1. 2 the history and scope of psychology overview what is psychology? psychology’s roots ...

The History and Scope of Psychology Overview

What is Psychology? Psychology’s Roots

Contemporary Psychology

Psychological Perspectives

Psychology’s RootsAristotle (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts.

He suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from

experience.

://facu

lty.wa

Psychology’s Roots

Psychological Science

Is Born Empiricism

Knowledge comes from

experience via the senses Science flourishes

through observation

and experiment

Psychological Science is Born

Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of

the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in

This work is considered the birth of psychology

as we know it today.

t (1832-1

American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook.

Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.

Mary C

Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It was, until the 1920s, defined as the science of

mental life.

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the

unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.

-1939)

Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists

Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter

of scientific psychology.

ner (1

Psychology’s Subfields: Applied

Psychologist What she does

ClinicalStudies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

CounselingHelps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.

EducationalStudies and helps individuals in school and educational settings

Industrial/Organizational

Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.

Research Strategies: How Psychologists

Ask and Answer Questions

Module 2

Operational definition

• A statement of the procedures used to define research variables

• Allows and facilitates replication of observations

• Operationally define shoe?

Survey

Random Sampling

If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a

sample, it is called a random sample

(unbiased).The fastest way to know about

the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

Correlation

When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two

variables.

Scatterplot

The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There

is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.

Skewed Distributions

PositiveMean > Median

NegativeMean < Median

Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.

Order in Random Events

Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

Experimentation

Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research.

Experiments isolate causes and their effects.

Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept

under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & Effect

Evaluating Therapies

Double-blind Procedure

Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo

An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the

focus of the study.

For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast

feeding is the independent variable.

Independent Variable IV

A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a

behavior or a mental process.

For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence,

intelligence is the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable DV

Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments?

Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Neural and Hormonal Systems

Module 3

“…it has been calculated that the number of possible permutations and

combinations of brain activity,..exceeds the number of

elementary particles in the known universe.”

Ramachandran in A Brief Tour Of Human Consciousness

Neural CommunicationThe body’s information system is built from

billions of interconnected cells called neurons.

A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.

Myelin sheath“Practice makes Myelin, Myelin

makes perfect.”• Specialized Glial cells • Acts as an electrical

insulator • Not present on all

cells• Increases the speed

of neural signals down the axon.

Myelin Sheath

Parts of a Neuron link .50

How neurons communicate

• Neurons communicate by means of an electrical signal called the Action Potential

• Action Potentials are based on movements of ions between the outside and inside of the cell

• When an Action Potential occurs a molecular message is sent to neighboring neurons

Action PotentialA neural impulse. A

brief electrical charge that travels down an

axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of

channels in the axon’s membrane.

Threshold

Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals

from many neurons.

Action Potential Properties

All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the

action potentials strength or speed.

Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters (chemicals)

released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving

neuron.

Types of Neurotransmitters• Acetylcholine• Serotonin• Norepinephrine• Dopamine• Endorphins• GABA • Glutamate

Acetylcholine

• Found in neuromuscular junction

• Involved in muscle movements

Alzheimer’s Disease• Deterioration of memory, reasoning,

and language skills

• Symptoms may be due to loss of ACh neurons

Serotonin

Serotonin pathways are involved with

mood regulation.

Prozac works by keeping serotonin in the synapse

longer, giving it more time to exert an effect

LSD and Seratonin at Nat Geo 2:21

Dopamine

Important for movement, rewards & pleasure.

Involved with diseases such

as schizophrenia

and Parkinson’s disease.

Link dopamine flood at Nat Geo 3:44

Endorphins• Control pain and

pleasure• Released in response to

pain• Morphine and codeine

work on endorphin receptors Involved in healing effects of acupuncture

• Link Endorphins at AM 5:12

Kinds of Neurons

Sensory Neurons carry incoming

information from the sense receptors to the

CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information

from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect

the two neurons.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.

The Endocrine System

The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow”

chemical communication

system. Communication is

carried out by hormones

synthesized by a set of glands.

