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‘TIL DEATH DO SOUL AND BODY PART:

THE PMP CONCEPT OF DEATH AND THE

AFTERLIFE

Maricar San Pedro, Maryam Casimiro, Vea Elli

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‘TIL DEATH DO SOUL AND BODY PART:

THE PMP CONCEPT OF DEATH AND THE AFTERLIFE

Linguistics 150 | Gallego

Proponents:

Casimiro, Maryam Hisham

Elli, Marly Vea Clarisse

San Pedro, Maricar

ABSTRACT

This paper is aimed at giving insights about the concept of death and the afterlife of the eleven

(11) languages studied, the Proto-Malayo Polynesian and ten (10) languages representing the

Philippine microgroups and Outer Philippines— Ibatan for Bashiic (BSH), Dumagat for

Cordilleran (COR), Ayta-Mag-antsi for Central Luzon (CL), T’boli for Bilic (BIL), Agusan Manobo for Manobo in GCP (GCP), Batak for Palawanic in GCP (GCP), Maranao for Danaw in

GCP (GCP) and Hiligaynon for Central Philippine in GCP (GCP), Mapun and Yakan for Sama-

Bajaw languages (SB)— from the reconstructed proto forms (adapted from other studies) and the

cognate sets from each of the languages. Aside from the cognate sets, the collected data also

showed culture-specific terms, which were then examined for their cultural implications. The

results show that all languages studied in the paper exhibit their beliefs on the concept of death

and afterlife. The concepts have been greatly influenced by world’s major religions such as Christianity and Islam. Moreover, with culture-specific terms, death, preparation of the body,

burial, mourning, post-burial, and afterlife beliefs, the languages portrayed their culture in a

unique way and established relationship with other languages. The results exhibit the cultural

and archaeological implications of the languages. Little linguistic implications have been

analyzed in the paper.

Keywords: death, afterlife, culture, Philippine languages, proto, PMP

1.0 Introduction

Having death as a universal concept, all societies regardless of their technological development

have ways of coping with this phenomenon; they have their own unique beliefs and practices

which reflect the nature of culture including the values it regarded important such as from the

moment of death to preparation of the body for burial, from mourning to actual burial, from post-

burial rituals to belief in the afterlife (Baretto, 2000, p. 95). There have been evidences, both

linguistic and archaeological researches, which provided substantial proof that reflect the

Filipino ancestors to belief in the spirit world and in afterlife. Linguistic evidence on

reconstructed proto-forms PMP *nahiwa “breath, life force, breath soul” and PAN *qanitu “ghost, spirit of the dead” (Blust, 1995, p. 501) proved to be clear indications of a genetic

subgrouping not only of the Philippine languages but also of those which constitute the Western

Malayo-Polynesian languages. Archaeological proof, which includes burial assemblages and

other material remains that are marked with striking morphological similarities were also found

in other Southeast Asian countries, which also reveal that they are not just commonly united

geographically but also genetically and historically (Kasaysayan, 1992, p. 93).

1.1 Concept of Afterlife in the Philippines

Any simple attempt at describing the belief systems native to the Filipino is likely to be

inadequate. The religious beliefs were as varied as the languages of the country. However, there

were certain areas of common ground that existed among many of the peoples throughout the

islands. Throughout the Philippines, there was a great diversity of belief. With the archipelagic

landscape of the Philippines and its ethnolinguistic groups that are widely distributed all over the

country, diverse but genetically-related languages and equally distinct cultures have emerged

(Paz, 2008, p. 3). Despite this diversity, these languages and ethnolinguistic groups may still be

united with an underlying unique identity through a glimpse of their cultures, and ultimately

through their languages. The existence of the concepts of the death, the spirit world and afterlife

in Philippine EGs are evident in their belief systems, which are reflected by a number of words

and expressions which will be presented in this paper. The surprisingly similar and widespread

use of these words in the different languages of the Philippines may also indicate the significance

of this culture; in fact religion and spirituality appears to be the most important cultural factor

that measures the Filipino well-being (Sycip et al., 2008, p. 25). Even though this may reflect the

religion of Christianity, which has deeply infused with the Filipino animistic belief system, such

religion has evolved into the so-called folk syncretism or folk Catholicism (Schumacher, 1984, p.

