This was the case for several aerosol samples
collected at the O’Higgins site. The average values for BC concentrations in O’Higgins
was 8.46 µg/m³. The Figure 3.3.2 shows similar measurements at the Las Condes
sampling site. Las Condes shows more uniform values, with average at 5.46µg/m³, and
peaks at 7-8 µg/m³. Black carbon time series in Pudahuel, showed in Figure 3.3.3 exhibits
a more episodic nature than in Las Condes, with a baseline concentration of about 3 µg/m³
of black carbon. Peldehue and Talagante show a baseline value of about 2 µg/m³.
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
O'H
iggi
ns B
lack
Car
bon
(µg/
m³)
OHI 01 F OHI 03 F
OHI 05 F
OHI 07 F OHI 09 F
OHI 11 F
OHI 13 F OHI 15 F
OHI 17 F
OHI 19 F OHI 21 F
OHI 23 F
OHI 25 F OHI 27 F
OHI 29 F
OHI 31 F OHI 33 F
OHI 35 F
OHI 37 F OHI 39 F
OHI 41 F
OHI 43 F OHI 45 F
OHI 47 F
OHI 49 F OHI 51 F
OHI 53 F
OHI 55 F OHI 57 F
OHI 59 F
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolO'Higgins Black Carbon
Figure 3.3.1 – Black Carbon concentration in µg/m³ measured in the fine modefraction of aerosols from the O’Higgins sampling station.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 17
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Las
Con
des
Blac
k C
arbo
n (µ
g/m
³)
LCD 01 F LCD 03 F
LCD 05 F
LCD 07 F LCD 09 F
LCD 11 F
LCD 13 F LCD 15 F
LCD 17 F
LCD 19 F LCD 21 F
LCD 23 F
LCD 25 F LCD 27 F
LCD 29 F
LCD 31 F LCD 34 F
LCD 36 F
LCD 38 F LCD 40 F
LCD 42 F
LCD 44 F LCD 46 F
LCD 48 F
LCD 50 F LCD 52 F
LCD 54 F
LCD 56 F LCD 58 F
LCD 60 F
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolLas Condes Black Carbon
Figure 3.3.2 – Black Carbon concentration in µg/m³ measured in the fine modefraction of aerosols from the Las Condes sampling station.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Puda
huel
Bla
ck C
arbo
n (µ
g/m
³)
PAD 01 F PAD 03 F
PAD 05 F
PAD 07 F PAD 09 F
PAD 11 F
PAD 13 F PAD 15 F
PAD 17 F
PAD 19 F PAD 21 F
PAD 23 F
PAD 25 F PAD 27 F
PAD 29 F
PAD 31 F PAD 33 F
PAD 35 F
PAD 37 F PAD 39 F
PAD 41 F
PAD 43 F PAD 45 F
PAD 47 F
PAD 49 F PAD 51 F
PAD 53 F
PAD 55 F PAD 57 F
PAD 59 F
Santiago Wintertime 98 AerosolPudahuel Black Carbon
Figure 3.3.3 – Black Carbon concentration in µg/m³ measured in the fine modefraction of aerosols from the Pudahuel sampling station.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 18
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Peld
ehue
Bla
ck C
arbo
n (µ
g/m
³)
PEL 01 F PEL 02 F
PEL 03 F
PEL 04 F PEL 05 F
PEF 06 F
PEL 07 F PEL 08 F
PEL 09 F
PEL 10 F PEL 11 F
PEL 12 F
PEL 13 F PEL 14 F
PEL 15 F
PEL 16 F PEL 17 F
PEL 18 F
PEL 19 F PEL 20 F
PEL 21 F
PEL 22 F PEL 23 F
PEL 24 F
PEL 25 F PEL 26 F
PEL 27 F
PEL 28 F PEL 29 F
PEL 30 F
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolPeldehue Black Carbon
Figure 3.3.4 – Black Carbon concentration in µg/m³ measured in the fine modefraction of aerosols from the Peldehue sampling station.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tala
gant
e Bl
ack
Car
bon
(µg/
m³)
TGT 01 F TGT 02 F
TGT 03 F
TGT 04 F TGT 05 F
TGT 06 F
TGT 07 F TGT 08 F
TGT 10 F
TGT 11 F TGT 12 F
TGT 13 F
TGT 14 F TGT 15 F
TGT 16 F
TGT 17 F TGT 18 F
TGT 19 F
TGT 20 F TGT 21 F
TGT 22 F
TGT 23 F TGT 24 F
TGT 25 F
TGT 26 F TGT 27 F
TGT 28 F
TGT 29 F TGT 30 F
Santiago Wintertime 1998 AerosolTalagante Black Carbon
Figure 3.3.5 – Black Carbon concentration in µg/m³ measured in the fine modefraction of aerosols from the Talagante sampling station.
333...444 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll eeellleeemmmeeennntttaaalll cccooonnnccceeennntttrrraaatttiiiooonnnsssAverage elemental concentrations and related data for each of the five sampling
stations and fine and coarse mode data are presented in Tables 3.4.1 to 3.4.10. In these
tables the population standard deviation is also presented, as well as minimum and
maximum concentration values. The number of samples where the element was detected
above detection limits is presented in the last column. In calculating averages, only values
above detection limits were considered to avoid problems with estimation of missing
values.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 19
Table 3.4.1 - O’Higgins Fine mode average concentration and other statistics. Std.Dev. is the population standard deviation, Min. and Max. are minimum andmaximum concentration and N is the number of samples where the variable wasmeasured above detection limits. Concentrations of elements are presented inng/m³. Mass (FPM and CPM) and black carbon (BC) is in µg/m³.
O’HigginsFine Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 39.74 19.00 11.64 100.34 60CPM 92.61 49.69 13.17 236.25 60BC 8.46 5.31 1.04 28.24 60Mg 120.60 87.80 17.79 315.91 23Al 776.00 226.70 392.38 1402.24 60Si 657.21 413.17 111.04 2006.95 60 P 15.74 7.42 4.40 35.48 29 S 1841.16 1339.49 408.36 6371.28 60Cl 100.16 58.37 28.62 390.64 60 K 307.24 152.78 104.58 868.02 60Ca 280.24 130.30 77.64 677.02 60Sc 3.37 1.01 2.65 4.09 2Ti 55.14 19.48 24.13 114.59 60V 7.41 4.11 1.51 18.35 60Cr 7.51 4.57 2.87 22.07 22Mn 21.33 12.86 4.78 68.94 60Fe 456.51 172.80 187.42 864.47 60Ni 2.58 1.60 0.42 7.94 60Cu 35.48 18.83 5.33 83.62 60Zn 107.41 72.41 13.74 285.36 60As 49.01 32.31 7.44 130.00 60Br 74.97 57.41 7.86 236.88 60Sr 5.05 1.50 1.96 7.74 60Pb 176.75 120.85 24.48 635.85 60
In general, aerosol mass concentration as well as black carbon and sulfur are high
compared to other urban sites. Concentration of soil dust-related elements are also high,
indicating the importance of ressuspended soil dust in the atmosphere of Santiago. Latter,
in this section, a comparison with São Paulo average concentrations will be presented.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 20
Table 3.4.2 - O’Higgins coarse mode average concentration and other statistics.See legend of Figure 3.4.1.
O’HigginsCoarse Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 39.74 19.00 11.64 100.34 60CPM 92.61 49.69 13.17 236.25 60PM10 131.63 58.34 24.82 260.25 60Mg 530.76 221.84 152.20 1197.35 60Al 3010.43 1437.26 766.23 7113.11 60Si 7235.93 3718.93 1602.58 17708.43 60 P 82.69 47.87 13.41 233.00 60 S 1700.23 1101.61 114.77 4397.81 60Cl 529.10 491.85 53.97 2936.87 60 K 975.10 523.77 186.09 2714.26 60Ca 3103.84 1573.82 541.81 7300.19 60Sc 12.84 5.39 6.67 16.65 3Ti 402.49 201.76 76.87 926.84 60V 18.56 10.40 3.81 49.35 60Cr 21.03 13.71 6.84 60.85 30Mn 95.21 49.66 15.64 239.42 60Fe 3430.05 1736.08 652.20 8457.25 60Ni 3.92 2.39 0.43 9.28 40Cu 90.03 59.22 4.95 226.00 60Zn 202.72 137.16 21.17 560.20 60As 72.23 72.36 3.28 267.15 60Br 101.41 97.23 8.47 359.44 60Sr 25.76 14.15 3.54 65.78 60Pb 219.16 191.79 10.15 774.44 60
Table 3.4.3 – Las Condes fine mode average concentration and other statistics.See legend of Figure 3.4.1.Las Condes
Fine Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 40.29 15.22 20.64 105.92 59CPM 40.43 22.20 12.12 114.10 59PM10 81.64 28.68 33.70 170.21 59BC 5.46 1.59 2.18 10.14 59MgAl 619.53 290.17 128.35 1679.73 59Si 466.21 288.47 36.63 1140.88 59 P 31.00 19.36 5.77 94.50 30 S 1830.45 1177.36 425.99 6258.61 59Cl 40.16 23.45 9.97 167.71 59 K 250.63 127.51 79.62 947.15 59Ca 224.73 114.87 55.28 539.75 59Sc 4.10 2.10 1.30 9.28 19Ti 43.53 18.95 10.22 114.60 59V 4.66 2.29 1.72 12.30 59Cr 9.79 4.38 5.63 18.26 7Mn 14.27 6.46 2.21 41.14 59Fe 384.31 173.07 101.54 1049.89 59Ni 1.72 0.68 0.63 4.43 59Cu 24.53 10.59 7.67 76.00 59Zn 64.29 27.76 18.14 185.34 59As 57.04 57.82 11.67 259.46 59Br 28.74 15.09 6.10 114.40 59Sr 2.20 . 2.20 2.20 1Pb 81.49 34.70 37.73 247.85 59
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 21
Table 3.4.4 – Las Condes coarse mode average concentration and otherstatistics. See legend of Figure 3.4.1.Las Condes
Coarse Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 40.29 15.22 20.64 105.92 59CPM 40.41 21.99 12.12 114.10 59PM10 81.62 28.30 33.70 170.21 59MgAl 1557.34 596.94 600.74 3055.53 59Si 3622.97 1532.93 969.85 6993.82 59 P 37.87 17.49 12.42 85.84 49 S 722.31 543.70 200.10 2657.16 59Cl 88.56 33.77 32.73 156.53 35 K 391.11 183.68 69.54 869.85 59Ca 1617.16 803.30 403.34 3615.53 59Sc 4.61 0.77 3.56 5.55 6Ti 187.54 78.67 61.24 374.52 59V 9.02 4.35 2.74 25.41 59Cr 15.89 11.06 6.66 37.37 16Mn 43.22 22.19 10.95 98.92 59Fe 1669.25 781.51 475.49 3585.09 59Ni 2.14 1.80 0.24 8.34 45Cu 37.07 20.65 7.71 87.67 59Zn 78.93 52.17 23.31 278.69 59As 33.12 35.35 5.64 175.00 45Br 18.62 12.79 5.88 56.38 41Sr 7.79 4.10 2.09 21.38 59Pb 46.73 34.41 7.75 189.28 59
Table 3.4.5 – Pudahuel fine mode average concentration and other statistics. Seelegend of Figure 3.4.1.
