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‘TIL DEATH DO SOUL AND BODY PART:
THE PMP CONCEPT OF DEATH AND THE
AFTERLIFE
Maricar San Pedro, Maryam Casimiro, Vea Elli
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‘TIL DEATH DO SOUL AND BODY PART:
THE PMP CONCEPT OF DEATH AND THE AFTERLIFE
Linguistics 150 | Gallego
Proponents:
Casimiro, Maryam Hisham
Elli, Marly Vea Clarisse
San Pedro, Maricar
ABSTRACT
This paper is aimed at giving insights about the concept of death and the afterlife of the eleven
(11) languages studied, the Proto-Malayo Polynesian and ten (10) languages representing the
Philippine microgroups and Outer Philippines— Ibatan for Bashiic (BSH), Dumagat for
Cordilleran (COR), Ayta-Mag-antsi for Central Luzon (CL), T’boli for Bilic (BIL), Agusan Manobo for Manobo in GCP (GCP), Batak for Palawanic in GCP (GCP), Maranao for Danaw in
GCP (GCP) and Hiligaynon for Central Philippine in GCP (GCP), Mapun and Yakan for Sama-
Bajaw languages (SB)— from the reconstructed proto forms (adapted from other studies) and the
cognate sets from each of the languages. Aside from the cognate sets, the collected data also
showed culture-specific terms, which were then examined for their cultural implications. The
results show that all languages studied in the paper exhibit their beliefs on the concept of death
and afterlife. The concepts have been greatly influenced by world’s major religions such as Christianity and Islam. Moreover, with culture-specific terms, death, preparation of the body,
burial, mourning, post-burial, and afterlife beliefs, the languages portrayed their culture in a
unique way and established relationship with other languages. The results exhibit the cultural
and archaeological implications of the languages. Little linguistic implications have been
analyzed in the paper.
Keywords: death, afterlife, culture, Philippine languages, proto, PMP
1.0 Introduction
Having death as a universal concept, all societies regardless of their technological development
have ways of coping with this phenomenon; they have their own unique beliefs and practices
which reflect the nature of culture including the values it regarded important such as from the
moment of death to preparation of the body for burial, from mourning to actual burial, from post-
burial rituals to belief in the afterlife (Baretto, 2000, p. 95). There have been evidences, both
linguistic and archaeological researches, which provided substantial proof that reflect the
Filipino ancestors to belief in the spirit world and in afterlife. Linguistic evidence on
reconstructed proto-forms PMP *nahiwa “breath, life force, breath soul” and PAN *qanitu “ghost, spirit of the dead” (Blust, 1995, p. 501) proved to be clear indications of a genetic
subgrouping not only of the Philippine languages but also of those which constitute the Western
Malayo-Polynesian languages. Archaeological proof, which includes burial assemblages and
other material remains that are marked with striking morphological similarities were also found
in other Southeast Asian countries, which also reveal that they are not just commonly united
geographically but also genetically and historically (Kasaysayan, 1992, p. 93).
1.1 Concept of Afterlife in the Philippines
Any simple attempt at describing the belief systems native to the Filipino is likely to be
inadequate. The religious beliefs were as varied as the languages of the country. However, there
were certain areas of common ground that existed among many of the peoples throughout the
islands. Throughout the Philippines, there was a great diversity of belief. With the archipelagic
landscape of the Philippines and its ethnolinguistic groups that are widely distributed all over the
country, diverse but genetically-related languages and equally distinct cultures have emerged
(Paz, 2008, p. 3). Despite this diversity, these languages and ethnolinguistic groups may still be
united with an underlying unique identity through a glimpse of their cultures, and ultimately
through their languages. The existence of the concepts of the death, the spirit world and afterlife
in Philippine EGs are evident in their belief systems, which are reflected by a number of words
and expressions which will be presented in this paper. The surprisingly similar and widespread
use of these words in the different languages of the Philippines may also indicate the significance
of this culture; in fact religion and spirituality appears to be the most important cultural factor
that measures the Filipino well-being (Sycip et al., 2008, p. 25). Even though this may reflect the
religion of Christianity, which has deeply infused with the Filipino animistic belief system, such
religion has evolved into the so-called folk syncretism or folk Catholicism (Schumacher, 1984, p.
251).
1.2 Genetic relationships and subgrouping of PH languages
The languages used in the study were under the PAn family, namely the PMP and languages in
the Outer WMP languages. The Outer WMP languages, also known as the Bornean languages,
have a subgroup called the Barito languages in which the Sama-Bajaw languages belong to.
The Proto-Philippine (PPh) subgroup, which descends from the Western-Malayo Polynesian
family (Blust, 2005, p. 40) was maintained in this study. The nine PPh microgroups proposed by
Blust (1991) was used as reference for the subgrouping of the ten languages. These microgroups
are the Bashiic, Cordilleran, Central Luzon, Inati, Kalamian, Greater Central Philippines (GCP),
Bilic, Sangiric and Minahasan (Blust, 1991). The South Mangyan, Palawanic, Central
Philippines, Manobo, Danaw, Subanun and Gorontalo-Mongondow groups constitute the GCP
microgroup (Blust, 1991, p. 101). 1.3.
1.3 Objectives
This paper is a preliminary report on the concept of death, the soul, and afterlife among the Outer
Philippine and Proto-Philippine (PPh) subgroup, which descends from the Western-Malayo
Polynesian family. It is an attempt to reconstruct the culture of the PPh using the cognates of
death and afterlife that we have collected from the languages from 9 microgroups– Ibatan for
Bashiic (BSH), Dumagat for Cordilleran (COR), Ayta-Mag-antsi for Central Luzon (CL), T’boli for Bilic (BIL), Agusan Manobo for Manobo in GCP (GCP), Batak for Palawanic in GCP (GCP),
Maranao for Danaw in GCP (GCP) and Hiligaynon for Central Philippine in GCP (GCP). Also,
Mapun and Yakan were used for Sama-Bajaw languages (SB) in the Outer Philippines. Through
the use of these collected terms, it aims to provide some speculations regarding its cultural
implications on PPh and we will also attempt to account its relationship with the PMP where PPh
is said to be descended from, and with the Outer Philippine languages.
1.4 Scope and Limitations
Due to time and feasibility constraints, this paper’s data and analysis will only concern that of the PMP, the two Outer Philippine languages, and ten of the languages mentioned and thus
cannot account for the totality of the forms used by all the languages belonging to the Proto-
Philippine. The data used in this paper were from native speakers and dictionaries - Agusan
Manobo (2000), Ayta Mag-Antsi (2005), Batak (1959), Dumagat (1974), Ibatan (2013), T’boli (2004), Hiligaynon (1980), Maranao (1996), Mapun (2000), and Yakan (2002). Due to updated
references, difficulty in reconstruction is inevitable. Cultural implications were analyzed from
archaeological and linguistic sources. In view of cross-cultural implications, Tagalog and
Cebuano terms and idioms have also been used in the study.