251).

1.2 Genetic relationships and subgrouping of PH languages

The languages used in the study were under the PAn family, namely the PMP and languages in

the Outer WMP languages. The Outer WMP languages, also known as the Bornean languages,

have a subgroup called the Barito languages in which the Sama-Bajaw languages belong to.

The Proto-Philippine (PPh) subgroup, which descends from the Western-Malayo Polynesian

family (Blust, 2005, p. 40) was maintained in this study. The nine PPh microgroups proposed by

Blust (1991) was used as reference for the subgrouping of the ten languages. These microgroups

are the Bashiic, Cordilleran, Central Luzon, Inati, Kalamian, Greater Central Philippines (GCP),

Bilic, Sangiric and Minahasan (Blust, 1991). The South Mangyan, Palawanic, Central

Philippines, Manobo, Danaw, Subanun and Gorontalo-Mongondow groups constitute the GCP

microgroup (Blust, 1991, p. 101). 1.3.

1.3 Objectives

This paper is a preliminary report on the concept of death, the soul, and afterlife among the Outer

Philippine and Proto-Philippine (PPh) subgroup, which descends from the Western-Malayo

Polynesian family. It is an attempt to reconstruct the culture of the PPh using the cognates of

death and afterlife that we have collected from the languages from 9 microgroups– Ibatan for

Bashiic (BSH), Dumagat for Cordilleran (COR), Ayta-Mag-antsi for Central Luzon (CL), T’boli for Bilic (BIL), Agusan Manobo for Manobo in GCP (GCP), Batak for Palawanic in GCP (GCP),

Maranao for Danaw in GCP (GCP) and Hiligaynon for Central Philippine in GCP (GCP). Also,

Mapun and Yakan were used for Sama-Bajaw languages (SB) in the Outer Philippines. Through

the use of these collected terms, it aims to provide some speculations regarding its cultural

implications on PPh and we will also attempt to account its relationship with the PMP where PPh

is said to be descended from, and with the Outer Philippine languages.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

Due to time and feasibility constraints, this paper’s data and analysis will only concern that of the PMP, the two Outer Philippine languages, and ten of the languages mentioned and thus

cannot account for the totality of the forms used by all the languages belonging to the Proto-

Philippine. The data used in this paper were from native speakers and dictionaries - Agusan

Manobo (2000), Ayta Mag-Antsi (2005), Batak (1959), Dumagat (1974), Ibatan (2013), T’boli (2004), Hiligaynon (1980), Maranao (1996), Mapun (2000), and Yakan (2002). Due to updated

references, difficulty in reconstruction is inevitable. Cultural implications were analyzed from

archaeological and linguistic sources. In view of cross-cultural implications, Tagalog and

Cebuano terms and idioms have also been used in the study.

1.5 Methodology

The data for this paper was sourced from native speakers (except Batak, Dumagat, and T’boli) and (updated online) dictionaries of the languages. The Comparative Method was used to gather

lexical items and to identify the cognates. However, the researchers did not attempt to

reconstruct any lexical item. The reconstructed proto forms (PMP) used in this paper were taken

from Blust and Trussel (2015)’s online Austronesian Comparative Dictionary.

Despite the existence of the reconstructed proto forms, most of the cultural implications were

found from the culture-specific and religion-related terms of each language. Most of the

discussion of the cultural analysis is modeled after Barretto (2000).

2.0 Review of Related Literature

The earliest work published regarding the burial of the dead and the associated rituals probably

would be Blust (1995) using the PMP cognates. However, even his work is informative, it was

found to be lacking in the items included. Also, a cultural reconstruction would be difficult from

this study due to its limited data focusing on diseases, mourning terms for death, and on breath’s semantic reflexes for the spirit world.

Paz (2008) proves to be a relevant reference for this paper as Paz has taken both a diachronic and

a more cultural approach in discussing the reconstruction of the liver and its implications. This

study identified the liver as the seat of emotions in the Philippine languages. It is connected with

the reconstructed form of the words related to death and the afterlife, “death”, “to die”, “kill”.