PudahuelFine Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 32.59 14.60 12.00 80.00 60CPM 83.20 53.46 23.44 219.31 60PM10 115.79 57.74 44.72 277.26 60BC 5.79 3.30 1.75 15.59 60MgAl 468.75 245.81 82.67 1122.52 60Si 691.33 386.86 66.14 1987.48 60 P 15.29 8.10 1.79 37.17 33 S 1552.88 1015.72 234.47 4574.46 60Cl 74.99 51.59 20.37 244.56 60 K 260.62 108.07 118.00 625.00 60Ca 253.73 130.44 66.01 722.63 60Sc 4.02 2.44 0.60 7.25 13Ti 41.65 16.03 13.20 97.94 60V 4.16 2.25 0.83 9.80 45Cr 7.75 6.64 2.52 20.77 6Mn 11.66 5.54 1.48 28.09 60Fe 331.12 135.03 86.77 721.52 60Ni 1.33 0.45 0.63 2.40 38Cu 19.50 12.75 3.32 61.45 60Zn 58.48 39.19 13.86 237.86 60As 44.50 37.03 9.09 172.22 60Br 43.80 34.28 10.77 148.48 60SrPb 99.93 64.61 29.53 289.01 60
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 22
Table 3.4.6 – Pudahuel coarse mode average concentration and other statistics.See legend of Figure 3.4.1.
PudahuelCoarse Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 32.59 14.60 12.00 80.00 60CPM 83.20 53.46 23.44 219.31 60PM10 115.79 57.74 44.72 277.26 60MgAl 3016.90 1650.41 1074.16 6983.36 60Si 7815.18 4391.37 2498.39 18197.31 60 P 94.71 60.40 24.94 275.50 60 S 1366.24 942.44 266.80 3599.91 60Cl 413.53 317.45 41.12 1370.17 60 K 882.37 542.47 254.06 2237.06 60Ca 2619.17 1540.58 775.84 6838.26 60Sc 8.56 5.51 4.93 14.91 3Ti 332.13 189.97 111.97 815.68 60V 11.85 7.58 3.67 34.23 60Cr 15.57 8.01 6.18 34.56 16Mn 78.23 47.69 22.22 200.66 60Fe 2772.60 1632.73 833.36 7005.31 60Ni 2.23 1.59 0.36 6.67 33Cu 45.45 33.08 8.55 133.50 60Zn 112.79 74.11 20.68 358.64 60As 55.60 64.67 2.48 308.35 60Br 58.17 72.54 1.50 331.24 60Sr 20.73 13.10 5.89 72.42 60Pb 125.20 136.75 16.17 631.92 60
Table 3.4.7 – Peldehue fine mode average concentration and other statistics. Seelegend of Figure 3.4.1.
PeldehueFine Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 37.53 19.37 11.10 76.70 30CPM 40.43 21.93 14.13 91.74 30PM10 77.96 38.14 25.79 164.35 30BC 3.39 1.74 1.02 7.15 30MgAl 469.89 322.84 91.07 1764.57 30Si 832.35 572.67 50.72 2975.43 30 P 20.85 21.37 3.75 70.36 9 S 1807.55 1066.81 372.24 4419.54 30Cl 41.13 26.32 8.25 93.57 30 K 262.49 137.90 83.60 572.46 30Ca 259.40 178.24 90.64 1010.00 30Sc 4.39 . 4.39 4.39 1Ti 49.82 28.54 11.68 150.00 30V 5.05 3.12 1.25 14.84 30Cr 7.02 4.70 1.96 14.86 10Mn 17.54 10.59 3.73 49.05 30Fe 451.38 265.33 102.55 1300.00 30Ni 2.19 2.03 0.30 8.27 16Cu 22.84 12.86 3.41 58.87 30Zn 97.03 83.86 17.14 440.00 30As 59.02 52.53 5.90 248.50 30Br 16.05 8.97 3.57 36.26 30Sr 3.43 2.45 0.75 11.09 24Pb 56.27 28.66 15.88 128.00 30
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 23
Table 3.4.8 – Peldehue coarse mode average concentration and other statistics.See legend of Figure 3.4.1.
PeldehueCoarse Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 37.53 19.37 11.10 76.70 30CPM 40.43 21.93 14.13 91.74 30PM10 77.96 38.14 25.79 164.35 30Mg 119.47 69.35 50.68 225.18 8Al 1714.58 951.84 618.19 4407.57 30Si 4453.21 2546.24 1655.39 11665.51 30 P 50.55 33.98 16.66 145.97 30 S 546.97 372.55 131.46 1882.43 30Cl 98.52 89.53 20.07 252.92 12 K 384.41 222.13 142.33 1058.39 30Ca 1330.08 770.02 480.63 3632.36 30Sc 3.47 0.13 3.38 3.57 2Ti 209.44 122.61 73.32 587.29 30V 7.68 6.55 0.87 32.00 30Cr 20.57 22.20 4.33 67.07 7Mn 45.67 27.35 16.82 127.12 30Fe 1738.68 1032.49 644.08 4738.70 30Ni 2.18 2.68 0.12 14.40 30Cu 24.61 13.99 5.44 62.84 30Zn 69.29 46.84 14.79 197.44 30As 25.52 30.18 2.61 123.54 30Br 7.37 3.03 3.76 11.05 10Sr 11.71 7.77 3.56 29.54 30Pb 22.61 13.12 5.33 63.00 30
Table 3.4.9 – Talagante fine mode average concentration and other statistics. Seelegend of Figure 3.4.1.
TalaganteFine Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 31.00 11.73 17.92 59.63 29CPM 34.38 13.67 15.86 87.48 29PM10 65.38 18.59 43.07 123.68 29BC 2.68 1.10 1.32 6.30 29Mg 120.89 95.66 46.10 469.32 20Al 503.11 220.97 205.32 1021.09 29Si 623.37 318.84 34.00 1326.65 29 P 12.14 7.47 5.93 22.92 4 S 1824.61 1193.69 469.70 5320.35 29Cl 48.45 43.02 6.00 165.51 29 K 297.94 116.20 86.06 640.15 29Ca 305.89 223.24 20.00 1020.92 29Sc 3.91 . 3.91 3.91 1Ti 33.48 14.91 3.78 62.05 29V 4.00 1.69 1.53 7.87 29Cr 4.77 0.94 3.45 5.69 4Mn 12.77 8.29 1.00 33.14 29Fe 261.51 115.97 51.00 501.05 29Ni 1.51 1.06 0.41 3.82 12Cu 17.64 13.31 0.38 53.57 29Zn 36.48 23.18 9.42 87.46 29As 71.13 94.98 1.71 482.69 29Br 13.02 6.02 5.00 29.56 29Sr 2.06 0.73 0.93 4.19 29Pb 37.92 18.76 16.49 83.30 29
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 24
Table 3.4.10 – Talagante coarse mode average concentration and other statistics.See legend of Figure 3.4.1.
TalaganteCoarse Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
FPM 31.00 11.73 17.92 59.63 29CPM 34.38 13.67 15.86 87.48 29PM10 65.38 18.59 43.07 123.68 29Mg 327.22 113.04 106.25 710.24 29Al 1707.35 634.18 765.28 3964.86 29Si 3719.13 1598.06 1504.56 10422.65 29 P 32.93 16.72 14.40 90.00 26 S 546.44 241.27 189.04 1105.03 29Cl 338.95 306.29 53.39 1145.83 21 K 426.77 176.65 172.15 1107.31 29Ca 1742.21 1165.04 565.66 5642.77 29Sc 10.42 4.18 7.46 13.37 2Ti 156.41 62.76 83.38 413.31 29V 7.94 4.38 2.93 22.14 29Cr 19.70 18.54 8.21 52.53 5Mn 39.90 18.14 13.58 106.70 29Fe 1266.86 514.30 535.03 3396.29 29Ni 1.64 1.02 0.52 3.53 14Cu 18.14 9.94 5.94 46.16 29Zn 29.66 15.31 8.79 63.90 29As 22.89 26.48 2.63 97.03 29Br 8.74 2.69 5.03 15.92 13Sr 10.08 4.44 3.70 25.00 29Pb 14.63 6.12 5.86 30.44 29
Figure 3.4.1 shows the average elemental concentration in the fine mode aerosol
from the 5 sampling sites. Several important issues can be noticed in Figure 3.4.1. First the
average fine mode sulfur concentrations are very similar for the five sites, including the
two more remote (Talagante and Peldehue). Also K and Ca exhibits very similar
concentrations for the five sites. The worthwhile exceptions are: BC, V, Ni, Br and Pb.