1.5 Methodology
The data for this paper was sourced from native speakers (except Batak, Dumagat, and T’boli) and (updated online) dictionaries of the languages. The Comparative Method was used to gather
lexical items and to identify the cognates. However, the researchers did not attempt to
reconstruct any lexical item. The reconstructed proto forms (PMP) used in this paper were taken
from Blust and Trussel (2015)’s online Austronesian Comparative Dictionary.
Despite the existence of the reconstructed proto forms, most of the cultural implications were
found from the culture-specific and religion-related terms of each language. Most of the
discussion of the cultural analysis is modeled after Barretto (2000).
2.0 Review of Related Literature
The earliest work published regarding the burial of the dead and the associated rituals probably
would be Blust (1995) using the PMP cognates. However, even his work is informative, it was
found to be lacking in the items included. Also, a cultural reconstruction would be difficult from
this study due to its limited data focusing on diseases, mourning terms for death, and on breath’s semantic reflexes for the spirit world.
Paz (2008) proves to be a relevant reference for this paper as Paz has taken both a diachronic and
a more cultural approach in discussing the reconstruction of the liver and its implications. This
study identified the liver as the seat of emotions in the Philippine languages. It is connected with
the reconstructed form of the words related to death and the afterlife, “death”, “to die”, “kill”.
To further the studies concerning the death and afterlife terms, and their cultural implications in
Philippine languages, this paper also references Barretto (2000) in analyzing the cultural
implications of the lexical data. Barretto (2000) has adapted a thorough discussion of findings
that is based on the consideration of social, cultural, and religious domains. Barretto (2000)’s work focused on the literature of indigenous burial practices and their archaeological
implications. Anima (1978) also tackled on childbirth and burial practice among Philippine tribes.
In terms of specific languages, the researchers used Hornedo (1994) for the Ivatan beliefs and
practices of the death and the afterlife; Talavera, et. al (2013)’s descriptive study on the T’boli religion and burial practices using songs and stories; DLSU Philippine literature (2015)’s narrative on Batak, Dumagat, Hiligaynon, Mapun, Manobo, Maranao, T’boli, and Yakan culture in their website. Ayta Mag-anchi, Agusan Manobo, Casiguran Dumagat, and T’boli were headhunters. To linguistically reconstruct the term headhunting, the researchers used Liao (2012).
Abrera (2007) was used to indicate the relationship and relatedness of the soul and the boat, and
its implication with the cultural and religious beliefs of the indigenous people.
3.0 Data and Analysis
This paper categorizes and presents the findings and analysis into chronological order of
domains: before death, preparation of the body for burial, mourning to actual burial, post-burial
rituals to belief in the afterlife, and others. The data sets used were from PMP, Ibatan (Ibt),
Dumagat (Dum), Ayta-Mag-antsi (AM), T’boli (Tbl), Agusan Manobo (AgM), Batak (Btk),
Maranao (Mar), Hiligaynon (Hil), Mapun (Map), and Yakan (Yak) languages.
3.1 Before Death
3.1.1 Death
PMP *atay Ibt Minatay Dum Ate AM Kamatsan Tbl Matay AgM Kamatayon Btk Natay Mar Kapatay Hil Kamatayon Map Patay
patoy kamatoyan matay matoy kapatay
Yak patey (also, turn off a machine)
As we can infer from the table above, all the languages have cognates which can be
reconstructed as the PMP form *atay. Certain affixes like ka-,–in-, -on, and –an were added in
the terms to refer to death as noun. The PMP form is related to the liver *atay as the seat of
emotions in the Philippine languages. *Atay underwent semantic change in the PPh reflexes, like
death, and even words like sick; tired (of); faint; lose consciousness; eclipse; new moon;
extinguished; blocked (path); paralyzed; numb; asleep (limbs); die down (wind); waterless
(springs, rivers); dry up (plants); beaten (in a game); fixed (price); terminate a matter; reach an
agreement; disaster; intensive, superlative; desire intensely; and be deeply in love (Blust and
Trussel, 2015).
In Agusan Manobo, there are many terms for death, examples are higpat meaning sudden death;
bunog meaning death from overwork; and, butud meaning bloated and floating. It is probably
related to Tagalog which has the term butad meaning bloated or having a big stomach.
In Ayta Mag-antsi, there is a term for the last hours of life of a person called boyto. There is also
the term bango-ngot meaning to die in one’s sleep.
In Dumagat, the term awan means ‘to save oneself from death’. Also, they have a term for death agony, hi’ngalo, same as the Tagalog term.
In Ibatan, there is a term called asdo which means ‘died from drinking too fast’.
3.1.2 To die
PMP *m-atay Ibt Minatay Dum Ate AM Patsi Tbl Matay AgM Patoy Btk Natay Mar Matay Hil Matay Map Patay Yak matey
The verb ‘To die’ in the above languages is the same as the noun death, using *atay with an
added prefix m- form.
In culture-specific terms, Mapun uses the word tubag which means to die immediately because
of a bullet, and falling coconut. In Yakan, they use the same word tubag to pertain to die a
violent death (and become unconscious that way). The two associated meanings are related to
each other. In Yakan, the Mapun tubag counterpart is called bugtang meaning to die instantly
because of an outside cause like shooting, being slashed, falling, poison, etc. In Ayta Mag-anchi.
tanhag is the term for killed instantly. Also in Yakan, there is a term for a baby who died in the
womb or as stillborn, lawa.
In Hiligaynon, they have terms for last gasp, anhing and tinga, which signify the importance of
the last breath of their loved one.
In Dumagat, lepsot is a term which means to die and to expire.
In Maranao, there are many terms for death including layon which also means to wither or wilt.
It does not only pertain to humans and animals being dead, but also plants. Another are the terms
applied to their political and territorial terms which include marohom, a dead sultan, and
kapagonong, which means the death of two enemies together.
3.1.3 To kill
PMP *pa-m-atay Ibt Diman Dum Pusung AM Patsi Tbl - AgM Himatoy Btk - Mar Bono Hil Patyon
Pumatay Magpatay
Map - Yak Bono
Binasa
The term ‘to kill’ in its proto-form has shared cognates in the languages of Ayta Mag-antsi,
Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon. Maranao and Yakan both have the term bono, in which
religious association is most likely the reason, since both are Muslim cultural communities. Bono
means ‘to fight with the intent to kill’. Both Maranao and Yakan have various terms for kill.
Yakan has binasa (to inflict pain), and la’ug (to kill someone innocent). Maranao has terms like
batas (kill opponent in fight), gapa (kill or murder), gisa (kill en masse), lakaw (kill with a
weapon), lanas (kill all), olid (kill each other), manibelek (killer), and kitas (revenge killing).
In Manobo, they have the term gusow which means to exterminate a person or to erase a person
from the face of the earth. The meaning also expanded to evil spirit.
In Ayta Mag-anchi, the terms are mipakabili (will be killed), ampangayaw (killing), and
bangkayan (reverse killings). In Hiligaynon, ihaw is the term for butcher. In Mapun, imuwa
means to kill a common person.
In Ibatan, pisti means kill all or plague; otan means to kill off; pisa as to kill with one hit or to
disposed of; and apseh means to strangle.