The Brain

• Module 4

• Slides from Myers, Runyan, McCubbin, and Jones

PET ScanPET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task.

sy of N

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to

produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures

within the brain

fMRI - Functional MRI

Compares MRI scans taken less than a second apart

Detects blood moving to active parts of the brain

Shows brain function

Brain Stem

The Medulla is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal & attention.

Brain StemThe Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

The Limbic System

HypothalamusThe Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

"TALE of the hypothalamus":

Temperature

Appetite

Libido

Emotion

Rats cross an electrified grid for

self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the

reward (hypothalamus)

center (top picture).

Reward Center

Sanjiv T

alwar, S

ownstate

Hippocampus• Important for

memory

• Damage may cause anterograde amnesia

• Link 9:58

The Cerebral Cortex

• Cerebral Cortex – the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells

that covers the cerebral hemispheres– the body’s ultimate control and information

processing center

• Glial Cells – cells in the nervous system that are not neurons

but that support, nourish, and protect neurons

The Cerebral Cortex• Frontal Lobes

– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

• Parietal Lobes

– include the sensory cortex

• Occipital Lobes

– include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

• Temporal Lobes

– include the auditory areasLink Frontal lobe development at PBS

The Cerebral Cortex

The Cerebral CortexAphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s Area Link

an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke’s Area Link

an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension Link 7:44

Split Brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus Callosum.

Sperry and Gazzaniga are key researchers in this area.

Behavior Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology

Module 5

Environmental Influences on

Behavior

Module 6

Environmental Influence

Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,

and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Norm an understood rule for accepted and

expected behavior

Developmental Issues,

Prenatal Development,

and the Newborn

Module 7

Developmental Psychology

Issue Details

Nature/Nurture

How do genetic inheritance (our nature)

and experience (the nurture we receive)

influence our behavior?

Continuity/Stages

Is developmental a gradual, continuous

process or a sequence of separate stages?

Stability/Change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become

different persons as we age.

PKU - Phenylketonuria

• Recessive genetic condition where the child lacks an enzyme to break down phenylalanine

• Untreated, it can cause problems with brain development, leading to retardation, brain damage, and seizures

Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival…

• Rooting - turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek

• Grasping - curling the fingers around an object• Stepping Reflex -

reflex that causes

newborns to

start a stepping motion

as they touch a surface

Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Preferences human voices

and faces facelike

images, smell and sound of mother preferred

Infancy and Childhood

Module 8

Infancy and Childhood

Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,

the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.

Stage Span

Infancy Newborn to toddler

Childhood Toddler to teenager

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Schema a concept or framework that

organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development

Schema example 2:23

Psychology 7e in Modules 72

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

SensorimotorBirth to nearly 2 years

Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety•Some cause and effect

PreoperationalAbout 2 to 6 years

Concrete operationalAbout 7 to 11 years

Formal operationalAbout 12 through adulthood

Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development•Think in symbols

Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Abstract reasoning, speculation •Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Piaget’s Stages

Piaget Stages Mnemonic

• Smart People Cook Fish

• Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete-operational, Formal-operational

Sensorimotor Stage

In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,

mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of

sight are also out of mind.

Object permanence in dogs 15:20

Preoperational Stage

Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the

preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations.

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Conservation the principle that properties such as mass,

volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Harlow and Attachment

Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred

contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother

Attachment

• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation– Unfamiliar playroom– Mother and unfamiliar woman– Women play with baby – leave briefly

• How to the babies respond?

• Link 3:15

Insecure Attachment

• Some have insecure attachment, 30%– Avoidant – avoid or ignore mother on return– Ambivalent –upset when mom leaves, but

vacillate between clingy and angry on return– Disorganized – inconsistent, disturbed,

disturbing – may reach out for mom while looking away (Moss 2004)

– Link 2:10

Deprivation of Attachment

What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments?

In such circumstances children become:

1. Withdrawn2. Frightened3. Unable to develop speech

Link 13:20 Attachment Disorder

Social Development: Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”

Permissive submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use

little punishment Authoritative

both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open

discussion Rejecting-Neglecting

completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little

Adolescence

Module 9

Developing Morality

Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person

steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.