O’Higgins clearly shows much higher concentrations for black carbon, a tracer of diesel
and vehicles emissions, as well as V and Ni, indicators of residual oil combustion, and Pb
and Br, indicators of vehicular emissions. Some elements associated with local
ressuspension of soil dust, such as Al, Mn and Cu also shows higher concentration in the
O’Higgins site. Talagante has the highest concentrations for As, indicating regional
transport of this element. Talagante in general has the smallest concentrations for Pb, Br
and BC, indicating small vehicular traffic influences.
Figure 3.4.2 shows the average elemental concentration in the coarse mode aerosol
from the 5 sampling sites. The variability between the sites in the coarse mode is much
higher than in the fine fraction. In general, O’Higgins and Pudahuel show the highest
elemental concentrations. Even in the coarse mode, V and Ni are much higher in
O’Higgins, indicating the higher impact of residual oil combustion in this site. Also Pb, Br,
is elevated in the coarse mode at O’Higgins, and has minimum values in Talagante.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 25
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
Con
cent
ratio
ns (n
g/m
³)
FPMCPM
PM10
BCTEOM
Mg
AlSi
P
SCl
K
CaSc
Ti
VCr
Mn
FeNi
Cu
ZnAs
Br
SrPb
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel Peldehue Talagante
Santiago de Chile - Fine Mode Aerosol1998 Average Elemental Concentration
Figure 3.4.1 – Average elemental concentration in the fine mode aerosols fromthe 5 sampling sites for Santiago de Chile wintertime 1998 sampling campaign.
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
1E5
Con
cent
ratio
ns (n
g/m
³)
FPMCPM
PM10
BCTEOM
Mg
AlSi
P
SCl
K
CaSc
Ti
VCr
Mn
FeNi
Cu
ZnAs
Br
SrPb
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel Peldehue Talagante
Santiago de Chile- Coarse Mode Aerosol1998 Average Elemental Concentration
Figure 3.4.2 – Average elemental concentration in the coarse mode aerosols fromthe 5 sampling sites for Santiago de Chile wintertime 1998 sampling campaign.
Figure 3.4.3 shows a comparison of trace element concentrations in the fine mode
for downtown Santiago, presenting concentrations from Gotuzo measured in 1996 and
O’Higgins measured in 1998. It is remarkable the similarities between the two
measurements, but a very important change occurred in the V and Ni concentrations. They
are reduced in 1998 by 60-80 % compared to measurements in 1996. This clearly indicates
the reduction in the combustion of oil in Santiago between 1996 and 1988. Also there is a
significant reduction in Br and Pb, indicating the change in the fleet, with more cars
equipped with air pollution control equipment, burning unleaded gasoline in 1998. A
reduction in black carbon is observed maybe as a result of air pollution control in diesel
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 26
buses. The concentration of fine mode particles is also significantly reduced. The
concentration of some elements are higher in 1998, mostly soil dust related elements, such
as Al, Si, K, Ca, Ti, and Fe, possibly indicating an increase in ressuspended soil dust.
Arsenic and sulfur are also significantly reduced in 1998.
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
Con
cent
ratio
ns (n
g/m
³)
FPMCPM
PM10
BCMg
Al
Si P
S
Cl K
Ca
ScTi
V
CrMn
Fe
NiCu
Zn
AsBr
Sr
Pb
Gotuzo 96 O'Higgins 98
Santiago de Chile Downtown Fine ModeComparison Elemental Concentrations
Figure 3.4.3 – Comparison of average elemental concentrations between finemode aerosol samples from Gotuzo in 1996 and O’Higgins 1998.
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
Con
cent
ratio
ns (n
g/m
³)
FPMCPM
PM10BC
MgAl
Si P
SCl
KCa
ScTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
Las Condes 96 Las Condes 98
Santiago de Chile Las Condes Fine ModeAverage Elemental Concentrations (*)
(*) The two sites at Las Condes are not exactly at the same location in 1996 and 1998. The 1998 site is more heavilly impacted by vehicles and traffic.
Figure 3.4.4 – Comparison of average elemental concentrations between finemode aerosol samples from Las Condes in 1996 and 1998. The stations are not inthe same site, but are in a few kilometers from each other. The site in 1998 ismore heavily impacted by transport and ressuspended road dust.
The Figure 3.4.4 shows a comparison of average elemental concentrations between
fine mode aerosol samples from Las Condes in 1996 and 1998. It is important to call the
attention that the two sites are located in different parts of Las Condes, with the site in
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 27
1998 much more impacted by vehicular and traffic emissions. Even with this notice, the
reduction in V and Ni is very significant. There is an increase in the concentration of soil
dust related elements for samples collected in 1998, because of the new location of the site.
The PM10 values, as well as FPM and CPM are very similar between 1996 and 1998.
For comparison, table 3.4.11 shows the average elemental concentrations measured
in the fine mode fraction of aerosol from wintertime 1994 in São Paulo. Figure 3.4.5
shows a plot comparing the fine mode average concentration in Santiago at the O‘Higgins
station and São Paulo. FPM and BC values are similar in both sites, with slightly higher
concentrations in Santiago. Soil dust related elements are much more pronounced in
Santiago than in São Paulo, possibly an effect of the much dryer environment in Santiago
de Chile. Pb and Br are much higher in Santiago because of the use of leaded gasoline in
Santiago that is being phased out. In São Paulo, alcohol is added to the gasoline,
eliminating Pb from the fuel additives. Sulfur concentrations are also higher in Santiago.
Vanadium concentration are very similar, but nickel concentrations are higher in São
Paulo, indicating that residual oil combustion impact can be similar, and the increase in
nickel concentration can be attributed to non-ferrous metal smelters and small
metallurgical activities in São Paulo. The higher zinc concentrations in São Paulo
emphasize this point. Copper is much higher in Chile, because the country has the soil very
much enriched in this metal.
Table 3.4.11 – Average elemental concentration for fine mode São Paulo aerosolduring wintertime 1994. Elemental concentrations in ng/m3.
São PauloFine Mode Average Std. Dev. Min. Max. N
Al 115 69.5 4.48 253 67Si 175 50.1 104 236 16S 1527 1039 94.9 5294 82Cl 35.9 27.0 3.26 132 74K 530 268 36.3 1357 82
Ca 91.5 39.4 18.2 217 82Ti 15.1 8.34 0.93 36.8 82V 7.25 4.21 0.73 19.2 82Cr 5.43 3.91 0.25 18.1 68
Mn 21.9 14.7 0.34 68.8 82Fe 346 159 46.9 887 82Ni 6.28 4.04 0.33 16.7 82Cu 15.3 9.96 2.12 52.6 82Zn 127 104 5.24 530 82Br 7.77 4.24 1.25 17.4 82Rb 2.34 1.09 0.76 5.33 34Sr 1.43 0.47 1.06 2.12 6Zr 4.84 2.86 1.98 9.37 8Pb 44.4 35.6 3.16 178 82
FPM (*) 30.9 14.9 3.64 79.8 82BC (*) 7.97 3.49 1.62 19.3 82
(*) FPM is the aerosol fine mode mass concentration in µg/m3. BC is the Black Carbonconcentration in µg/m3. N is the number of samples in which the variable appears abovethe analytical detection limit.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 28
1E0
1E1
1E2
1E3
1E4
Con
cent
ratio
n (n
g/m
³)
FPM BC Al Si S Cl K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Cu Zn Br Sr Pb
O'Higgins 98 São Paulo 94
São Paulo and Santiago Fine ModeAverage Elemental Concentration
Figure 3.4.5 – Comparison of average elemental concentrations between finemode aerosol samples from O’Higgins 1998 in Santiago de Chile and wintertimeSão Paulo aerosol measured in 1994 using the same sampler and techniques.
333...555 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennntttWith the large number of aerosol samples collected in each of the five sites and in
each aerosol fraction, fine or coarse mode aerosol, it is possible to perform principal factor
analysis and extract the major sources of trace element variability for each site and each
aerosol fraction. The sections 3.6 to 3.15 discuss in detail the factor analysis results for
each site, as well as the absolute principal factor analysis results that provides absolute
elemental source profiles and quantitative aerosol source apportionment.
333...666 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt OOO’’’HHHiiiggggggiiinnnsss fffiiinnneeemmmooodddeee
Table 3.6.1 presents the factor-loading matrix for the fine mode O’Higgins aerosol.
The factor loadings express the relationship between the four factors and each element,
indicating the nature of each source of variability. Four factors were obtained for the fine
mode aerosol from O’Higgins. The first factor has associations with Ca, Si, Ti, Fe, Al and
Sr, indicating that it is associated with soil dust. The second factor is associated with Br,
Pb, BC, K and Sr, as well as with the fine mode mass concentration (FPM) indicating it
represents vehicular emissions. The third factor is loaded with V and Ni, together with Zn,
Mn, and Cl, indicating it represents residual oil combustion mixed with industrial
emissions. The last factor is loaded with As and S, as well as the fine mode mass
concentration, representing the copper smelting industry in Chile. This component is
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 29
associated with copper, as observed in the cluster analysis procedure.