In Dumagat, there is a person who kills wherever he goes, bumebunag. The term came from a
Dumagat folklore. In relation to this, there is a reason for killing or harming for no reason,
pusung.
3.1.4 Headhunting
According to Blust and Trussel (2015), there is a PMP *kayaw ‘head-hunting’ and a PWMP
*ayaw ‘raid, go headhunting’, but there are also evidences for the reconstruction of PMP *ŋayaw ‘head-hunting’ and PMP *mangayaw. Casiguran Dumagat has the term putol or ngelngel which
means to behead, and ngayö as a killing raid, and to attack a house or village for the purpose of
killing. Ayta Mag-antsi has kayaw (wait in ambush at the house or field or someone to kill them)
and also the already mentioned ampangayaw (killing). Agusan Manobo has mangajow, a killer
or one who kills, loots, and captures women and children to be sold or made into wives and
slaves of the captors. In Manobo, ayaw, ngayaw, and mengayaw is also being used. In T’boli, nayaw, ayaw, menayaw were also used meaning to raid/kill.
3.1.5 Suicide
PMP *paka-m-atay Ibt - Dum Bikti
Usot AM Ampah
nagbitke magpakamatsi
Tbl AgM Paka’matoy Btk - Mar Pageget
Pagonay pangeday da lalag
Hil Hikog hingap-us
Map Yak Sabil
In Ayta Mag-anchi, ampah is the term for suicide because of shame, while in Dumagat, the term
bikti is not just about committing suicide, but also of dying of heartbreak.
In Maranao, there are terms like pageget which also means to hold the breath, and pagonay
which means to take a hand in something. In Hiligaynon, terms like hikog and hingap-us means
committing suicide by hanging oneself.
In Mapun, there is also a term for risking one’s life, susayid, like risking one’s life to fight
against soldiers.
3.2 Preparation of the Body for Burial
PMP *m-atay has various PPh reflexes such as bangkay, patay, katawan.
PMP *m-atay Ibt bangkay (Ilk)
minatay (Ilk) minatay/maparahmet (ilk) bangkay; minatay (not yet buried)
Dum Bangkay AM Bangkay Tbl Matay
mlef lówó yem matay
AgM Matoy Mi’natoy
Btk Katawan Mar Bangkay
Domiyalong Mait Mayat
Hil bangkay Map Mayat Yak Bangkey
Mayat Patey Bangkey
We can infer from our dictionary work that the common term that is being used in PPh is
bangkay which is probably related to the terms bahay and balanghai. Balanghai is the term for
the oldest community boat which can contain up to 30 persons and has the capacity for longer
sea travel. Bahay, on the other hand, pertains to “house”. Each one of the said terms has
something to do with the man in the island. From these three terms one can observe that the three
are physical containers of life which could be the soul or just the physical life depending on the
religion and belief system of who looks or analyzes. Moreover, they all have something to do
with the boat. Bahay was developed after the seafarer’s decided to settle in the land. On the other hand, traditionally, bangkay is used to be placed in a jar with a carving of a boat or in a boat-
shaped coffin symbolizing the going back to their most important origins (Reyes, 2002).
Batak is the only language in the paper which uses katawan as both the living body and the dead
body of a person.
Ethnolinguistic groups (EGs) in the Philippines have various kinds of practices of preparation of
the body for burial. EGs vary on how they prepare the body, grave preparation, and the manner
and location of the burial. Death beliefs and practices reflect the disposition of their cultures.
3.2.1 Preparation of the body
Regions vary on how they prepare the dead such as washing the corpse, wrapping the corpse, and
clothing and adorning the body. Several of the groups we reviewed in this paper, washed their
dead right after their death as they believe that it will make its spirit clean. The gum of the storax
tree and other aromatic ointments are also said to be used to prevent the release of foul smell.
After washing, the body is dressed in elegant garment, or sometimes the clothes he died in. then
the body is wrapped in a mat or a death blanket. Blust (1995) reconstructed PMP balun ‘wrap in cloth’ which appears to be generally one of the rites being practiced in preparing for the dead.
In Yakan, before the burial, they perform sutsi wherein the corpse will be washed in order to
purify and physically cleanse the body. Aside from a thorough cleaning of the body, the Yakan
(all who are able participate) also do “a thorough cleaning of the cleaning of the openings of the
body, also compromising the emptying of the bowels.” (Wulff, 1962) Then, the process called tatap wherein the body will be completely wrapped in white linen which they call kakana'. On
top of the wrapped corpse the deceased, saput or grave clothes was placed.
Similar to Yakan, Mapun also has ceremonies during the preparation of the dead called palihala'
“to prepare a corpse for burial (esp. w.r.t. to washing the body)”. People believe that a dead person should be buried as soon as possible (Casino, 1976). They start the preparation with
piluwang “washing the private parts of the dead body”, and kabaratan refers to the fee as a
compensation to the religious leaders who washed the corpse. It will be proceeded by
katungkusan or wrapping of the dead with a white, new cloth called tungkus.
In Hiligaynon, embalsamahon “embalm” is being practices in the region. While in Dumagat, they do not embalm the bodies because they believe that the dead will get hurt (Cinco, 2013).
Archaeologically, there are evidences of wrapping the corpse in Batak in Palawan, as well as the
Negrito burial sites in Zambales as they have mat impression on their skeletal remain when
recovered. Also, in T’boli speakers in Cotabato, they were able to recover some traces of piece
of cloth and mat in the recovered remains (Baretto, 2000). Although, it might not be recovered
linguistically through dictionary works, these archaeological evidences are also worth taking
note that the aboriginals have a high possibility that they practiced these rites.
In terms of clothing and adorning of the corpse, it should be noted that the Batak speakers
practices that the corpse is dressed in new garments (Samson, 1967). Also, for Manobo speakers,
when death occurs, lapuy (death messengers) are sent to inform relatives and friends. The body
is washed, dressed in the best garments and ornaments, however, charms and Talismans are
being removed as they are considered as heirloom pieces which they call 'ankae. Then, it is laid
on a mat at the exact center of the floor directly underneath the peak of the rooftop, and
completely covered with a blanket.
3.2.2 Coffin
Many people regard the coffin or casket as an important tribute to the deceased and they are
therefore selected with care making sure that the “send off’ is sufficient. Coffin comes with different types and shapes. There are coffins shaped like a boat, jar, tree trunk, or a typical
rectangular casket made up of a special tree or a bamboo. Some also include grave goods in the
coffin. The grave goods were placed with different reasons: as a gift to ancestors or gods, to
represent the status symbol of the dead, preparation for their journey in the afterlife, and to drive
away the evil spirits.
In Batak, the body of the deceased is placed in a coffin made of bamboo called papag. The body
is then covered with a pandanus mat once inside the coffin. There are two classes of grave
furniture, first, the goods which will be included inside the coffin, and second the goods are
placed on top of the grave. badong ‘bowl’ and bankaw ‘spear’ comprise the first type of grave goods while pingan ‘plate’, danum ‘water’, pupud ‘tobaco’, mamak ‘betel nut’, beye ‘leaf’, apog
‘lime’ and dalakun ‘lime container’ comprised the second type (Warren, 1964). Similarly, the Dumagat speakers use the terms andasan, ka'baong for coffin made up of buho or bamboo
(SEAsite project, 2012). When a datu descended dies, a slave is made to die in the same manner
as the chief. They usually put *duwel ‘term for articles which are buried with a body’ such as clothes, kettle, arrow, etc. into the coffin together with the corpse.