To further the studies concerning the death and afterlife terms, and their cultural implications in

Philippine languages, this paper also references Barretto (2000) in analyzing the cultural

implications of the lexical data. Barretto (2000) has adapted a thorough discussion of findings

that is based on the consideration of social, cultural, and religious domains. Barretto (2000)’s work focused on the literature of indigenous burial practices and their archaeological

implications. Anima (1978) also tackled on childbirth and burial practice among Philippine tribes.

In terms of specific languages, the researchers used Hornedo (1994) for the Ivatan beliefs and

practices of the death and the afterlife; Talavera, et. al (2013)’s descriptive study on the T’boli religion and burial practices using songs and stories; DLSU Philippine literature (2015)’s narrative on Batak, Dumagat, Hiligaynon, Mapun, Manobo, Maranao, T’boli, and Yakan culture in their website. Ayta Mag-anchi, Agusan Manobo, Casiguran Dumagat, and T’boli were headhunters. To linguistically reconstruct the term headhunting, the researchers used Liao (2012).

Abrera (2007) was used to indicate the relationship and relatedness of the soul and the boat, and

its implication with the cultural and religious beliefs of the indigenous people.

3.0 Data and Analysis

This paper categorizes and presents the findings and analysis into chronological order of

domains: before death, preparation of the body for burial, mourning to actual burial, post-burial

rituals to belief in the afterlife, and others. The data sets used were from PMP, Ibatan (Ibt),

Dumagat (Dum), Ayta-Mag-antsi (AM), T’boli (Tbl), Agusan Manobo (AgM), Batak (Btk),

Maranao (Mar), Hiligaynon (Hil), Mapun (Map), and Yakan (Yak) languages.

3.1 Before Death

3.1.1 Death

PMP *atay Ibt Minatay Dum Ate AM Kamatsan Tbl Matay AgM Kamatayon Btk Natay Mar Kapatay Hil Kamatayon Map Patay

patoy kamatoyan matay matoy kapatay

Yak patey (also, turn off a machine)

As we can infer from the table above, all the languages have cognates which can be

reconstructed as the PMP form *atay. Certain affixes like ka-,–in-, -on, and –an were added in

the terms to refer to death as noun. The PMP form is related to the liver *atay as the seat of

emotions in the Philippine languages. *Atay underwent semantic change in the PPh reflexes, like

death, and even words like sick; tired (of); faint; lose consciousness; eclipse; new moon;

extinguished; blocked (path); paralyzed; numb; asleep (limbs); die down (wind); waterless

(springs, rivers); dry up (plants); beaten (in a game); fixed (price); terminate a matter; reach an

agreement; disaster; intensive, superlative; desire intensely; and be deeply in love (Blust and

Trussel, 2015).

In Agusan Manobo, there are many terms for death, examples are higpat meaning sudden death;

bunog meaning death from overwork; and, butud meaning bloated and floating. It is probably

related to Tagalog which has the term butad meaning bloated or having a big stomach.

In Ayta Mag-antsi, there is a term for the last hours of life of a person called boyto. There is also

the term bango-ngot meaning to die in one’s sleep.

In Dumagat, the term awan means ‘to save oneself from death’. Also, they have a term for death agony, hi’ngalo, same as the Tagalog term.

In Ibatan, there is a term called asdo which means ‘died from drinking too fast’.

3.1.2 To die

PMP *m-atay Ibt Minatay Dum Ate AM Patsi Tbl Matay AgM Patoy Btk Natay Mar Matay Hil Matay Map Patay Yak matey

The verb ‘To die’ in the above languages is the same as the noun death, using *atay with an

added prefix m- form.

In culture-specific terms, Mapun uses the word tubag which means to die immediately because

of a bullet, and falling coconut. In Yakan, they use the same word tubag to pertain to die a

violent death (and become unconscious that way). The two associated meanings are related to

each other. In Yakan, the Mapun tubag counterpart is called bugtang meaning to die instantly

because of an outside cause like shooting, being slashed, falling, poison, etc. In Ayta Mag-anchi.

tanhag is the term for killed instantly. Also in Yakan, there is a term for a baby who died in the

womb or as stillborn, lawa.

In Hiligaynon, they have terms for last gasp, anhing and tinga, which signify the importance of

the last breath of their loved one.