/ Dave

Martin

Link Where is morality at PBS 14:08

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they

doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel

guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Mnemonic

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Mnemonic linkApproximateage Stage Description of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become

confused about who they are.

Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family

and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction orup) failure.

Adulthood

Module 10

Aging and Intelligence

It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with

age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills)

increases.

We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.

Introduction to Sensation and

Perception: Vision

Module 11

ThresholdsAbsolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed

to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

“Yes”

0 5 10 15 20 25 Stimulus Intensity (lumens)

Why Does the “Absolute” Threshold Vary?

- Signal Detection• Sensitivity:

– Intensity of the signal.– Capacity of sensory systems.– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”

• Response criterion reflects one’s willingness to respond to a stimulus.– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Put a band aid on your arm and after awhileyou don’t sense it.

Transduction

In sensation, the transformation of stimulus energy (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses.

…we live in the past in a very real way.

The LensLens: Transparent

structure behind the pupil that changes

shape to focus images on the retina.

Accommodation: The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus

near or far objects on the retina.

Retina

Retina: The light-sensitive inner

surface of the eye, containing

receptor rods and cones in addition to layers of other neurons (bipolar,

ganglion cells) that process

visual information.

Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea

http://www.bergen.org

Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.

Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors

Rods peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light

Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions

Bipolar & Ganglion Cells

Bipolar cells receive messages

from photoreceptors and transmit

them to ganglion cells, which

converge to form the optic nerve.

Feature Detection

Nerve cells/neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features, such as edges, angles, and movement…. many

cortical cells respond most strongly to specific visual information

Color Blindness

Ishihara Test

Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the

Trichromatic theory.

100100

Opponent Process Theory

Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue-

yellow, and black-white.

101101

Opponent Colors

Gaze at the middle of the flag for about 60Seconds. When it disappears, stare at the dot and report

whether or not you see Britain's flag.

The Other Senses

Module 12

Frequency (Pitch)

Frequency (pitch):

Determined by the

wavelength of sound.

•The star player FREQUENTLY PITCHES.

The Ear

Dr. Fred H

ossler/ Visuals U

nlimited

Link Shepherds ascending scale

The Ear

Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum.

Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

CochleaCochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in

the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to auditory signals.

Localization of SoundsBecause we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize

the sound.

1. Intensity differences2. Time differences

Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors

for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.

Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami(Fresh

Chicken)

Taste link at Nova

Blocking bitter taste at Nova

Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of

Life• Olfaction

– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity – Pheromone detection of sweat and urine

• Vomeronasal organ• Influence human female reproductive cycles• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood

changes• Males may respond to sex hormones

Perceptual Organization

Module 13

Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information

into meaningful wholes a school of psychology founded in Germany

in the 1900s that maintained our sensations are processed according to consistent perceptual rules that result in meaningful whole perceptions, or gestalts.

Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their

surroundings (ground).

Figure GroundT

avings Suggestion, ©

2003 Roger S

heperd.

Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

Grouping Principles proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are

seen as unit when connected

Depth Perception

Visual Cliff

Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.

Binocular Cues

Convergence: Neuromuscular cues. When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see

faraway objects.

Monocular Cues

Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation

point, moving slower and in the same direction.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal

images change.

Perceptual Interpretation

Module 14

Waking and Sleeping Rhythms

Module 15

Biological Rhythms and SleepCircadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and

include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light.

Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland

and increase (evening) it at nightfall.

During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.

Sleep Stages 1-2

Theta Waves

Stage 5: REM Sleep

After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1.

Although still asleep, the brain engages in low- amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)

much like awake-aroused state.

1. Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall asleep. Fatal Insomnia Link 43:19

2. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up. Narcoleptic dog 1:49 Narcolepsy 4:00

3. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when asleep. Link 2:27

Sleep Disorders

Hypnosis

Module 16

Hypnosis Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one

experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Hypnosis: Pain Relief

Dissociation (divided consciousness) a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to

occur simultaneously with others

Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized

subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Drugs and Consciousness

Module 17

Dependence & AddictionContinued use of a psychoactive drug

produces tolerance.