In Manobo, they have the term ayu'yow to refer to ‘kind of softwood tree used especially in
making coffins’. They usually dug out the core of the trunk, split lengthwise and its edges sealed with a mixture of wood ashes, sweet potato leaves, and lime to contain the odor. The coffin is
then half buried about 10 meters away from the house, so that the sogoy or gimukod can wander
in and out of the body. Objects, such as a bolo sword, which the dead must take with it on its
journey to the afterlife, are placed near the body. A clothesline is strung parallel to the body, and
the clothes of the family or the dead person’s personal possessions are hung here. There is much wailing and shouting, and the agung (gong) is constantly beaten to announce the death to
everyone within hearing distance. The number of beats indicates the dead person’s age, status,
and social position (DLSU Philippine literature, 2015). Similar to the Manobo speakers, Negritos
in Zambales, including the Ayta Mag-anchi, usually make their coffin only by hollowing a tree
(Reed, 1904) which they call kabaong, likit and langkayan.
One of the earliest proofs of material culture is the Manunggul Jar found in Palawan. One of its
remarkable features is the small boat with two passengers; the rower and the passenger who is
pertained to be the dead person lying inside the jar. It is said that the boathouse for the dead is
intended to transport him to the afterlife. In T’boli, the body is laid on a boat-shaped wooden
coffin tightly sealed with a tree resin to prevent the odor of the decomposition process. This
coffin will then be suspended in trees. However, in Maranao, they have various terms for coffin
– bangkabangkay, kapan, lantanga', and sondok - which is shaped like a boat. They also
sometimes call it panolong, a cognate for boat prow (Menez, 2015). However, they do not put a
cover as part of their burial practice.
In Ibatan, they usually place the dead in a large burial urn called angang and padapada which is
usually 30 inches in diameter (Lakbay Pilipinas, 2015). The burial of cooking and eating utensils
with the dead is also supported by recent archeology (Hornedo, 1994)
In Yakan burial practice, they do not use coffins; the body is carried on a wooden structure and is
buried inside a half-moon-shaped grave. Whereas in Mapun, they have a typical wooden box
they call tuung for the remains of their loved ones. However, using archaeologically evidences,
the aboriginals of Mapun did not use coffin to make sure that the covering earth never touches
the face and the body of the corpse (Casino, 1967). Also in Mapun, sandana' is a term for
sandal-wood which is grated and mixed with water and used for sprinkling on a corpse and grave
site.
3.3 Mourning to Actual Burial
3.3.1 Mourning and Wake
Is the concept of death more of just a ritual and a cultural activity rather than bereavement? Tears
and agony go side by side with the cultural and religious activities done with the dead body.
Usually, relatives of the dead are given time to mourn and grieve. Blust (1995) reconstructed
PMP *baluq ‘mourn the dead’. However, various terms for mourning and grieving was observed
in the data. Agusan Manobo uses deg'matoy and Dumagat uses megewad as a specific term to
describe their mourning.
PMP *baluq mourn the dead *ma-naŋis wail, weep, cry
Ibt Ladingit (Ilk) dongdong-aw tanyis / kapaychatanyitanyis
panes mourn by wearing black Dum Ala’ala to long for an absent loved one
Megewad to refuse to talk to someone Konsimi to grieve; to mourn
AM Boyton nakem Tbl Langag AgM Deg’matoy Btk Magtanis Mar bokoboko'
ta'awi Hil kasakit agony; grief; mourning; pain
kasulub-on grief; pathos; sadness; sorrow magkalisud Grieve magloto Mourn pagkalisud Grievance pagpanangis wailing; weeping pagpanganduhoy lamentation; wailing
Map dagun grief; mourning dukka' grief; woe udju a funeral; a great sorrow tapakku just staring down at the ground because of grief sugu sad susa sad ala concern
Yak Tangis Sugul Suse
In Ibatan, they practice mangay du nadiman, literally means "go to the dead." It means visiting
the bereaved family while the dead lies in state. They call the wake for the dead maparahmet.
The root word is rahmet or dahmet ‘weight; heaviness’. Idiomatically it means "joy" or "happiness." It means lessening the sorrow of the bereaved family. The occasion is also called
padahmetan or colloquially panahmefan. It refers to the wake for the dead. Before embalming
came to their region, the burial took place the day after death. The funeral wake was the single
night before the funeral day. In practice, this is a social event which is merry rather than funereal.
As its name suggests, it is supposed to lighten the grief of the bereaved. It is a farewell affair for
a townsman, so in the small villages, everyone can attend. It is held in the night since that is
when people are all in the village. During the early evening, the wake begins with prayers for the
dead. Then food and drinks are served. As people become drunk, the place becomes more noisy
and festive. This may go on all night, or until everyone is exhausted. Expenses in food and drink
during this occasion are considered natay nu nadiman ‘share of the dead man’. Giving the dead
man a share in the goods he leaves behind or from the benefice of loved ones is supposed to give
the dead man more peace and contentment (Hornedo, 1994).
Wake ceremonies in T’boli which they call modung, may last from a week to five months but if
the dead is highly respected by the community, his or her wake may last for a year. At the end of
the wake, the wooden coffin will be placed over a fire but the fluid that oozes through the
burning wood is collected and used as sauce for their sweet potato meals. “In this manner, they believe the desirable qualities of the deceased will pass on to them” (PIMEPhil project, 2003).
In Manobo, they conduct their wake with ritual song they call Ay Dingding meaning “lullaby for the dead”, it is sung only during a wake and when a baylan is present, for it attracts the evil
spirits who come looking for a corpse to eat. The wake may last from 8 to 12 days depending on
the stature of the dead person. A baby is mourned only for one day, while a datu usually takes
seven days (DLSU Philippine literature, 2015).
In Batak, they mourn while they tie a pestle across the body of a dead person because they
believe that the corpse might come to life again to devour people.
In Ayta Maganchi, they practice head-hunting to fulfill mourning rites (Reid, 2013).
In Dumagat, they usually wear black cloth for a year to mourn for the dead. After a year of
mourning, the black cloth will be left behind the burial place (Baes, 2012).
In Mapun, since they have to bury the dead as soon as possible, they do not have a concept of
wake. The Mapuns acquire an abnormal physical trait or habit when someone dies, and it is
called binuhun-buhun. According to traditional beliefs, if you tilt your head to the side on the day
when someone is dying, you will acquire a habit of doing that.
3.3.2 Grave and burial
They also have different way in making the grave. Location of the burial is also diverse.
In Manobo, after the grave has been dug, someone stands guard by the pit to keep the busaw
away. Burial rites begin in the house with the “cutting-the-strand” ritual: an elder blackens half of a strand of manila hemp. This blackened end is held by the family while the white end is tied
to the corpse. The strand is cut to signify the cutting of ties of affection between the family and
the dead. A man is buried facing the east so that the sunrise will signal to him that it is time to
work. A woman is buried facing the west so that the sunset will remind her that it is time to cook.