Table 3.6.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the fine mode O’Higgins aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
O'Higgins Fine Soil Dust Vehicles Oil Combustion +Industry S + As
CA .936 .112 .183 .115SI .932 -.160 - -TI .906 .128 .207 .247FE .809 .193 .473 .182AL .698 .330 .175 .395BR - .953 - .140PB - .908 .218 .244BC - .854 .343 .290K .304 .672 .202 .417
SR .607 .623 - -CU .223 .456 .397 .351NI .106 .127 .908 .230ZN - - .867 .354MN .328 - .852 -V - .362 .795 .194
CL .112 .497 .503 -S .123 .158 .360 .877
AS .308 .397 .148 .664FPM .280 .487 .436 .642
The Figure 3.6.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode
O’Higgins aerosol. The dendogram express the distances between the variables taking the
samples as a multivariate space and measuring the distances between the 60 fine mode
aerosol samples. The result is expressed as a distance chart, the dendogram. The horizontal
axis expresses the similarities between the variables. It can be observed that Pb, Br and
BC are very similar in distances, characterizing the vehicular emissions. This first cluster
group represents factor 2 in the factor analysis expressed in Table 3.6.1. The next group of
elements has similarities for S, As, Cu, FPM, and K, representing copper smelter
emissions, the factor 4 in Table 3.6.1. The third group is associated with Ni, V, Zn, Mn and
Cl representing factor 3 in table 3.6.1. The last group of elements consists of Ti, Fe, Ca, Si,
Al and Sr. These elements are ressuspended soil dust, represented in the factor 1 in Table
3.6.1. The results from the cluster and factor analysis in this case agrees very well,
showing the stability of the solutions.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 30
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ BC 2 -+ PB 19 -+---------------+ BR 17 -+ I FPM 1 ---+-+ +-----------+ S 5 ---+ +-+ I I K 7 -----+ +-+ I I AS 16 -------+ +-------+ I CU 14 ---------+ +-------------------+ NI 13 -+-+ I I ZN 15 -+ +-+ I I V 10 ---+ +-------+ I I MN 11 -----+ +---------------+ I CL 6 -------------+ I TI 9 -+ I FE 12 -+---+ I CA 8 -+ +-+ I SI 4 -----+ +-----+ I AL 3 -------+ +-----------------------------------+ SR 18 -------------+
Figure 3.6.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode O’Higginsaerosol.
The table 3.6.2 shows the Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the fine mode
O’Higgins aerosol. This table is somewhat similar to the factor loading matrix showed in
Table 3.6.1, but it is expressed in absolute amounts, ng/m³. The four columns show the
amount in ng/m³ apportioned to each element to each factor. The column “Sum Model”
expresses the sum of the concentrations apportioned to each factor for each element. The
“Measured” column expresses the observed concentration and the last column express the
ratio between the factor model and the measured concentrations. Most of the elements have
ratios near unity, expressing the adequacy of the source apportionment. For example, the
apportionment of FPM shows that 12.25 µg/m³ is associated with the soil dust component,
14.02 µg/m³ is originated from the vehicles emissions, 9.09 µg/m³ is associated with the oil
combustion and industry, and 3.78 µg/m³ is associated with the S+As+Cu factor. The total
FPM apportioned by the factor model was within 2 % of the measured value.
The Figure 3.6.2 shows the aerosol mass source apportionment for the fine mode
O’Higgins aerosol. Vehicle emissions account for the largest fraction of FPM, accounting
for 35.8 %. Soil dust is the second largest aerosol component, accounting for 31.3 % of
FPM. Oil combustion and industry accounts for 23.22 %, and the factor associated with
copper emissions, loaded with As and S accounts for 9.67% of the fine aerosol mass at
O’Higgins. The figure 3.6.3 shows the source apportionment for the black carbon at
O’Higgins fine mode aerosol. Vehicles are by far the largest source of black carbon
accounting in O’Higgins for 74.18 % of aerosol mass. Oil combustion and industry
accounts for 20.60 % and the copper smelter accounts for 5.22 % of the black carbon.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 31
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³) O'Higgins Fine Mode Factor AnalysisVariables Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Sum Model Measured Ratio
Soil Dust VehiclesOil
Combustion+Industry
S+As
FPM 12.25 14.02 9.09 3.78 39.15 39.74 1.02BC 6.49 1.80 0.46 8.75 8.46 0.97Mg 51.31 78.07 1.98 131.35 120.60 0.92Al 487.90 160.02 66.93 30.98 745.84 776.00 1.04Si 826.59 128.96 41.25 996.80 657.21 0.66 P 8.38 6.11 14.50 15.74 1.09 S 506.54 370.20 550.78 360.15 1787.67 1841.16 1.03Cl 19.24 45.55 33.00 97.79 100.16 1.02 K 99.88 152.66 31.92 19.55 304.00 307.24 1.01Ca 252.47 7.29 18.54 4.06 282.35 280.24 0.99Ti 43.56 4.23 4.75 1.55 54.10 55.14 1.02V 0.89 2.42 3.66 0.25 7.22 7.41 1.03Cr 2.61 2.80 5.41 7.51 1.39Mn 8.25 1.15 11.62 0.25 21.27 21.33 1.00Fe 313.82 42.58 87.27 9.58 453.26 456.51 1.01Ni 0.47 0.34 1.60 0.11 2.53 2.58 1.02Cu 10.78 13.46 8.43 2.06 34.72 35.48 1.02Zn 16.82 10.31 69.51 7.94 104.58 107.41 1.03As 19.85 17.94 4.51 6.50 48.80 49.01 1.00Br 79.17 0.87 2.33 82.37 74.97 0.91Sr 2.98 1.81 4.78 5.05 1.06Pb 156.09 24.06 8.65 188.80 176.75 0.94
Table 3.6.2 – Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the fine mode O’Higginsaerosol.
Soil Dust (31.30%)
Oil Combustion +Industry (23.22%)
S+As (9.67%)
Vehicles (35.81%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentFine Mode Mass O'Higgins Winter 1998
Figure 3.6.2 – Aerosol mass source apportionment for the fine mode O’Higginsaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 32
Oil Combustion +Industry (20.60%)
S+As (5.22%)
Vehicles (74.18%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentBlack Carbon O'Higgins Winter 1998
Figure 3.6.3 – Black carbon source apportionment for the fine mode O’Higginsaerosol.
333...777 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt OOO’’’HHHiiiggggggiiinnnsss cccoooaaarrrssseeemmmooodddeee
The coarse mode aerosol generally is loaded with resuspended soil dust in urban
areas, and this is also the case for Santiago. Table 3.7.1 shows the factor-loading matrix
for coarse mode aerosol in O’Higgins. The first factor account for a very large fraction of
data variability is loaded with soil dust related elements and also V, Zn, Cu, As and Cl.
This joint variability between different aerosol sources can be caused by joint variability of
trace elements caused by the meteorology. The second factor is loaded with Br, Pb, and
therefore is associated with vehicle emissions, but the presence of V, Cu and As indicates
some mixing with other sources such as oil combustion and copper smelters. The third
factor is loaded with black carbon sulfur and FPM, indicating the impact of direct diesel
emissions. The last factor has mostly chlorine, and it could represent intrusions of marine
air masses in Santiago downtown, or other unidentified aerosol source.
The Figure 3.7.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode
O’Higgins aerosol. The first group of elements is associated with soil dust. Chlorine indeed
is separated from most of the other elements, and constitutes the second group. The third
group is As, Cu, S, Zn, and V, consisting of copper smelters with some contribution of oil
combustion. The next group is Br and Pb, very closed together, and mostly separated from
other groups. The black carbon and fine mass is an independent group from the other
coarse mode elements.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 33
Table 3.7.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the coarse mode O’Higgins aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
O'Higgins Coarse Soil Dust+Industry Vehicles BC+ Organics Cl
SI .966 .182 .153 -AL .955 .203 .180 -TI .941 .240 .204 -K .931 .329 - -P .921 .281 - -
MN .915 .292 .211 -FE .911 .347 .206 -CA .910 .305 .248 -SR .882 .269 .208 -MG .881 .227 .200 .187
CPM .864 .429 .154 -V .730 .496 .282 -
ZN .682 .377 .343 -.112S .591 .439 .491 -.379
BR .242 .941 - -PB .360 .916 - -CU .507 .662 .317 .157AS .498 .579 - -.568BC .142 .258 .914 -
FPM .257 -.130 .899 -.146CL .525 .366 - .684
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ AL 6 -+ SI 7 -+ K 11 -+ CA 12 -+ FE 16 -+ TI 13 -+-+ MN 15 -+ +-+ CPM 2 -+ I +---------------+ SR 21 ---+ I I MG 5 ---+-+ +-------------------+ P 8 ---+ I I CL 10 ---------------------+ I V 14 -------+---+ +-------+ CU 17 -------+ +-------+ I I S 9 -----+---+ I I I I ZN 18 -----+ +-+ +---------------------+ I AS 19 ---------+ I I BR 20 -+-----------+ I I PB 22 -+ +-----+ I TEOM 4 -------------+ I FPM 1 -------+-----------------------------------------+ BC 3 -------+
Figure 3.7.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode O’Higginsaerosol.
The table 3.7.2 shows the Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the coarse mode
O’Higgins aerosol. It is interesting to notice that Pb and Br that are mostly associated with
factor 2, has an strong presence in factor 1 also. This happens because when we have
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 34
vehicular emissions in the coarse mode, it is certainly associated with ressuspended soil
dust.
Table 3.7.2 – Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the coarse mode O’Higginsaerosol.