With repeated exposure to a drug,

the drug’s effect lessens. Thus it takes greater

quantities to get the desired effect.

Withdrawal & Dependence

1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug users may experience undesirable side effects.

2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).

Depressants1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and

memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.

Daniel H

er, NIA

Depressants

2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs

that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the

absence of sensory input.

Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01

Another person on Acid 8:46

Leary and kids who dropped acid…creepy 1:14

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Module 18Module 18

It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical

conditioning.

His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Classical Conditioning is Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus an originally neutral stimulus

comes to produce a conditioned comes to produce a conditioned response because of its response because of its

association with an association with an unconditioned stimulus.unconditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in

salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits

salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial learning stage in

classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus takes place.

1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.

2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. One must reliably predict the other.

Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to

decrease and eventually causes extinction.

A disappeared CR is called extinguished, not extinct.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus.

Biological Predispositions• John Garcia

Conditioned taste aversions

• Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.

• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste

• External stimuli—associate better with pain

• Biological preparedness

Behaviorism

John B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all

schools of thought today

Remember that Little Albert Remember that Little Albert generalized his fear of rats into generalized his fear of rats into fear of anything with white fur, fear of anything with white fur,

including a Santa Claus mask, a including a Santa Claus mask, a rabbit, etc.rabbit, etc.

Operant Conditioning

Module 19

Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. link

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

is Ram

adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im

Fred Bavendam

/ Peter Arnold, Inc.

Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows.

A heat lamp positively

reinforces a meerkat’s behavior

in the cold.

Reuters/ C

Types of Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcer (+)– Adds something

rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

– Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example

• Negative reinforcer (-)– Removes something

unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again

– Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example

Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR)

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

like gambling, fishing very hard to

extinguish because of unpredictability

Skinner link 3:58

SLOT machines show SLOwesT extinction.

Updating Skinner’s Understanding

• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure.

• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.

Learning By Observation

Module 20

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

erb Terrace

Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Information

Processing

Module 21

Studying Memory: Information Processing

Models

Keyboard(Encoding)

Disk(Storage)

Monitor(Retrieval)

Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

Encoding Meaning

Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with

what we already know or imagine.

Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better

recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

Chunking

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by

“chunking.”

FBI TWA CIA IBMBut you didn’t know that you can handle 4

chunks

Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.

Scott Barbour/ G

etty Images

Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories

Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know

and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual

does not know or declare what she knows.

Fig. 7-23, p. 286

No New Memories

Amnesias

AnterogradeAmnesia

Retrograde amnesia

Surgery

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered

everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this

anterograde amnesia.

Memory Intact

How memory works at Nova 10:15

Memory intact

Surgery

No old memories

Implicit & Explicit Memory

HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).

Towers of Hanoi Link

Forgetting, Memory

Construction, and Improving

Memory

Module 22

Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of

old information

Thinking

Module 23

Thinking Cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities

concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation

Thinking

Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events,

ideas, or people

Prototype mental image or best example of a category

matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

Thinking Algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--use of heuristics

Algorithms

Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a

solution. Computers use algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,200 possibilities.

Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgments and

solve problems efficiently. Heuristics

are less time consuming, but more

error-prone than algorithms.

Heuristics with the psych files 15:12

Productions/D

igital Version/G

etty Images

Thought Puzzle #1

What got in the way of solving this problem?

Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem.

Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.

Functional Fixedness

A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.

Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.

Obstacles in Solving Problems

Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.

2 – 4 – 6

Discover the rule

Fixation

Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes

problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.

The Matchstick Problem: How would

you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

“Problem

Solving” by M

. Scheerer. C

Scientific A

merican, Inc. A

ll Rights R

eserved.

Language and Thought

Module 24/CH 11 Sec 2Language is so powerful that is has “…produced a species that transcends apehood to the same degree by which life transcends mundane chemistry and physics.”

Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. xv

Language Structure

Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:

bat, has three phonemes b · a · t

chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t

Languages have these sounds in common

She has mastered the Phonemes but not the meaning…Ken Lee vid 1:14

Language Structure

Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example:

Milk = milk

Pumpkin = pump . kin

Unforgettable = un · for · get · table

Language

Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning

from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

also, the study of meaning

Syntax the rules for combining words into

grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Language Babbling Stage (pre-linguistic event)

beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which

the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language Linguistic Genius of babies at TED 10:18

One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during

which a child speaks mostly in single words

Explaining Language Development cont.