As the dirt is thrown back into the pit, all turn their backs to avoid the temptation of
accompanying the dead person. The grave marker is a low wooden frame. Tree cuttings are stuck
around the grave. In Maranao, they don’t put cover on the coffin of the dead because they believe in reincarnation (but they don’t have word for it).
In Yakan, the grave was dug near the house where he had lived. Above the grave a roof had been
built, covered with matting made of coconut palm leaves, which were split down the middle,
where after the leaflets were plaited from the split midrib and halfway down. When the grave
had been filled in, three men – one of them an imam or priest – sat under the roof praying in
Arabic, one after the other. After the prayer, a matting, similar to the one that used for the roof,
was placed on the grave under the roof. A fire was burning at one end of the roof. At the opposite
end, the mourners were sitting, the men just outside the roof, and the women a little to one side
of this opening (Wulff, 1962).
Some also put grave stones that shaped like a boat or by putting a grave marker such as in Yakan,
Mapun, Dumagat. Although in Dumagat, they put a cross which they call kudos and it is
borrowed from Spanish.
3.4 Post-Burial
Different death ceremonies, rituals and sacrifices in various ethnolinguistic groups in the
Philippines are usually conducted after the burial of the dead. These, at the same time, manifest
their beliefs on the concept of death and afterlife per se. Aside from this, there are heavy
influences of other religions, i.e. major religions such as Christianity and Islam, to their own
beliefs on the said concepts which, in fact, overlap their unique ways on how to cope with such.
3.4.1 Offerings and Sacrifices
PMP - Ibt ātang (Ilk) (offering to a malevolent spirit) dāton (Ilk) (altar for sacrifice) pakabat (offering to ancestral spirits) parawat (offering to ancestral spirits) limos (offering to God or to the dead) Dum atang (to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the
spirits) deton (to make a small offering to the spirits; to
leave an offering at a grave) tatan (type of offering made to the spirits; to make
an offering to the spirits) sipay (human sacrifice) AM imparaêp (to offer a cooked mountain rice and cut-
up chicken sacrifice to the souls of the dead) Tbl dsu be busaw (spirit offering) demisu (offer sacrifice) AgM sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to
the soul of a dead person) su’guy (offer before hunting) tapus (feast offering for the dead) Btk - Mar getas (sacrifice) kandori’ (sacrifice) lalam (sacrifice) raga’ (sacrifice) Hil halad (sacrifice) Map hakika (a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often
for a child) Yak hekika (animal sacrifice)
Offerings and sacrifices are just two of the ways on how to observe and show respect to the soul
of the dead and to the spirits. These can actually be seen in association with rituals and death
ceremonies, as means also of making peace with them. In the table, we have not seen any PMP
term for ‘offering’ and/or ‘sacrifice’; and there is no term that we have seen in Batak for offering and/or sacrifice. On the other hand, Ibatan and Dumagat show two similar forms: ātang (Ibt) and
dāton (Ibt) and atang (Dum) and deton (Dum) which are actually borrowed from Ilokano. ātang
in Ibatan means ‘offering to a malevolent spirit’ while atang in Dumagat means ‘to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the spirits’. In Ibatan, dāton means ‘altar for sacrifice’ while in
Dumagat, deton means ‘to make a small offering to the spirits; to leave an offering at a grave’. Aside from this, limos in Ibatan which means ‘offering to God or to the dead’ shows another borrowing -- another meaning for this is ‘alms for the poor’. Only Dumagat has a word for ‘human sacrifice’ which is sipay.
3.4.2 Rituals and Death Ceremonies
PMP - Ibt - Dum hulhul (a simple ceremony conducted on the third
night after someone has died) AM pantatlo (for the third night of death ceremony) Tbl - AgM sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink
to the soul of a dead person) Btk panoyәntuyunan (burial ritual) Mar - Hil - Map bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony) hakika (a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often
for a child) Yak bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)
After the death of a person, certain kinds of ceremonies are conducted. These ceremonies basically involve people, food, and, especially, prayer which often mark the death of the person; and these may be a celebration or very solemn. These ceremonies are either held at home, in the church, or at the gravesite. (Lobar, et al., 2006) Rituals, on the other hand, are often associated with ceremonies and are performed for specific reasons, might be traditionally or religiously. Certain rituals may just solely for remembrance of the dead and/or for closure. However, there are also some rituals performed but no reason at all. (Lobar, et al., 2006) In the table, we have not seen PMP terms for ‘ritual’ and ‘death ceremony’. We have also not seen any terms in Ibatan, T’boli, Maranao, and Hiligaynon. The majority of the terms that we have seen are terms with the meaning ‘for the third night of death ceremony’. These are hulhul in Dumagat, pantatlo in Ayta Magantsi and bahangi in Mapun and Yakan. We assume that the meaning of these terms which refer to the ‘third night’, specifically, is the same with the belief of Aromanon Manobo that the dead will return three days after burial or after death; and, thus, their tribe prepare and perform a ritual called “Pauli Te Himukod” for the returning spirit. (Ong, et al., 2013). On the other hand, other terms such as sugnud, panoyәntuyunan, and hakika involve rituals in offerings, sacrifices, and burials.
3.5 Afterlife (Afterworld)
PMP -
Ibt -
Dum kabilan'buhay (Tag) AM - Tbl - AgM - Btk libsanәn saniban Mar mawri a alongan Hil - Map Ahirat Sumulai Yak Ahilat Sumangat Niyawa ellew (the sun)
The belief in the afterlife is manifested on the performances held after the burials take place. The
afterlife or the place where the soul of a person goes after he/she dies is interconnected with
certain beliefs, for example in ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, that are either subjected
by other beliefs, e.g. major religions such as Christianity, or not. The concept of afterlife or
afterworld in the languages that we have just focused on show some variety. No PMP term for
this concept has been found, same with Ibatan, Ayta Magantsi, T’boli, Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon. However, there is a Tagalog term that we have seen in Dum, kabilan’buhay which
literally means ‘the afterlife’. Others such as in Mapun and Yakan show similarities such as ahirat (Map) and ahilat (Yak).
3.5.1 Soul (Spirit)
PMP *qanitu and *sumaŋed have only a few reflexes such as anito and sumangat.
PMP *qanitu (ghost; ancestral spirit; nature spirit) *sumaŋed (soul of a living being; soul of the rice
plant) Ibt ispirito (Sp) Dum kali’duwa is’piritu (Sp) AM anito kaelwa espirito (Sp) Tbl busaw AgM umagad Btk kiyarowa Mar niyawa Hil espiritu yawa (demon) Map sumangat (evil spirit; demon) aluwa aruwa nyawa umagad (inner courage) Yak sumangat niyawa umāgad
In the concepts of ‘soul’ and ‘spirit’, PMP *qanitu which means ‘ghost; ancestral spirit; nature spirit’ can be seen to have a reflex from Ayta Magantsi, anito. Aside from this, PMP *sumaŋed
which means ‘soul of a living being; soul of the rice plant’ can be seen to have reflexes in Mapun and Yakan, sumangat (Map) which means ‘evil spirit; demon’ and sumangat (Yak). Other terms
such as ispirito (Ibt) which is a Spanish word and kali’duwa (Dum) show similarities in other
languages -- Ayta Magantsi, Batak, Hiligaynon, and Mapun. These terms actually show the
influence of Christianity in the ethnolinguistic groups as well as the influence of other languages
to them.