In Dumagat, lepsot is a term which means to die and to expire.

In Maranao, there are many terms for death including layon which also means to wither or wilt.

It does not only pertain to humans and animals being dead, but also plants. Another are the terms

applied to their political and territorial terms which include marohom, a dead sultan, and

kapagonong, which means the death of two enemies together.

3.1.3 To kill

PMP *pa-m-atay Ibt Diman Dum Pusung AM Patsi Tbl - AgM Himatoy Btk - Mar Bono Hil Patyon

Pumatay Magpatay

Map - Yak Bono

Binasa

The term ‘to kill’ in its proto-form has shared cognates in the languages of Ayta Mag-antsi,

Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon. Maranao and Yakan both have the term bono, in which

religious association is most likely the reason, since both are Muslim cultural communities. Bono

means ‘to fight with the intent to kill’. Both Maranao and Yakan have various terms for kill.

Yakan has binasa (to inflict pain), and la’ug (to kill someone innocent). Maranao has terms like

batas (kill opponent in fight), gapa (kill or murder), gisa (kill en masse), lakaw (kill with a

weapon), lanas (kill all), olid (kill each other), manibelek (killer), and kitas (revenge killing).

In Manobo, they have the term gusow which means to exterminate a person or to erase a person

from the face of the earth. The meaning also expanded to evil spirit.

In Ayta Mag-anchi, the terms are mipakabili (will be killed), ampangayaw (killing), and

bangkayan (reverse killings). In Hiligaynon, ihaw is the term for butcher. In Mapun, imuwa

means to kill a common person.

In Ibatan, pisti means kill all or plague; otan means to kill off; pisa as to kill with one hit or to

disposed of; and apseh means to strangle.

In Dumagat, there is a person who kills wherever he goes, bumebunag. The term came from a

Dumagat folklore. In relation to this, there is a reason for killing or harming for no reason,

pusung.

3.1.4 Headhunting

According to Blust and Trussel (2015), there is a PMP *kayaw ‘head-hunting’ and a PWMP

*ayaw ‘raid, go headhunting’, but there are also evidences for the reconstruction of PMP *ŋayaw ‘head-hunting’ and PMP *mangayaw. Casiguran Dumagat has the term putol or ngelngel which

means to behead, and ngayö as a killing raid, and to attack a house or village for the purpose of

killing. Ayta Mag-antsi has kayaw (wait in ambush at the house or field or someone to kill them)

and also the already mentioned ampangayaw (killing). Agusan Manobo has mangajow, a killer

or one who kills, loots, and captures women and children to be sold or made into wives and

slaves of the captors. In Manobo, ayaw, ngayaw, and mengayaw is also being used. In T’boli, nayaw, ayaw, menayaw were also used meaning to raid/kill.

3.1.5 Suicide

PMP *paka-m-atay Ibt - Dum Bikti

Usot AM Ampah

nagbitke magpakamatsi

Tbl AgM Paka’matoy Btk - Mar Pageget

Pagonay pangeday da lalag

Hil Hikog hingap-us

Map Yak Sabil

In Ayta Mag-anchi, ampah is the term for suicide because of shame, while in Dumagat, the term

bikti is not just about committing suicide, but also of dying of heartbreak.

In Maranao, there are terms like pageget which also means to hold the breath, and pagonay

which means to take a hand in something. In Hiligaynon, terms like hikog and hingap-us means

committing suicide by hanging oneself.

In Mapun, there is also a term for risking one’s life, susayid, like risking one’s life to fight

against soldiers.

3.2 Preparation of the Body for Burial

PMP *m-atay has various PPh reflexes such as bangkay, patay, katawan.