2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

Language Influences Thinking

Linguistic Determinism (Whorf hypothesis): language determines the way we think.

For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.Link

InsightChimpanzees show insightful behavior

when solving problems.

Sultan uses sticks to get food.

Chimp Problem solving: http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=ySMh1mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgOW9LnT4&feature=related&safety

_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

Intelligence Module 25

General Intelligence

Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.

For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on

paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor,

and a reasoning ability factor.

Link Battle of the Brains 49:23

Intelligence and Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates

somewhat with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in

novel ways, recognize patterns and make connections.

3. A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.

4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within, must enjoy challenges.

5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.Creativity on TED

Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet practiced a modern form of

intelligence testing by developing questions

that would predict children’s future

progress in the Paris school system.

Lewis Terman

In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s

test for American school children and named the test the

Stanford-Binet Test.

The following is the formula of Intelligence

Quotient (IQ)

Normal Curve

Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

Reliability

A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers

establish different procedures:

1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.

2. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

Validity

Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is

supposed to measure or predict.

1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.

2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

Genetic InfluencesStudies of twins, family members, and adopted

children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

Adoption Studies

Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.

Introduction to Motivation: Hunger

Module 26

Link: Battle at Kruger 8:24

Drive Reduction Theory Cont.

• Primary Drives– Unlearned

• Food• Water• Temperature regulation

FoodDrive

Reduction

Organism

Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)

• Secondary Drives– Learned

• Money• Shelter• Job

Homeostasis

-tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

-regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

Incentive

Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our

drives.

A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

Hierarchy of Needs

Body Chemistry & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by

receptors (neurons) in the stomach,

liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in

the brain.

Rat Hypothalamus

Glucose Molecule

Hypothalamic CentersThe lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on

hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating.

The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat

ravenously. Lateral nucleus – Causes us to start eating and keep eating. (LATERAL)

"Late night snack":

LATEral is snacking [feeding]

center.

Hypothalamic Centers

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the

VMH, and the animal eats excessively.

Richard H

owardVentromedial nucleus - Causes us

to stop eating and not be interested in food. (VomitMeal)

Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

StomachIncreases hunger

Insulin increase

PancreasIncreases hunger

Leptin increase

Fat cellsDecreases hunger

PPY increaseDigestive tract

Decreases hunger

Motivation-Hunger

Set Point the point at which an individual’s

“weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight,

an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure

Sexual Motivation

Module 27

Motivation at Work

Module 28

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Overview

Applies psychological principles to the workplace.

1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers.

2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

3. Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.

Sources of Achievement Motivation

Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Parents and teachers have an influence on the roots of motivation.Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions.

Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.

Setting Specific, Challenging Goals

Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially

if there is feedback such as progress reports.

Theories and Physiology of

Emotion

Module 29

James-Lange Theory

James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Proposed that an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously.

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory

Our physiology and cognitions create emotions.

Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.

Two factory theory on the psych files 24:17

Expressing and Experiencing

Emotion

Module 30

Culture and Emotional Expression

When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did

fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).

an & M

atsumoto, Japanese and

Caucasian F

acial Expression of E

motion

Venting anger through action or fantasy ----achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.”

Opposing Theory-- Expressing anger breeds more anger, and

through reinforcement it is habit-forming.

Catharsis Hypothesis

Stress and Illness

Module 31

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

According to Selye, a stress response to any kind ofstimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes

through three phases.

Stress and the HeartStress that leads to elevated blood pressure may

result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle.

Plaque incoronary

artery

Arteryclogged

Personality Types

Type A is a term used for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and

anger-prone people. Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974).

Type A personalities are more likely to developcoronary heart disease.

Stress and Colds

People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when

exposed to an experimental cold virus.