3.5.2 God
PMP - Ibt Dyos (Sp) Dum Dios (Sp) AM Diyos (Sp) Tbl Dwata AgM ‘Diyus (Sp) Gi’nuu Btk - Mar Tuhan Allah (Arb) Hil Dios (Sp) Ginoo Map Tuhan Allah (Arb) Yak Tuhan Allah (Arb)
The concept of ‘God’ differs here. We have observed that majority of the languages here use terms for ‘God’ with regards to the major religions that influence them. In Ibatan, Dumagat, Ayta Magantsi, Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon, the term Dios, a Spanish word, is evident. On the
other hand, in Maranao, Mapun, and Yakan, the term Allah, an Arabic word, is apparent. Thus, it
can be surmised that Christianity and Islam are the two major religions that influence these
languages. No PMP term for the concept has been seen, same with Batak.
3.5.3 Heaven
PMP *laŋit has many reflexes as seen in the table.
PMP *laŋit Ibt Hanyit Dum para’iso (Sp) AM Langit Tbl Longit AgM Yangit Btk - Mar Langit
sorga' Hil Langit paraiso (Sp) Ginhanan Map sulga’ parang musal (a beautiful garden place in the
afterlife) Yak sulga' surga'
The PMP term *laŋit presents many reflexes such as in Itbayat, Ayta Magantsi, T’boli, Agusan Manobo, Maranao, and Hiligaynon. This term shows that the concept of ‘heaven’ is ‘above the earth’. In Hiligaynon, another word for this concept is ginhanan and paraiso, a Spanish word
which can also be seen in Dumagat as para’iso. In Mapun and Yakan, their terms of ‘heaven’ is sulga’ (surga’ as the variant form in Yakan); and one we would like to emphasize here is the other term of Mapun of ‘heaven’, parang musal which means ‘a beautiful garden place in the
afterlife’. This simply shows that these ethnolinguistic groups consider the concept of ‘heaven’ per se as a good place (above).
3.5.4 Hell and Underworld
PMP - Ibt impyirno (Sp) Dum irnpi'yerno (Sp) AM impiyerno (Sp) Tbl - AgM ma’ubuyan man-u’buyan mai’buyan man-i’buyan u’bue Btk Basád Mar Naraka Diyahanam Diyahanan Hil Impierno Map nalka’ Yak narka' jahannam (Arb)
The concept of ‘hell’ as the counterpart of ‘heaven’ is a place ‘under the earth’. Same with the concept of ‘heaven’, in these languages, it can be seen that major religions, specifically Christianity and Islam, have greatly influenced them. The Spanish word impiyerno which is
actually used in Christianity is evident in Ibatan, Dumagat, Ayta Magantsi, and Hiligaynon;
whereas in Maranao and Yakan, the Arabic word jahannam is evident, showing an occurrence of
borrowing. However, in other languages such as Agusan Manobo, Batak, and Mapun, we have
seen other words for ‘hell’. Moreover, no terms in PMP and T’boli have seen.
3.5.5 Revive (Resurrection)
PMP - Ibt Akdokdoh Ōngar (Ilk) Dum - AM Mahmah Tbl - AgM - Btk - Mar - Hil Pagkabanhaw Map Allum Llum Yak -
Other than the concepts for post-burial and the afterlife, we have thought of including the
concept of ‘revive’ or ‘resurrection’. One of the reasons is that, this is parallel to the concept of ‘afterlife’ and the belief of this concept in some ethnolinguistic groups show another side of their
own beliefs or, perhaps, their own manifestation of this concept from other beliefs through their
own words. We have just seen some words regarding this concept; and this is evident in Ibatan,
Ayta Magantsi, Hiligaynon, and Mapun only. In Ibatan, furthermore, an Ilokano word is also
used, Ōngar (Ilk). No PMP term is seen for the concept of ‘revive’ or ‘resurrection’.
3.5 Others
3.5.1 Euphemisms and Derogatory expressions for Death
In the PMP, *ma-tuqah is used for euphemism of the term dead. It literally means old or old
people. Other meanings are ‘very’, and ‘extremely’. The meaning of being “old” has expanded to the meaning of death, since when you get old, you inevitably die afterwards.
In Mapun, the term abut is used as a euphemism for the word to die or to pass away. It literally
means to reach a destination, or to last a certain length of time. Certainly, when you reached the
last point of your life, you die.
In Yakan, “bekkat napasnen” means ‘his breath snapped’ or ‘his breath broke’. Bekkat meaning
for something to break like a rope, a thread, or wire, and napasnen means breath. This is also the
same meaning as the Tagalog “nalagot ang hininga”, and Dumagat “begsot”. This signifies that
life is as thin and as fragile as a thread or wire, and can easily be broken. Expressions like niya'
anu which means “someone ‘kwaned’”; niya’ mole’, someone went home; and, niya’ udjul, someone died, are used. “kwan” is a filler word which means ‘what-you-may-call-it’. It is a word used to designate something for which one cannot remember the name. Death is a term which
provokes intense emotions, so using light words such as “kwan”, and home lessens the feeling of bereavement. The term niya means ‘there is” or “it exists”.
In Ayta Mag-antsi, there is a term called hagpa which pertains to “zoom to death”. Example
sentence is “Bat yan naghagpa ha apoy ya hukhuk”, meaning “The moth just dove into the fire”. In Tagalog, it should mean “isang paa, nasa hukay” or in English, it simply means digging your
own grave, taken in a lightly context which does not necessarily mean dying.
There have been many examples of euphemisms in Tagalog, like pumanaw which means to
leave, depart, disappear, and to leave this world; “kinuha na ni Lord” and “kasama na ni Lord”
which signifies that the dead person has lived a fulfilled life and has now been taken by God;
‘wala na siya’ which means the person’s now gone; and agaw-buhay which means between life
and death, or literally “life about to be snatched away”. Also, there’s an expression “nagpapahinga na” which literally means the person is resting in peace, and “oras na niya” which means his time has come. “Iniwan na niya tayo” and “Nauna na siya” implies that we are all going to the afterlife, and the person who died before us has gone too soon. “Sumakabilang-
buhay” meaning went to the afterlife, is also being used often. This clearly suggests the concept
of afterlife among the Tagalogs.
There is also a term called “babang luksa” which can also mean the gathering to mark the end of
a mourning period or the first death anniversary of a person. The Kapampangan counterpart of it
is called lukas paldas which literally means the removing of the dress for mourning.
In Cebuano, there is a derogatory term for death called tigok which has its semantic expansion –
aborted fetus, to die from lack of oxygen by suffocation or by drowning, to die of starvation, and
to die in a battle or hunt. In Tagalog, it just means sound produced in the throat by swallowing.