PMP *m-atay Ibt bangkay (Ilk)

minatay (Ilk) minatay/maparahmet (ilk) bangkay; minatay (not yet buried)

Dum Bangkay AM Bangkay Tbl Matay

mlef lówó yem matay

AgM Matoy Mi’natoy

Btk Katawan Mar Bangkay

Domiyalong Mait Mayat

Hil bangkay Map Mayat Yak Bangkey

Mayat Patey Bangkey

We can infer from our dictionary work that the common term that is being used in PPh is

bangkay which is probably related to the terms bahay and balanghai. Balanghai is the term for

the oldest community boat which can contain up to 30 persons and has the capacity for longer

sea travel. Bahay, on the other hand, pertains to “house”. Each one of the said terms has

something to do with the man in the island. From these three terms one can observe that the three

are physical containers of life which could be the soul or just the physical life depending on the

religion and belief system of who looks or analyzes. Moreover, they all have something to do

with the boat. Bahay was developed after the seafarer’s decided to settle in the land. On the other hand, traditionally, bangkay is used to be placed in a jar with a carving of a boat or in a boat-

shaped coffin symbolizing the going back to their most important origins (Reyes, 2002).

Batak is the only language in the paper which uses katawan as both the living body and the dead

body of a person.

Ethnolinguistic groups (EGs) in the Philippines have various kinds of practices of preparation of

the body for burial. EGs vary on how they prepare the body, grave preparation, and the manner

and location of the burial. Death beliefs and practices reflect the disposition of their cultures.

3.2.1 Preparation of the body

Regions vary on how they prepare the dead such as washing the corpse, wrapping the corpse, and

clothing and adorning the body. Several of the groups we reviewed in this paper, washed their

dead right after their death as they believe that it will make its spirit clean. The gum of the storax

tree and other aromatic ointments are also said to be used to prevent the release of foul smell.

After washing, the body is dressed in elegant garment, or sometimes the clothes he died in. then

the body is wrapped in a mat or a death blanket. Blust (1995) reconstructed PMP balun ‘wrap in cloth’ which appears to be generally one of the rites being practiced in preparing for the dead.

In Yakan, before the burial, they perform sutsi wherein the corpse will be washed in order to

purify and physically cleanse the body. Aside from a thorough cleaning of the body, the Yakan

(all who are able participate) also do “a thorough cleaning of the cleaning of the openings of the

body, also compromising the emptying of the bowels.” (Wulff, 1962) Then, the process called tatap wherein the body will be completely wrapped in white linen which they call kakana'. On

top of the wrapped corpse the deceased, saput or grave clothes was placed.

Similar to Yakan, Mapun also has ceremonies during the preparation of the dead called palihala'

“to prepare a corpse for burial (esp. w.r.t. to washing the body)”. People believe that a dead person should be buried as soon as possible (Casino, 1976). They start the preparation with

piluwang “washing the private parts of the dead body”, and kabaratan refers to the fee as a

compensation to the religious leaders who washed the corpse. It will be proceeded by

katungkusan or wrapping of the dead with a white, new cloth called tungkus.

In Hiligaynon, embalsamahon “embalm” is being practices in the region. While in Dumagat, they do not embalm the bodies because they believe that the dead will get hurt (Cinco, 2013).

Archaeologically, there are evidences of wrapping the corpse in Batak in Palawan, as well as the

Negrito burial sites in Zambales as they have mat impression on their skeletal remain when

recovered. Also, in T’boli speakers in Cotabato, they were able to recover some traces of piece

of cloth and mat in the recovered remains (Baretto, 2000). Although, it might not be recovered

linguistically through dictionary works, these archaeological evidences are also worth taking

note that the aboriginals have a high possibility that they practiced these rites.

In terms of clothing and adorning of the corpse, it should be noted that the Batak speakers

practices that the corpse is dressed in new garments (Samson, 1967). Also, for Manobo speakers,

when death occurs, lapuy (death messengers) are sent to inform relatives and friends. The body

is washed, dressed in the best garments and ornaments, however, charms and Talismans are

being removed as they are considered as heirloom pieces which they call 'ankae. Then, it is laid

on a mat at the exact center of the floor directly underneath the peak of the rooftop, and

completely covered with a blanket.

3.2.2 Coffin

Many people regard the coffin or casket as an important tribute to the deceased and they are

therefore selected with care making sure that the “send off’ is sufficient. Coffin comes with different types and shapes. There are coffins shaped like a boat, jar, tree trunk, or a typical

rectangular casket made up of a special tree or a bamboo. Some also include grave goods in the

coffin. The grave goods were placed with different reasons: as a gift to ancestors or gods, to

represent the status symbol of the dead, preparation for their journey in the afterlife, and to drive

away the evil spirits.