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³) - O'Higgins Coarse Mode Factor AnalysisVariables Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Sum Coarse Measured Ratio
Soil Dust+Industry Vehicles BC +
Organics Cl
CPM 72.25 7.93 11.83 0.42 92.42 92.61 1.00MgAl 2374.97 112.50 442.18 7.39 2937.03 3010.43 1.02Si 6021.77 251.44 859.43 17.44 7150.07 7235.93 1.01 P 73.88 4.98 1.49 0.84 81.20 82.69 1.02 S 978.95 173.05 722.22 15.54 1889.76 1700.23 0.90Cl 406.42 64.79 71.42 126.81 669.44 529.10 0.79 K 822.18 64.21 67.89 2.02 956.30 975.10 1.02Ca 2358.42 176.58 551.09 17.40 3103.49 3103.84 1.00Ti 318.76 18.09 62.07 3.18 402.10 402.49 1.00V 12.25 1.89 4.06 0.20 18.40 18.56 1.01Cr 7.99 12.17 0.49 20.65 21.03 1.02Mn 74.20 5.30 14.18 0.64 94.33 95.21 1.01Fe 2630.02 222.64 520.64 6.50 3379.80 3430.05 1.01Ni 1.41 0.27 1.64 0.05 3.36 3.92 1.17Cu 46.64 14.26 25.37 3.39 89.67 90.03 1.00Zn 137.97 18.16 56.19 0.67 212.99 202.72 0.95As 61.53 15.36 8.69 85.58 72.23 0.84Br 48.96 33.83 10.83 2.33 95.95 101.41 1.06Sr 20.16 1.38 3.87 0.18 25.58 25.76 1.01Pb 122.64 64.52 23.25 1.80 212.21 219.16 1.03
Vehicles (8.58%)
BC+Organics (12.79%)Cl (0.45%)
Soil Dust +Industry (78.18%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentCoarse Mode Mass O'Higgins Winter 1998
Figure 3.7.2 – Source apportionment for the coarse mode O’Higgins aerosol.Figure 3.7.2 shows the source apportionment for the coarse mode O’Higgins
aerosol. Soil dust dominates with 78.18 % of the coarse mode mass concentrations. The
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 35
BC and organics component is responsible for 13% and vehicles accounts for 8.58 % of
coarse particle mass.
333...888 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt LLLaaasss CCCooonnndddeeesss fffiiinnneeemmmooodddeee
Las Condes is a Santiago area that receives significant secondary pollutants emitted
in other parts of the city. Table 3.8.1 shows the factor Loading matrix for the fine mode
Las Condes aerosol. Four components were identified, that are similar than the ones
observed in O’Higgins for the fine mode aerosol. The four factors are well separated and
constitute the sources: Transport, soil dust, oil combustion and the copper smelters.
Table 3.8.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the fine mode Las Condes aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Las Condes Fine Transport Soil Dust Oil Combustion As+S
K .875 .237 .159BC .862 .201 .262BR .843 .126 .265 .253CL .842 .322 .130PB .839 .275 .254 .245
FPM .591 .374 .533CU .553 .348 .500 .335CA .118 .890 .379SI .108 .887 .252FE .272 .791 .491 .140
CPM .780 -.103 .146TI .360 .759 .400 .280AL .247 .568 .499 .456NI .297 .224 .756 .197V .257 .334 .641 .289
MN .346 .586 .628ZN .526 .231 .576 .385S .363 .265 .860
AS .283 .118 .179 .848
The figure 3.8.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Las
Condes aerosol. The first group in the dendogram is the soil dust group. The second group
is the oil combustion group with V, Ni, coupled with other elements such as Cu, Zn and
Mn. The third group is the Pb and Br dominated vehicle emissions, with black carbon
combined in the group, as expected. The S and As shows a very close relationship, with
association with the fine mode mass concentration.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 36
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ TI 10 -+-+ FE 13 -+ +-----------+ SI 5 -+-+ +-------+ CA 9 -+ I I CPM 2 ---------------+ I CU 15 ---+-+ +-------------------------+ ZN 16 ---+ I I I MN 12 -----+-----+ I I AL 4 -----+ +-----------+ I V 11 -------+---+ I NI 14 -------+ I CL 7 ---+-+ I K 8 ---+ +---------------+ I BR 18 -+-+ I I I PB 19 -+ +-+ +---------------------------+ BC 3 ---+ I S 6 -+-------+ I AS 17 -+ +-----------+ FPM 1 ---------+
Figure 3.8.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Las Condesaerosol.
The Table 3.8.2 shows the Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the fine mode
Las Condes aerosol. Most of the elements were modeled within a few percent of the
measured concentrations. The Figure 3.8.2 shows the source apportionment for the fine
mode Las Condes aerosol. Transport and soil dust dominates completely the fine mode
aerosol in Las Condes, accounting for 80 % of the measured mass concentration. The
copper smelter group accounts for about 14% of the mass.
The Figure 3.8.3 shows the source apportionment for the fine mode black carbon
concentration at Las Condes, indicating that transport accounts for 70% of BC and the
factor associated with soil dust accounts for an extra 20.2% of the black carbon.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 37
Table 3.8.2 – Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the fine mode Las Condesaerosol.
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³) - Las Condes Fine Mode Factor AnalysisFactor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Sum
Model Measured Ratio
Transport Soil Dust OilCombustion As + S
FPM 21.05 11.62 0.91 5.35 38.94 40.29 1.03BC 3.59 1.05 0.21 0.34 5.19 5.46 1.05Mg 0.00 0.00Al 138.10 273.56 117.82 81.22 610.70 619.53 1.01Si 21.82 396.56 52.23 470.60 466.21 0.99 P 9.73 3.22 4.44 7.58 24.97 31.00 1.24 S 829.96 111.18 249.52 612.90 1803.57 1830.45 1.01Cl 35.07 5.44 1.47 41.98 40.16 0.96 K 214.98 23.40 11.72 250.11 250.63 1.00Ca 19.45 165.98 34.32 3.17 222.92 224.73 1.01Ti 11.59 22.81 5.87 3.08 43.36 43.53 1.00V 1.41 1.44 1.24 0.43 4.52 4.66 1.03Cr 0.00 9.79Mn 4.45 6.35 3.33 14.14 14.27 1.01Fe 79.78 220.77 67.51 13.55 381.61 384.31 1.01Ni 0.64 0.42 0.47 0.11 1.64 1.72 1.05Cu 11.59 6.07 4.33 2.18 24.18 24.53 1.01Zn 30.87 11.81 13.42 6.76 62.87 64.29 1.02As 20.81 3.39 6.40 28.35 58.95 57.04 0.97Br 22.73 1.32 2.82 2.09 28.95 28.74 0.99Sr 0.00 2.20Pb 55.49 13.81 6.73 4.97 81.00 81.49 1.01
Oill Combustion (2.34%)
As+S (13.75%)
Transport (54.07%)
Soil Dust (29.85%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentFine Mode Mass Las Condes Winter 1998
Figure 3.8.2 – Source apportionment for the fine mode Las Condes aerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 38
Soil Dust (20.24%)
Oill Combustion (4.01%)As+S (6.50%)
Transport (69.25%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentBlack Carbon Las Condes Winter 1998
Figure 3.8.3 – Source apportionment for the fine mode black carbon concentrationat Las Condes.
333...999 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennntttLLLaaasss CCCooonnndddeeesss cccoooaaarrrssseee mmmooodddeee
The Table 3.9.1 shows the factor loading matrix for the coarse mode Las Condes
aerosol. As expected from the fine mode results for this site and from the heavy traffic,
ressuspended soil dust is responsible for most of the aerosol mass, and this factor cames
together with industrial emissions. The second factor is sulfates mixed with Zn and
transport. The third factor represents oil combustion.
Table 3.9.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the coarse mode Las Condes aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Las Condes Coarse Soil Dust +Industry S+Zn+Transport Oil Combustion
SI .869 .334 .343AL .845 .329 .362K .827 .443 .269
FE .822 .410 .369TI .809 .430 .381CA .777 .430 .419MN .770 .492 .377
CPM .643 .623 .411S .366 .854 .180
ZN .439 .803 .340PB .258 .758 .536CU .638 .716 .145SR .508 .267 .763V .508 .432 .638
The Figure 3.9.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode
Las Condes aerosol. The very strong associations between the soil dust elements is clear in
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 39
this analysis. Vanadium and strontium are clustered similarly to the third factor. Cu, Pb
and Zn are clustered with black carbon, sulfur and the fine mass, representing the second
component.
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ TI 10 -+ FE 13 -+ CA 9 -+ MN 12 -+ AL 5 -+-------+ SI 6 -+ +-+ K 8 -+ I I V 11 -----+---+ +-----+ SR 16 -----+ I I TEOM 4 -----------+ I CPM 2 -+-+ +-------------------------------+ ZN 15 -+ I I I CU 14 ---+-+ I I PB 17 ---+ +-----------+ I S 7 -----+ I FPM 1 -----+-------------------------------------------+ BC 3 -----+
Figure 3.9.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Las Condesaerosol.
Table 3.9.2 shows the Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the coarse mode Las
Condes aerosol. The dominance in mass for the first component is very strong, dominating
the contribution of most of the trace elements. The Figure 3.9.2 shows the source
apportionment for the coarse mode Las Condes aerosol. About 66% of the coarse mass is
associated with soil dust and industry. Oil combustion contributes to 22% and the
remaining mass is associated with the component loaded with sulfur, zinc and transport.
Oil Combustion (21.93%)
Soil Dust +Industry (65.94%)
S+Zn (12.13%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentCoarse Mode Mass Las Condes Winter 98
Figure 3.9.2 – Source apportionment for the coarse mode Las Condes aerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 40
Table 3.9.2 – Absolute Principal Factor Analysis for the coarse mode Las Condesaerosol.