Recently, it has been used also as euphemism in Tagalog by using a hand gesture in the throat or
neck while producing a sound.
In Mapun, the expression ‘bat ku’ or ‘ibot ku’ is used to swear upon the death of a living loved
one.
In Yakan, there is a derogatory term “leggi’” which means stiff, pertaining to a fish dried too hard. It means that when you die, your body becomes stiff as a dried fish. A term “pininsan” means death as a curse, in which it means “may you be unconscious”.
3.5.2 Jokes about Death
In Yakan, “Hap Basilan diyawa’ ne iye.” is an expression used to joke about death. It literally means, “He has gone to lower Basilan.” Also, “Tetellenne napasnen” is used to mean “He
swallowed his breath.” This probably means to stop one’s breath, to play dead, and to literally swallow the breath until there is no more.
In Tagalog, there is a joke about fooling around the death of a loved one, “Ang bait mo naman,
sana kunin ka na ni Lord”.
3.5.2 Terms for a Deceased Person
In Agusan Manobo, ‘mina’ is used to pertain to the dead person, or “the late”. It is placed before the name of a deceased person. In Mapun, the terms ‘imuwa’, and uwapat is used. In Ibatan,
borrowed terms from Ivatan, simna; and from Filipino, yaon for personal marker is used. In
Kapampangan, there is the term ‘mangubye’, and in Tagalog, it is ‘yumao’.
3.5.3 Last Testament
In Agusan Manobo, there are terms for the remaining instructions of a dying person, pamilin-
'bilin and panugun-’tugun. In Dumagat, garil is the term ‘to talk garbled of a person near death’. In Tagalog, ‘huling habilin’ is the expression used before the deceased person goes to the
afterlife, leaving responsibility to the people he left.
3.5.4 Other Culture-specific terms
In Dumagat, there is a term to hide a corpse by tying a stone to it and dropping it in to the sea,
batel. Also, a term loblob is for the sibling of someone who has died to entice the
widow/widower of the dead person. It is for him/her to disregard a vow he/she made at the time
of the funeral. Example of this is if a woman vowed not to eat pig meat because her late husband
used to hunt pigs a lot, the sibling of the dead husband will force her to eat pig meat and will also
give her some gift so she won't be mad at him.
In Mapun,’katubagan’ is a vital area on one's body where if injured will bring sudden death. The
term ‘unung’ is used to accompany someone as their companion into any danger or hardship.
The Mapuns have a term for a child whose mother is deceased but father is still alive, and it is
called ilu'-ilu'; while a child whose father has died but mother is still alive is called iyatin.
In Yakan, sarakka is a term for the possessions of a deceased person given to someone especially
to poor people. Kiyam is the term which pertains to the position of a deceased person, hands
placed on top of each other on the chest. Suki is a certain board game, similar to checkers, played
when someone died.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It has been known that all languages studied in the paper exhibit their beliefs on the concept of
death and afterlife.
With culture-specific terms, death, preparation of the body, burial, mourning, post-burial, and
afterlife beliefs, the languages portrayed their culture in a unique way and established
relationship with other languages. Maranao and Yakan being influenced with Islam can be seen
in their term “bono” which means to kill; and Yakan and Mapun as Sama-Bajaw languages
outside the Philippine subgroup. Also, headhunting as a part of their culture and its reconstructed
proto-form of the languages mentioned in the paper – Casiguran Dumagat, Ayta Mag-antsi,
Agusan Manobo, and T’boli – has been used to associate headhunting with death and killings.
In the languages of the Philippines that this paper has focused on, the concepts of death and the
afterlife have been greatly influenced by world’s major religions such as Christianity and Islam. There can be seen reflexes of some PMP terms in the languages used in this paper, showing
some words that are still being used by some ethnolinguistic groups nowadays. The term for
death, to die, kill, and corpse all reflect to a single proto-form *atay in relation with the body part
liver as the seat of emotions in the Philippine languages; and with the canoe term boat “bangka” and “balanghay” in relation with “bangkay”.
The results exhibit the cultural and archaeological implications of the languages. Little linguistic
implications have been analyzed in the paper, for some of the terms have been borrowed from
other languages.
.
5.0 RECOMMENDATION
Due to time constraint and availability of data, the study was limited to only the few proto-forms
in PMP, and ten (10) languages. The eight (8) languages are not good representatives of the
Philippine microgroups. It is recommended to add other languages like the Sangiric and
Minahasan, and the language isolates, Inati and Kalamian to have a more conclusive study. They
should also be scrutinized in order to see other patterns in the concepts of death and the afterlife.
In relation to death, pre-burial, mourning, actual burial, post-burial, and afterlife, we recommend
the future researchers to focus also on superstitions, songs, and stories. In the concepts used here,
we also suggest to further study the euphemisms, jokes, and the like, in other languages in the
Philippines and outside Philippines.
Also, the researchers suggest searching for terms in relation with water, since “Bangka” as mode of water transportation has been used, and since in going to the afterlife, one must cross
something like a river.
Furthermore, languages not limited to the Philippines are recommended to study, like Batak, not
only in Palawan, but also in Indonesia, and those of the Mapun and Yakan.
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Ivatan Indices. Summer Institute of Linguistics.
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Diksyunadi Be Udel, English, T’boli, Pilipino Ne Hiligaynon: Dictionary in the languages of
English, T’boli, Pilipino, Hiligaynon. (1980). Summer Institute of Linguistics.
7.0 Appendix
7.1. Before Death
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Death
*atay minatay ate kamatsan matay kamatayon natay kapatay kamatayon patay
patey (also, turn off a machine)
dalegan patoy
kalab kamatoyan
matay
matoy
kapatay
To Die *m-atay minatay ate patsi matay patoy natay matay matay patay matey
anhing (last gasp)
tubag
(to die
tubag (die a violent
immediately because of a bullet, falling cocounut, etc)
death (become unconscious that way))
tinga (last gasp)
bugtang (die instantly because of an outside cause like shooting, being slashed, falling, poison, etc)
lawa (baby who died in the womb; stillborn)
To Kill
*pa-m-atay diman (kill someone or something animate)
pusung (damage; kill; harm for no reason)
patsi himatoy bono patyon (kill; massacre; slay)
imuwa (kill a common person)
bono
pisti (kill all; plague)
bumebunag (person who kills wherever he goes)
tanhag (killed instantly)
gusow (exterminate a person)
batas
(kill opponent in fight)
pumatay binasa (inflict pain)
otan (kill off)
putol (behead)
mipakabili (will be killed)
gapa’
(kill or murder)
magpatay bono’ (to fight with the intent to kill)
pisa (kill with one hit; disposed of)
ngelngel (behead)
ampangayaw (killing) gisa’
(kill en masse)
pagpatay sing tawo (murder)
la’ug (to kill s.o innocent)
apseh (strangle)
bangkayan (reverse killings)
kitas
(kill for revenge)
ihaw (butcher)
kowa
(kill)
lakaw (kill with a weapon)
lanas
(kill all)
olid
(kill each other)
otang
(kill)
Manibelek
(killer)
Suicide
*paka-m-atay bikti (commit suicide; die of heartbreak)
ampah (because of shame, suicide)
paka’matoy
pageget (to hold the breath, suicide)
hikog (suicide; hang oneself)
sabil (commit suicide; run amok)
usot nagbitke pagonay (take a hand in something, suicide)
hingap-us
7.2. Preparation of the Body for Burial
magpakamatsi
pangeday da lalag (commit suicide)
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Dead
*m-atay bangkay (Ilk)
bangkay bangkay lówó yem matay
matoy bangkay bangkay mayat bangkey
minatay
(Ilk) mi'natoy domiyalong mlef mayat
maparah
met (Ilk) mait patey
mayat tatap (cloth covering a corpse)
Wrap in
Cloth
Balun
The
corpse will
be washed
in order to
purify and
physically
cleanse
the body.