In Batak, the body of the deceased is placed in a coffin made of bamboo called papag. The body

is then covered with a pandanus mat once inside the coffin. There are two classes of grave

furniture, first, the goods which will be included inside the coffin, and second the goods are

placed on top of the grave. badong ‘bowl’ and bankaw ‘spear’ comprise the first type of grave goods while pingan ‘plate’, danum ‘water’, pupud ‘tobaco’, mamak ‘betel nut’, beye ‘leaf’, apog

‘lime’ and dalakun ‘lime container’ comprised the second type (Warren, 1964). Similarly, the Dumagat speakers use the terms andasan, ka'baong for coffin made up of buho or bamboo

(SEAsite project, 2012). When a datu descended dies, a slave is made to die in the same manner

as the chief. They usually put *duwel ‘term for articles which are buried with a body’ such as clothes, kettle, arrow, etc. into the coffin together with the corpse.

In Manobo, they have the term ayu'yow to refer to ‘kind of softwood tree used especially in

making coffins’. They usually dug out the core of the trunk, split lengthwise and its edges sealed with a mixture of wood ashes, sweet potato leaves, and lime to contain the odor. The coffin is

then half buried about 10 meters away from the house, so that the sogoy or gimukod can wander

in and out of the body. Objects, such as a bolo sword, which the dead must take with it on its

journey to the afterlife, are placed near the body. A clothesline is strung parallel to the body, and

the clothes of the family or the dead person’s personal possessions are hung here. There is much wailing and shouting, and the agung (gong) is constantly beaten to announce the death to

everyone within hearing distance. The number of beats indicates the dead person’s age, status,

and social position (DLSU Philippine literature, 2015). Similar to the Manobo speakers, Negritos

in Zambales, including the Ayta Mag-anchi, usually make their coffin only by hollowing a tree

(Reed, 1904) which they call kabaong, likit and langkayan.

One of the earliest proofs of material culture is the Manunggul Jar found in Palawan. One of its

remarkable features is the small boat with two passengers; the rower and the passenger who is

pertained to be the dead person lying inside the jar. It is said that the boathouse for the dead is

intended to transport him to the afterlife. In T’boli, the body is laid on a boat-shaped wooden

coffin tightly sealed with a tree resin to prevent the odor of the decomposition process. This

coffin will then be suspended in trees. However, in Maranao, they have various terms for coffin

– bangkabangkay, kapan, lantanga', and sondok - which is shaped like a boat. They also

sometimes call it panolong, a cognate for boat prow (Menez, 2015). However, they do not put a

cover as part of their burial practice.

In Ibatan, they usually place the dead in a large burial urn called angang and padapada which is

usually 30 inches in diameter (Lakbay Pilipinas, 2015). The burial of cooking and eating utensils

with the dead is also supported by recent archeology (Hornedo, 1994)

In Yakan burial practice, they do not use coffins; the body is carried on a wooden structure and is

buried inside a half-moon-shaped grave. Whereas in Mapun, they have a typical wooden box

they call tuung for the remains of their loved ones. However, using archaeologically evidences,

the aboriginals of Mapun did not use coffin to make sure that the covering earth never touches

the face and the body of the corpse (Casino, 1967). Also in Mapun, sandana' is a term for

sandal-wood which is grated and mixed with water and used for sprinkling on a corpse and grave

site.

3.3 Mourning to Actual Burial

3.3.1 Mourning and Wake

Is the concept of death more of just a ritual and a cultural activity rather than bereavement? Tears

and agony go side by side with the cultural and religious activities done with the dead body.

Usually, relatives of the dead are given time to mourn and grieve. Blust (1995) reconstructed

PMP *baluq ‘mourn the dead’. However, various terms for mourning and grieving was observed

in the data. Agusan Manobo uses deg'matoy and Dumagat uses megewad as a specific term to

describe their mourning.