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³)Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Sum Measured Ratio
Soil Dust+Industry
S + Zn+Transport
OilCombustion
CPM 26.54 4.88 8.83 40.25 40.41 1.00MgAl 1164.36 76.55 261.03 1501.94 1557.34 0.96Si 2791.24 189.66 568.62 3549.52 3622.97 0.98 P 25.98 1.15 8.14 35.27 37.87 0.93 S 427.65 166.43 108.35 702.43 722.31 0.97Cl 61.87 0.51 10.62 73.00 88.56 0.82 K 305.56 29.53 50.59 385.68 391.11 0.99Ca 1168.07 122.13 324.85 1615.05 1617.16 1.00Ti 137.02 12.64 33.24 182.90 187.54 0.98V 5.01 0.70 3.03 8.74 9.02 0.97Cr 15.93 15.93 15.89 1.00Mn 31.53 3.86 7.88 43.27 43.22 1.00Fe 1253.80 114.95 286.67 1655.41 1669.25 0.99Ni 0.92 0.39 0.63 1.95 2.14 0.91Cu 27.51 5.36 3.35 36.22 37.07 0.98Zn 44.90 14.96 17.99 77.84 78.93 0.99As 24.13 8.64 32.76 33.12 0.99Br 7.16 2.31 6.76 16.23 18.62 0.87Sr 4.08 0.39 3.21 7.69 7.79 0.99Pb 17.77 9.30 18.87 45.95 46.73 0.98
333...111000 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt PPPuuudddaaahhhuuueeelll fffiiinnneeemmmooodddeee
The Table 3.10.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the fine mode Pudahuel
aerosol. The three same factor structures were observed, with soil dust, a transport and a
copper smelter component explaining most of the data variability. Fine mass is mostly
associated with the transport and copper smelter components.
The dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Pudahuel aerosols showed
in Figure 3.10.1. It is worthwhile to note the very close association between BC, Pb, Cl
and Br. Arsenic, copper, sulfur and zinc are also close together. Coarse particle mass is
associated with fine mode soil dust related elements.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 41
Table 3.10.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the fine mode Pudahuel aerosol.Pudahuel Fine Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Soil Dust Transport As+S+Cu
SI .967 - -CA .952 .214 -FE .941 .155 .245TI .930 .138 .254AL .850 .379 -MN .767 - .459
CPM .613 .521 -.161BR .127 .960 -PB .113 .952 .153BC - .888 .297CL .282 .812 .217K .323 .763 .297
ZN .145 - .911S - .125 .907
CU - .405 .712FPM .184 .540 .691AS .445 .254 .567
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ TI 10 -+ FE 12 -+-+ SI 5 -+ +-+ CA 9 -+ I +---+ AL 4 ---+ I +---------------------------------------+ MN 11 -----+ I I CPM 2 ---------+ I S 6 ---+---+ I ZN 14 ---+ I I CU 13 -------+-------------------+ I AS 15 -------+ I I FPM 1 ---+-----+ +---------------------+ K 8 ---+ I I BR 16 -+ +-----------------+ PB 17 -+-+ I BC 3 -+ +-----+ CL 7 ---+
Figure 3.10.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Pudahuelaerosol.
The Table 3.10.2 shows the Absolute Factor Analysis results for the fine mode
Pudahuel aerosol. The copper smelter and transport dominates the fine mass, as can be
seen in figure 3.10.2. The soil dust component makes the majority of Si, Fe and other
elements.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 42
Table 3.10.2 – Absolute Factor Analysis results for the fine mode Pudahuelaerosol.
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³) Pudahuel Fine ModeFactor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Sum Measured Ratio
Soil Dust Transport As+S+Cu
FPM 6.28 10.23 15.13 31.64 32.59 0.97BC 0.51 3.62 1.49 5.63 5.79 0.97MgAl 373.26 110.05 4.13 487.44 468.75 1.04Si 677.39 4.75 4.13 686.27 691.33 0.99 P 10.24 3.93 0.62 14.79 15.29 0.97 S 54.56 164.54 1299.42 1518.52 1552.88 0.98Cl 18.47 46.71 10.97 76.15 74.99 1.02 K 83.38 110.02 57.10 250.51 260.62 0.96Ca 227.19 34.24 1.38 262.80 253.73 1.04Ti 29.72 3.60 7.04 40.36 41.65 0.97V 0.80 1.04 2.29 4.13 4.16 0.99Cr 4.92 4.92 7.75 0.63Mn 8.07 0.46 3.48 12.01 11.66 1.03Fe 242.76 29.09 51.62 323.46 331.12 0.98Ni 0.41 0.15 0.66 1.22 1.33 0.91Cu 6.55 13.11 19.66 19.50 1.01Zn 9.42 49.15 58.58 58.48 1.00As 18.43 6.30 22.44 47.18 44.50 1.06Br 5.38 38.17 0.28 43.83 43.80 1.00Sr 0.00Pb 12.12 73.33 13.14 98.60 99.93 0.99
Soil Dust (19.85%)
As+S+Cu (47.80%)
Transport (32.34%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentFine Mode Mass Pudahuel Winter 1998
Figure 3.10.2 – Source apportionment for the fine mode Pudahuel aerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 43
Soil Dust (9.09%)
As+S+Cu (26.52%)
Transport (64.39%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentBlack Carbon Pudahuel Winter 1998
Figure 3.10.3 – Source apportionment for the black carbon in fine mode Pudahuelaerosol.
333...111111 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt PPPuuudddaaahhhuuueeelll cccoooaaarrrssseeemmmooodddeee
Almost the same factor structure as in the Pudahuel fine mode component was
observed in the coarse mode. Table 3.11.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the coarse
mode Pudahuel aerosol. The transport component with Pb, Cl and Br is very clear. The
Figure 3.11.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Pudahuel
aerosol. The very short distance between Br and Pb and between the soil dust elements is
clear. The black carbon and the fine particle mass does not have any association to the
coarse mode components in Pudahuel.
The Table 3.11.2 shows the Absolute Factor Analysis results for the coarse mode
Pudahuel aerosol. Soil dust dominates completely the aerosol mass, accounting for 88% of
the aerosol, as can be seen in Figure 3.11.2. Copper smelters and transport accounts for the
rest.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 44
Table 3.11.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the coarse mode Pudahuel aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Pudahuel Fine Soil Dust S + As + Cu Transport
SI .813 .443 .371AL .804 .464 .366TI .790 .474 .381FE .772 .480 .409K .772 .451 .438
CA .762 .481 .416MN .760 .495 .408P .752 .469 .352
CPM .725 .557 .391V .668 .425 .484
SR .664 .425 .444S .500 .828 .130
AS .359 .827 .334ZN .487 .770 .307CU .583 .672 .365PB .474 .622 .595CL .410 .187 .858BR .451 .562 .650
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ AL 4 -+ SI 5 -+ TI 11 -+ FE 14 -+ MN 13 -+ K 9 -+-+ CA 10 -+ +-+ CPM 2 -+ I +-----+ P 6 ---+ I I V 12 -----+ +---+ BR 18 -+---+ I I PB 20 -+ +-+ I I SR 19 -----+ +---+ +---------------------------------+ CL 8 -------+ I I CU 15 -+---+ I I ZN 16 -+ +---------+ I S 7 ---+-+ I AS 17 ---+ I FPM 1 -------+-----------------------------------------+ BC 3 -------+
Figure 3.11.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Pudahuelaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 45
Table 3.11.2 – Absolute Factor Analysis results for the coarse mode Pudahuelaerosol.
Concentrations apportioned (ng/m³) Pudahuel CoarseFactor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Sum Measured Ratio
Soil Dust S+As+Cu Transport
CPM 72.66 7.83 2.21 82.70 83.20 0.99MgAl 2680.47 205.95 64.65 2951.07 3016.90 0.98Si 7004.00 518.53 173.72 7696.25 7815.18 0.98 P 84.64 7.43 2.24 94.31 94.71 1.00 S 1079.28 209.32 13.41 1302.02 1366.24 0.95Cl 338.37 17.24 28.94 384.55 413.53 0.93 K 787.57 64.31 25.11 876.99 882.37 0.99Ca 2310.29 197.31 68.18 2575.77 2619.17 0.98Ti 295.08 23.99 7.70 326.78 332.13 0.98V 10.30 0.86 0.39 11.55 11.85 0.98Cr 11.71 0.69 0.00 12.41 15.57 0.80Mn 69.16 6.24 2.06 77.46 78.23 0.99Fe 2454.58 208.12 71.00 2733.70 2772.60 0.99Ni 1.83 0.33 0.02 2.17 2.23 0.97Cu 37.57 5.87 1.27 44.72 45.45 0.98Zn 88.38 15.45 2.46 106.29 112.79 0.94As 39.86 13.90 2.24 56.01 55.60 1.01Br 46.39 10.35 4.87 61.61 58.17 1.06Sr 18.02 1.49 0.62 20.14 20.73 0.97Pb 99.68 21.79 8.43 129.90 125.20 1.04
S+As+Cu (9.47%)Transport (2.67%)
Soil Dust (87.86%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentCoarse Mode Mass Pudahuel Winter 1998
Figure 3.11.2 – Source apportionment for the coarse mode Pudahuel aerosol.
333...111222 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt PPPeeellldddeeehhhuuueee fffiiinnneeemmmooodddeee
The Table 3.12.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the fine mode Peldehue
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 46
aerosol. Four components were observed, the first three ones similar to components
observed in O’Higgins and Las Condes, and a fourth factor with Cl and Zn, whose nature
is unknown.