sutsi
The
process
wherein
the body
will be
completely
wrapped
in white
linen.
tatap
White
Linen
kakana’
Grave
Clothes
saput
Ceremony
During
the
Preparatio
n of the
Dead
palihala
Washing
the
Private
Parts of
the Dead
Body
piluwang
Compensatio
n to the
Religious
Leader who
Washed the
Corpse
kabaratan
Wrapping of
the Dead with
a White New
Cloth
katungkusan
White
New Cloth
tungkus
Embalm
embalsamahon
Death
Messengers lapuy
Heirloom
Pieces ‘ankae
Coffin
andasan papag (made of bamboo)
bangkabangkay
tuung
(typical wooden box for the remains of their loved ones)
ka’baong kapan
lantanga’
sondok
panolong
(cognate for
boat prow)
Bowl badong
Spear bankaw
Plate pingan
Water danum
Tobaco pupud
Betel Nut mamak
Leaf beye
Lime apog
Lime
Container dalakun
Term for
Articles
which are
Buried
with a
duwel
7.3. Mourning to Actual Burial
Body
Kind of
Softwood
Tree Used
Especially
in Making
Coffins
ayu’yow
Gong agung
Making a
Coffin by
Hollowing
a Tree
kabaong likit
langkaya
n
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Mourn the *baluq
Dead
Wail
because of
a Death
deg'matoy
Grief
boyton nakem
To Long
for an
Absent
Loved
One
ala ‘ala
To Refuse
to Talk to
or See
Someone
(Because
You are in
Grief
Over a
Recent
Death)
megewad
To konsimi langag bokoboko kasakit dagun
Grieve;
To Mourn
’
ta’awi kasulub-on
dukka’
magkalisud
magloto
pagkalisud
To Wail pagpanangis
pagpangan
duhoy
A
Funeral;
A Great
Sorrow
udju
Visiting
the
Bereaved
Family
mangay du nadiman
7.4. Post-Burial
7.4.1. Death Ceremony, Rituals and Sacrifices
while the
Dead Lies
in State
Wake for
the Dead
maparahmet
Occasion
for the
Wake for
the Dead
padahmetan
modung
Share of
the Dead
Man
natay nu nadiman
Lullaby
for the
Dead
ay dingding
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Offerings
and
Sacrifices
ātang (Ilk)
(offering to a malevolent spirit)
atang
(to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the spirits)
imparaêp (to offer a cooked mountain rice and cut-up chicken sacrifice to the souls of the dead)
dsu be busaw (spirit offering)
sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to the soul of a dead person)
getas (sacrifice)
halad (sacrifice)
hakika
(a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often for a child)
hekika (animal sacrifice)
dāton (Ilk)
(altar for sacrifice)
deton
(to make a small offering to the spirits; to leave an offering at a grave)
demisu (offer sacrifice)
su’guy (offer before hunting)
kandori’ (sacrifice)
pakabat (offering to ancestral spirits)
tatan (type of offering made to the spirits; to make an offering to the spirits)
tapus (feast offering for the dead)
lalam (sacrifice)
parawat (offering to ancestral spirits)
sipay (human sacrifice)
raga’ (sacrifice)
limos (offering to God or to the dead)
Rituals and
Death
Ceremonie
s
hulhul
(a simple ceremony conducted on the third night after someone has died)
pantatlo (for the third night of death ceremony)
sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to the soul of a dead person)
panoyәntuyunan (burial ritual)
bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)
bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)
hakika
(a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often for a child)
7.5. Afterlife (Afterworld)
7.5.1. Soul (Spirit) and God
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Afterlife
(Afterworld
)
kabilan'buhay (Tag) libsanәn mawri a
alongan ahirat ahilat
saniban sumulai sumangat
niyawa
ellew (the
sun)
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Soul
(Spirit)
*qanitu (ghost; ancestral spirit; nature
ispirito (Sp)
kali’duwa anito busaw umagad kiyarowa niyawa espiritu sumangat
(evil spirit; demon)
sumangat
7.5.2. Heaven and Hell and Underworld
spirit)
*sumaŋed (soul of a living being; soul of the rice plant)
is’piritu (Sp)
kaelwa yawa (demon)
aluwa niyawa
espirito
(Sp) aruwa umāgad
nyawa
umagad (inner courage)
God Dyos
(Sp) Dios (Sp) Diyos
(Sp) Dwata ‘Diyus
(Sp) Tuhan Dios (Sp) Tuhan Tuhan
Gi’nuu Allah
(Arb) Ginoo Allah
(Arb) Allah (Arb)
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Heaven *laŋit hanyit para’iso
(Sp) langit longit yangit langit langit sulga’ sulga'
sorga' paraiso (Sp)
parang musal
(a beautiful garden place in the afterlife)
surga'
ginhanan
Hell and
Underworl
d
impyirno (Sp)
irnpi'yerno (Sp)
impiyerno (Sp)
ma’ubuyan basád naraka impierno nalka’ narka'
man-u’buyan diyahanam jahannam
(Arb)
mai’buya
n diyahanan
man-i’buyan
u’bue
7.5.3. Revive (Resurrection)
7.6. Others (Yakan)
EUPHEMISMS FOR
DEATH
bekkat napasnen his breath snapped
niya' anu someone “kwaned”
PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak
Revive
(Resurrection
)
akdokdoh mahmah pagkabanhaw allum
Ōngar
(Ilk) llum
niya' mole' someone went home
niya' udjul someone died
DEROGATORY
EXPRESSIONS FOR
DEATH OR BEING
DEAD
leggi' stiff (as fish dried too hard)
niya' tulla someone died
pininsan death as a curse: may you be unconscious
tubag die a violent death (become unconscious that way)
JOKING ABOUT
DEATH
Hap Basilan diyawa' ne
iye. He has gone to lower Basilan.
Tetellenne napasnen. He swallowed his breath.
Abbreviations
PMP - Proto-Malayo Polynesian
Ibt - Ibatan
Dum - Dumagat
AM - Ayta Magantsi
Tbl - T’boli
AgM - Agusan Manobo
Btk - Batak
Mar - Maranao
Hil - Hiligaynon
Map - Mapun
Yak - Yakan
Ilk – Ilokano
Tag – Tagalog
Arb – Arabic
Sp - Spanish
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