Promoting Health

Module 32

Promoting Health Biofeedback

An electronic technique that enables a person to control physiological responses that are normally involuntary blood pressure muscle tension

228228

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Module 33

Your conscious life, in short, is nothing but an elaborate post-hoc rationalization of things you really

do for other reasons.Ramachandran in A Brief Tour of Human

Consciousness

229229

Dream AnalysisAnother method to analyze the

unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.

230230

Id, Ego and Superego

The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive

drives, operating on the pleasure principle,

demanding immediate gratification.

The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the

demands of the id and superego.

The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

231231

Defense Mechanisms

3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.

4. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

232232

Assessing Unconscious Processes

Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a

psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.

The Humanistic Perspective

Module 34

Humanistic PerspectiveFocuses on mental capabilities that set

humans apart; self awareness, creativity, planning, decision making, responsibility.

Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

Mnemonic

Rodgers

Abraham

Maslow

Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed

that we as individuals are motivated by a

hierarchy of needs. Beginning

with physiological

needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization

—fulfilling our potential.

Person-Centered Perspective

Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that

Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.

Michael R

e Warner, Inc.

Assessing the Self

All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close

the individual had a positive self-concept.

Contemporary Research on Personality

Module 35

The Trait Perspective

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically

used of all personality tests originally developed to identify emotional

disorders (still considered its most appropriate use)

now used for many other screening purposes

Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the

resulting behavior in various situations is different.

Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

In his social-cognitive theory Albert Bandura

(1999; 2006) sees personality as shaped by

the ways in which thoughts, behavior, and the environment interact

and influence one another.

Albert Bandura

Personal Control

External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces

beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.

Self efficacy: learned expectations about probability of success

Learned HelplessnessWhen unable/unwilling to avoid repeated

adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.

Low self efficacy

Introduction to

Psychological

Disorders

Module 36

Defining Psychological Disorders

Mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts, feelings, and actions.

When behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists

label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).

Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional

1.Deviant behavior in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.

2.Deviant behavior must accompany distress.

3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.

Carol B

eckwith

Woodabe clip at youtube

Goals of DSM

1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the

disorder is.

Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.

Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”

Anxiety, Dissociative, Somatoform

and Personality Disorders

Module 37

Anxiety Disorders

Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.

1. Generalized anxiety disorder2. Panic disorder3. Phobias4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder5. Post-traumatic stress disorder

Panic Disorder

Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest

pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.

Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making

people avoid situations that cause it. link

Symptoms

Phobias

Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior.

Kinds of Phobias

Phobia of blood.Hemophobia

Phobia of closed spaces Link .

Claustrophobia

Phobia of heights link.Acrophobia

Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia

Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link

Obsessive-Compulsive DisorderPersistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)

and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause distress. Clip

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic

stress disorder (PTSD):

1. Haunting memories

2. Nightmares3. Social withdrawal

4. Jumpy anxiety

5. Sleep problems

Bettmann/ Corbis

Somatoform Disorders• Psychological problems in which there are

symptoms of a physical disorder without a physical cause.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, formerly

called multiple personality disorder. Link

Chris Sizemore (DID)Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason

Personality DisordersPersonality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns

that impair social functioning. Link 58:55

Antisocial Personality DisorderA disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends

and family members.Link 6:29

Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.

Mood Disorders

Module 38

Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are

not caused by drugs or medical conditions.

1. Lethargy and fatigue2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family &

friends4. Loss of interest in activities

Signs include:

Pharmacology

• Bipolar disorders most effectively treated with tricyclic antidepressants and Lithium Carbonate

• Lithium serves as a mood stabilizer

Social-Cognitive Perspective

The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating

beliefs and negative explanatory styles.

Schizophrenia

Module 39

Schizophrenia

The literal translation is “split mind” which refers to a split from reality. A group of severe

disorders characterized by the following:

1. Disorganized and delusional thinking.

2. Disturbed perceptions. 3. Inappropriate emotions

and actions.

Link 58:42

Disorganized & Delusional Thinking

Many psychologists believe disorganized thoughts occur because of selective attention

failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).