Table 3.12.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the fine mode Peldehue aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Peldehue Fine Soil Dust Transport + OilCombustion As+S Cl+Zn
SI .960 .199 - -CA .952 .268 - -TI .910 .392 - -AL .904 .271 .178 .212FE .895 .415 - -MN .829 .483 - -ZN .742 .349 - .514CU .716 .489 .251 .308BC .365 .873 .108 .163BR .433 .796 .237 -V .294 .771 .120 .305
FPM .571 .762 .192 .149K .627 .742 - -.106
PB .567 .711 .201 .237AS - - .990 -S - .556 .739 .268
CL .117 .542 .480 .572
The Figure 3.12.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode
Peldehue aerosol. The soil dust is the first cluster. Copper smelters with As, Cu, S and Zn
is the second group. Vehicle emissions are the third group, with Pb, BC, Cl and Br. We
have not observed the fourth component observed in the factor analysis in the clusters.
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ TI 10 -+ FE 12 -+-+ SI 5 -+ +-+ CA 9 -+ I +---+ AL 4 ---+ I +---------------------------------------+ MN 11 -----+ I I CPM 2 ---------+ I S 6 ---+---+ I ZN 14 ---+ I I CU 13 -------+-------------------+ I AS 15 -------+ I I FPM 1 ---+-----+ +---------------------+ K 8 ---+ I I BR 16 -+ +-----------------+ PB 17 -+-+ I BC 3 -+ +-----+ CL 7 ---+
Figure 3.12.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Peldehueaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 47
Figure 3.12.2 shows the aerosol source apportionment for the fine mode Peldehue
aerosol. The transport and oil combustion component dominates the mass, with a
significant contribution of the fine mode soil dust component. Copper smelter accounts for
9.7% of the fine mode mass. Figure 3.12.3 shows the aerosol source apportionment for the
black carbon in the fine mode Peldehue aerosol, with a similar distribution to the mass.
Soil Dust (31.41%)
As+S (9.74%)Cl+Zn (0.94%)
Transport+Oil Combustion (57.90%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentFine Mode Mass Peldehue Winter 1998
Figure 3.12.2 – Aerosol source apportionment for the fine mode Peldehueaerosol.
Soil Dust (21.65%)
As+S (6.82%)Cl+Zn (1.02%)
Transport+Oil Combustion (70.51%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentBlack Carbon Peldehue Winter 1998
Figure 3.12.3 – Aerosol source apportionment for the black carbon in the finemode Peldehue aerosol.
333...111333 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennntttPPPeeellldddeeehhhuuueee cccoooaaarrrssseee mmmooodddeee
The Table 3.13.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the coarse mode Peldehue
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 48
aerosol. Four components were observed, with a separation of a second factor with Pb, S,
and Zn. The dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Peldehue aerosol can be
observed in Figure 3.13.1. The first group is heavily on soil dust elements, with vanadium
and others elements. Arsenic and sulfur are very closely associated. Copper, zinc and
sulfur are also clearly clustered.
Table 3.13.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the coarse mode Peldehue aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
PeldehueCoarse Soil Dust Pb + S + Zn Oil
Combustion As + S
MN .871 .397 .251 -K .871 .403 .211 .145SI .860 .330 .375 -AL .858 .378 .312 .102CA .847 .396 .333 -FE .845 .405 .331 -TI .837 .381 .375 -P .792 - .586 -
CPM .792 .420 .377 .188SR .607 .387 .567 .172CU .598 .574 .172 .356PB .421 .780 .129 .307ZN .538 .773 .259 -S .369 .695 .138 .553NI .261 .112 .949 -V .491 .223 .823 -
AS - .217 - .969
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ AL 4 -+ SI 5 -+ TI 11 -+ FE 14 -+ MN 13 -+ K 9 -+-+ CA 10 -+ +-+ CPM 2 -+ I +-----+ P 6 ---+ I I V 12 -----+ +---+ BR 18 -+---+ I I PB 20 -+ +-+ I I SR 19 -----+ +---+ +---------------------------------+ CL 8 -------+ I I CU 15 -+---+ I I ZN 16 -+ +---------+ I S 7 ---+-+ I AS 17 ---+ I FPM 1 -------+-----------------------------------------+ BC 3 -------+
Figure 3.13.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Peldehueaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 49
Figure 3.13.2 shows the aerosol source apportionment for the coarse mode
Peldehue aerosol, with a heavy dominance of soil dust particles. The second factor with
Pb, S and Zn is responsible for about 20 % of the aerosol mass.
Oil Combustion (8.28%)
As+S (7.62%)
Soil Dust (64.16%)
Pb+S+Zn (19.94%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentCoarse Mode Mass Peldehue Winter 1998
Figure 3.13.2 – Aerosol source apportionment for the coarse mode Peldehueaerosol.
333...111444 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennntttTTTaaalllaaagggaaannnttteee fffiiinnneee mmmooodddeee
Talagante has the lowest aerosol loading from the five sites for both fine and coarse
mode components. Table 3.14.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the fine mode
Talagante aerosol. A soil dust and a transport component is clearly observed. A third
component with copper smelters and other elements such as V and Zn was observed.
The Figure 3.14.1 shows the dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode
Talagante aerosol. The very close distance of Cl, Br and Pb is clear. Also the As, Cu, S,
Zn, fine mass and V can be observed. In terms of source apportionment, the transpor
components makes the majority of the aerosol mass, while the copper smelter and soil dust
accounts each for 15-20%, as can be observed in figure 3.14.2. Black carbon has a similar
source apportionment, but more heavily loaded in the transport component, as expected.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 50
Table 3.14.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the fine mode Talagante aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Talagante Fine Soil Dust Transport Cu+As+S+V+Zn
SI .927 .215 .195FE .909 .147 .347CA .873 - .119MN .836 -.149 -SR .815 .171 -TI .812 .385 .321AL .598 .567 .521BR - .936 .161CL - .877 .302PB .176 .802 .430K .425 .791 .156
BC .100 .785 .250FPM .175 .721 .569
S .154 .398 .868AS .125 .147 .861CU .399 .229 .812V .159 .257 .659
ZN .214 .403 .635
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ SI 5 -+ FE 13 -+---+ TI 10 -+ I SR 18 -----+---+ MN 12 -----+ +---------------------------------------+ CPM 2 ---+-----+ I CA 9 ---+ I AL 4 ---+---+ I K 8 ---+ I I CL 7 -+ +---------+ I BR 17 -+---+ I I I PB 19 -+ +-+ I I BC 3 -----+ +-------------------------------+ CU 14 ---+---+ I AS 16 ---+ I I FPM 1 -+-+ I I S 6 -+ +---+---------+ ZN 15 ---+ I V 11 -------+
Figure 3.14.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the fine mode Talaganteaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 51
Soil Dust (19.61%)Cu+As+S+V+Zn (15.60%)
Transport (64.79%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentFine Mode Mass Talagante Winter 1998
Figure 3.14.2 – Aerosol source apportionment for the fine mode Talaganteaerosol.
Soil Dust (16.11%)Cu+As+S+V+Zn (7.94%)
Transport (75.95%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentBlack Carbon Talagante Winter 1998
Figure 3.14.3 – Aerosol source apportionment for the black carbon aerosol in thefine mode Talagante site.
333...111555 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssooouuurrrccceee aaappppppooorrrtttiiiooonnnmmmeeennnttt TTTaaalllaaagggaaannnttteee cccoooaaarrrssseeemmmooodddeee
Table 3.15.1 shows the factor-loading matrix for the coarse mode Talagante
aerosol. In addition to the soil dust, copper smelters and oil combustion components, a S
and Zn component was also observed. In Figure 3.15.1, the dendogram for the cluster
analysis of the coarse mode Talagante aerosol can be observed. The close association of S
and Zn is clearly observed, confirming the factor analysis results. This component is close
to the Copper smelter factor.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 52
Table 3.15.1 – Factor Loading matrix for the coarse mode Talagante aerosol.Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
TalaganteCoarse Soil Dust As + Cu + Pb S + Zn Oil
Combustion
K .972 .117 .129 -MN .963 .153 - -FE .952 .203 .135 .149SI .948 .143 .201 .167
CPM .929 .123 .289 -TI .924 .240 .141 .212P .818 - .276 .189
CA .815 - .381 -AL .812 .350 .168 .218AS - .886 - .252PB - .846 .283 -CU .264 .817 .245 .285S .385 .280 .826 .129
ZN .254 .425 .817 .104V .328 .374 .177 .818
C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ SI 3 -+ FE 9 -+ TI 15 -+-+ CPM 1 -+ I K 6 -+ +-+ MN 8 -+ I +-+ AL 2 ---+ I +-----------------------------------------+ P 4 -----+ I I CA 7 -+-----+ I SR 14 -+ I S 5 ---+-----------+ I ZN 11 ---+ I I CU 10 -+-----+ +---------------------------------+ AS 12 -+ +---+ I PB 13 -------+ +---+ V 16 -----------+
Figure 3.15.1 – Dendogram for the cluster analysis of the coarse mode Talaganteaerosol.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 53
As+Cu+Pb (7.96%)
S+Zn (14.26%)Oil Combustion (0.71%)
Soil Dust (77.07%)
Santiago Aerosol Source ApportionmentCoarse Mode Mass Talagante Winter 1998
Figure 3.15.2 – Aerosol source apportionment for the coarse mode Talaganteaerosol.
The Figure 3.15.2 shows the aerosol source apportionment for the coarse mode
Talagante aerosol, with a very heavy dominance of soil dust aerosol. The copper smelter
component adds up to 20% of the aerosol mass, and the oil combustion has a negligible
contribution to the aerosol mass.