Disturbed Perceptions

A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Most such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,

somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.

erthold, Untitled. T

he Prinzhorn Collection, U

niversity of Heidelberg

August N

atter, Witches H

ead. The Prinzhorn C

ollection, University of H

eidelberg

Photos of paintings by K

rannert Museum

, University of Illinois at U

rbana-Cham

Understanding Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.

Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine

D4 receptors in the brain.

Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic patients.

Brain Abnormalities

Abnormal Brain MorphologySchizophrenia patients may exhibit

morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.

Both Photos: C

ourtesy of Daniel R

. Weinberger, M

.D., N

The Psychological

Therapies

Module 40

Psychoanalysis: Methods

Through free association eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her

innermost private thoughts.

Developing positive or negative feelings may be transference towards the

therapist.

Behavior Therapy

Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply below the surface looking for inner

causes.

Link AM The Mind

Classical Conditioning Techniques

Counterconditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that

trigger unwanted behaviors.

It is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive

conditioning.

Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning procedures enable therapists to use behavior modification,

in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are either

unrewarded or punished.

In institutional settings, therapists may create a token economy in which patients

exchange a token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the desired behavior, for

various privileges or treats.

Cognitive Therapy

Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and

our emotional reactions.

Group & Family Therapies

Group therapy normally consists of 6-9 people attending a 90-minute session that can help more people and costs less. Clients benefit

from knowing others have similar problems.

it, Inc.

Community Psychology

• A movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs.

• Deinstitutionalization: The release of those with mental disorders from mental hospitals for the purpose of treating them in their home communities

Psychology 7e in Modules

The Biomedical Therapies

Module 42

Drug Therapies

Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on mind and behavior.

With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental institutions has rapidly declined.

Psychology 7e in Modules

Mood-Stabilizing Medications

Lithium Carbonate, a common salt, has been used to stabilize manic

episodes in bipolar disorders.

Brain Stimulation

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

ECT is used for severely depressed patients who

do not respond to drugs.

Social ThinkingModule 43

Focuses in Social Psychology

Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate

to one another.

“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”

Herman Melville

Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations

Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to

give causal explanations for

someone’s behavior, often by crediting

either the situation or the person’s disposition.

http://ww

w.stedw

ards.edu

Fritz Heider

Fundamental Attribution Error

Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing

the behaviors of others.

We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.

Small Request – Large Request

In the Korean War, Chinese communists solicited cooperation from US army

prisoners by asking them to carry out small errands. By complying to small errands they

were likely to comply to larger ones.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small

request to comply later with a larger request.

Actions Can Affect Attitudes

Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and

actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.

Link 4:54

To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).

Social Influence

Module 44

Group Pressure & Conformity

Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.

Group Pressure & Conformity

Informational Social Influence: An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept

others’ opinions about reality. Link 1:58

Willia

rt/ Scie

Conditions that Increase Conformity1. One is made to feel incompetent or

insecure.2. The group has at least three people.

(but no appreciable increase over 3)3. The group is unanimous.4. One admires the group’s status and

attractiveness.5. One has no prior commitment to a

response.6. The group observes one’s behavior.7. One’s culture strongly encourages

respect for a social standard.

Milgram’s Study: Results

Milgram on Youtube

Diffusion of Responsibility/Bystander

Intervention Effect• The phenomenon where a person is less

likely to take responsibility for an action or inaction when others are present.

• The greater number of bystanders who witness an emergency the less likely it is that any one of them will intervene to help.

• Link 3:36 Bystander effect Link

Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies

In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and

being responsive to others.

Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others

Social facilitation: Refers to improved

performance on tasks in the presence of

others.

Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race

times were faster when they competed against others than

when they just raced against the clock.

nis/ N

Social LoafingThe tendency of an individual in a group

to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested

individually (Latané, 1981).

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster

arousal and anonymity.

Mob behavior

Effects of Group Interaction

Group Polarization enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes

through a discussion.

If a group is like-minded, discussion

strengthens its prevailing opinions

and attitudes.

Social Relations

Module 45

Influences

Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at

times for research.

Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system

(amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression.

The Psychology of Attraction

1. Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship.

2. Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases its attraction.

Psychology of Attraction

4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.

Similarity breeds content! The more people are alike the more their liking

endures. (Byrne 1971)

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