333...111666 ––– CCCooommmpppaaarrriiisssooonnn ooofff eeellleeemmmeeennntttaaalll sssooouuurrrccceeesss ppprrrooofffiiillleeesssThe obtained absolute elemental source profiles can be compared trough all the
sites in order to learn about the constancy of elemental composition for the sources
impacting the Santiago de Chile atmosphere. The Figure 3.16.1 shows a comparison of the
elemental composition for the soil dust source profile in the coarse mode of the three
sampling stations more impacted by ressuspended soil dust. It is remarkable the similarity
between the source profiles for most of the elements. The stability of the factor analysis
procedure is very strong on the analysis of elemental variability in Santiago de Chile. The
Figure 3.16.2 shows the soil dust elemental profile for the fine mode. In this case a large
variability was observed, because of mixing between the factors. In the fine mode direct
emissions of vehicular traffic is frequently mixed with ressuspended soil dust, because
both factors have similar time variability. Br and Pb were not onserved in the O’Higgins
fine mode soil dust component, possibly because the traffic is a so strng variability that that
factor tried to explain all variability in these two elements.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 54
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Perc
enta
ge o
f Coa
rse
Mod
e M
ass
(%)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel
Santiago de Chile Coarse Mode AerosolSoil Dust Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.1 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the soil dust sourceprofile in the coarse mode of the three sampling stations.
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Perc
enta
ge o
f Fin
e M
ass
(%)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel
Santiago de Chile - Fine Mode AerosolSoil Dust Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.2 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the soil dust sourceprofile in the fine mode of the three sampling stations.
Figure 3.16.3 shows a comparison of the elemental composition for the transport
source profile in the coarse mode of Santiago aerosol, while figure 3.16.4 shows the
transport source profile for the fine mode aerosol. For O’Higgins and Pudahuel sites, the
transport source profiles are similar. It is worthwhile to notice that this factor contain V
and Ni, probably as a result of mixing with oil combustion sources that have similar
variability because of joint meteorological controls. Although the absolute amount of Br
and Pb differs in the fine mode for the three stations, the ratio between Br and Pb is very
constant.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 55
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Perc
enta
ge o
f Coa
rse
Mas
s (%
)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Coarse Pudahuel Coarse
Santiago de Chile Coarse Mode AerosolCoarse Transport Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.3 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the transport sourceprofile in the coarse mode of Santiago aerosol.
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
Perc
enta
ge o
f Fin
e M
ass
(%)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Las Condes Pudahuel
Santiago de Chile - Fine Mode AerosolFine Transport Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.4 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the transport sourceprofile in the fine mode of the three sampling stations.
The Figure 3.16.5 shows a comparison of the elemental composition for the oil
combustion source profile in the fine mode aerosol from Santiago. Las Condes shows
higher absolute values because less fine mode mass was apportioned to this factor than in
O’Higgins. But, in general the ratios between the elements are quite similar. Figure 3.16.6
shows similar plot for the copper smelter component. It is remarkably that fine sulfur in
this component account for a high 10% of the mass and it is quite constant along the three
sites. Arsenic in this factor is about 0.1 to 0.6% in mass.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 56
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Perc
enta
ge o
f Fin
e M
ass
(%)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Fine Las Condes Fine
Santiago de Chile - Fine Mode AerosolOil Combustion Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.5 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the oil combustionsource profile in the fine mode aerosol from Santiago.
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
Perc
enta
ge o
f Fin
e M
ass
(%)
AlSi
P S
Cl K
CaTi
VCr
MnFe
NiCu
ZnAs
BrSr
Pb
OHiggins Fine Las Condes Fine Pudahuel Fine
Santiago de Chile - Fine Mode AerosolArsenic+Sulfur Source Profiles 1998
Figure 3.16.6 – Comparison of the elemental composition for the Arsenic + Sulfursource profile in the fine mode aerosol from Santiago.
444 ––– AAAeeerrrooosssooolll sssiiizzzeee dddiiissstttrrriiibbbuuutttiiiooonnnsssThe importance to measure aerosol size distribution resides in the fact that there a
large diversity of particle concentrations and composition from 0.1µm to 20µm in size.
Figure 4.1 shows the size distribution measured at the O’Higgins site on August
16, 1998. Note the dominance of particles in the size range of 3µm in size, at the coarse
mode aerosol. These coarse mode particles are resuspended soil dust.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 57
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Aero
sol M
ass
Con
cent
ratio
n (µ
g/m
³)
0.093 0.175 0.33 0.56 1.0 1.8 3.2 18.0Aerodynamic Diameter (µm)
Aerosol Size Distribution Santiago 98MOUDI 2 Mass Distribution (16/08/98)
Figure 4.1 – Aerosol size distribution measured with the MOUDI cascade impactorin the O’Higgins sampling site. Sampling on August 16, 1998.
. At figures 4.2 and 4.3, it is possible to observe that the fine mode is larger that
the coarse mode, probably due to increase of direct vehicle emissions. We can also notice
the strong presence of ultra fine particles at 0.18µm size, which have high efficiency to be
trapped in the alveolar region in the lungs.
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Aero
sol M
ass
Con
cent
ratio
n (µ
g/m
³)
0.093 0.175 0.33 0.56 1.0 1.8 3.2 18.0Aerodynamic Diameter (µm)
Aerosol Size Distribution Santiago 98MOUDI 4 Mass Distribution (21/08/98)
Figure 4.2 – Aerosol size distribution measured with the MOUDI cascade impactorin the O’Higgins sampling site. Sampling on August 21, 1998.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 58
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Aero
sol M
ass
Con
cent
ratio
n (µ
g/m
³)
0.093 0.175 0.33 0.56 1.0 1.8 3.2 18.0Aerodynamic Diameter (µm)
Aerosol Size Distribution Santiago 98MOUDI 5 Mass Distribution (22/08/98)
Figure 4.3 – Aerosol size distribution measured with the MOUDI cascade impactorin the O’Higgins sampling site. Sampling on August 22, 1998.
444...222 ––– BBBlllaaaccckkk cccaaarrrbbbooonnn aaaeeerrrooosssooolll sssiiizzzeee dddiiissstttrrriiibbbuuutttiiiooonnnsssAs fine mode black carbon particles carries many carcinogenic organic compounds,
it is important to measure with detail the concentration and size distribution of these
particles. Figure 4.2.1 shows the size distribution of black carbon aerosol particles
measured in O’Higgins on August 16, 1998. Significant concentrations were observed in
very fine size ranges, from 0.093 to 0.33µm in size. This is exactly the range expected to
have the highest lung penetration and deposition. The size distribution shows a consistent
picture. The same is true for others cascade impactors collected at different periods at the
O’Higgins sampling site. It is important to notice that black carbon particles have very
strong absorption characteristics for the visible part of the solar spectrum, especially at the
size range 0.2-0.4 µm. The amount of solar radiation absorbed by the high black carbon
concentrations as measured in Santiago de Chile could affect the vertical structure of the
temperature. This temperature changes affects the vertical atmospheric stability. Further
studies in Santiago could be directed to clarify this important phenomena.
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 59
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Blac
k C
arbo
n C
once
ntra
tion
(ng/
m³)
0.093 0.175 0.33 0.56 1.0 1.8 3.2 18.0Aerodynamic Diameter (µm)
Aerosol Size Distribution Santiago 98MOUDI 2 Black Carbon (16/08/98)
Figure 4.2.1 – Black carbon aerosol size distribution measured with the MOUDIcascade impactor in the O’Higgins sampling site. Sampling on August 16, 1998.
555 ––– CCCooonnncccllluuusssiiiooonnnsssAerosol mass concentrations for the fine, coarse and PM10 aerosol components
were measured for 5 sites in Santiago de Chile. Averages aerosol concentrations are high,
and similar to the ones measured in São Paulo. We also observed a significant reduction in
aerosol concentrations between 1996 and 1998. The average concentrations observed at
O’Higgins and Las Condes sites may have an important impact on human health. It was
observed that Santiago de Chile suffers from important air pollution problem, especially in
the aerosol particle component. Black carbon concentrations are high in downtown
Santiago, in levels approaching European black carbon standards.
There was a very significant reduction in 1998 compared to measurements in 1996
in the concentration of elements associated with residual oil combustion (vanadium and
nickel). This reduction is probably an effect of air pollution control strategies in making
more intense use of natural gas instead of oil combustion in industries in the metropolitan
area of Santiago de Chile. Also a reduction in black carbon concentrations was clearly
observed, possibly because of air pollution control strategies and the modernization of the
buses and auto fleet. Also reduction in fine mode mass concentration in Santiago was
pronounced for the Gotuzo and O’Higgins region.
It was identified five main aerosol sources in the urban area of Santiago: 1)
ressuspended soil dust; 2) Vehicular emissions; 3) Residual oil combustion; 4) Industrial
Aerosols in Santiago de Chile Wintertime 1998 – Pg. 60
emission; 5) Emissions from copper smelters. For most of the sites, but more importantly
in the O’Higgins and Las Condes sites, ressuspension of soil dust and traffic emissions
dominates the aerosol mass concentrations. The cooper smelter component was observed
in all five sampling sites, including the two more remote ones, Talagante and Peldehue.
Aerosol size distribution was measured showing two size ranges: fine mode
particles centered at 0.33µm aerodynamic diameter, and coarse mode particles centered at
3µm. Back carbon concentration were present exclusively in the fine mode fraction.
AAAccckkknnnooowwwllleeedddgggeeemmmeeennntttsssThanks are due to Pedro Oyola, Roberto Martinez, and Alcides Camargo Ribeiro
for help during the sampling and analysis. We also thank Ana L. Loureiro and Tarsis
Germano for assistance during gravimetric and PIXE analysis. The staff of the LAMFI
laboratory is acknowledged for assistance in accelerator operation. We thank financial
support from CONAMA-RM for this study.
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