PMP *baluq mourn the dead *ma-naŋis wail, weep, cry

Ibt Ladingit (Ilk) dongdong-aw tanyis / kapaychatanyitanyis

panes mourn by wearing black Dum Ala’ala to long for an absent loved one

Megewad to refuse to talk to someone Konsimi to grieve; to mourn

AM Boyton nakem Tbl Langag AgM Deg’matoy Btk Magtanis Mar bokoboko'

ta'awi Hil kasakit agony; grief; mourning; pain

kasulub-on grief; pathos; sadness; sorrow magkalisud Grieve magloto Mourn pagkalisud Grievance pagpanangis wailing; weeping pagpanganduhoy lamentation; wailing

Map dagun grief; mourning dukka' grief; woe udju a funeral; a great sorrow tapakku just staring down at the ground because of grief sugu sad susa sad ala concern

Yak Tangis Sugul Suse

In Ibatan, they practice mangay du nadiman, literally means "go to the dead." It means visiting

the bereaved family while the dead lies in state. They call the wake for the dead maparahmet.

The root word is rahmet or dahmet ‘weight; heaviness’. Idiomatically it means "joy" or "happiness." It means lessening the sorrow of the bereaved family. The occasion is also called

padahmetan or colloquially panahmefan. It refers to the wake for the dead. Before embalming

came to their region, the burial took place the day after death. The funeral wake was the single

night before the funeral day. In practice, this is a social event which is merry rather than funereal.

As its name suggests, it is supposed to lighten the grief of the bereaved. It is a farewell affair for

a townsman, so in the small villages, everyone can attend. It is held in the night since that is

when people are all in the village. During the early evening, the wake begins with prayers for the

dead. Then food and drinks are served. As people become drunk, the place becomes more noisy

and festive. This may go on all night, or until everyone is exhausted. Expenses in food and drink

during this occasion are considered natay nu nadiman ‘share of the dead man’. Giving the dead

man a share in the goods he leaves behind or from the benefice of loved ones is supposed to give

the dead man more peace and contentment (Hornedo, 1994).

Wake ceremonies in T’boli which they call modung, may last from a week to five months but if

the dead is highly respected by the community, his or her wake may last for a year. At the end of

the wake, the wooden coffin will be placed over a fire but the fluid that oozes through the

burning wood is collected and used as sauce for their sweet potato meals. “In this manner, they believe the desirable qualities of the deceased will pass on to them” (PIMEPhil project, 2003).

In Manobo, they conduct their wake with ritual song they call Ay Dingding meaning “lullaby for the dead”, it is sung only during a wake and when a baylan is present, for it attracts the evil

spirits who come looking for a corpse to eat. The wake may last from 8 to 12 days depending on

the stature of the dead person. A baby is mourned only for one day, while a datu usually takes

seven days (DLSU Philippine literature, 2015).

In Batak, they mourn while they tie a pestle across the body of a dead person because they

believe that the corpse might come to life again to devour people.

In Ayta Maganchi, they practice head-hunting to fulfill mourning rites (Reid, 2013).

In Dumagat, they usually wear black cloth for a year to mourn for the dead. After a year of

mourning, the black cloth will be left behind the burial place (Baes, 2012).

In Mapun, since they have to bury the dead as soon as possible, they do not have a concept of

wake. The Mapuns acquire an abnormal physical trait or habit when someone dies, and it is

called binuhun-buhun. According to traditional beliefs, if you tilt your head to the side on the day

when someone is dying, you will acquire a habit of doing that.

3.3.2 Grave and burial

They also have different way in making the grave. Location of the burial is also diverse.

In Manobo, after the grave has been dug, someone stands guard by the pit to keep the busaw

away. Burial rites begin in the house with the “cutting-the-strand” ritual: an elder blackens half of a strand of manila hemp. This blackened end is held by the family while the white end is tied

to the corpse. The strand is cut to signify the cutting of ties of affection between the family and

the dead. A man is buried facing the east so that the sunrise will signal to him that it is time to

work. A woman is buried facing the west so that the sunset will remind her that it is time to cook.

As the dirt is thrown back into the pit, all turn their backs to avoid the temptation of

accompanying the dead person. The grave marker is a low wooden frame. Tree cuttings are stuck

around the grave. In Maranao, they don’t put cover on the coffin of the dead because they believe in reincarnation (but they don’t have word for it).

In Yakan, the grave was dug near the house where he had lived. Above the grave a roof had been

built, covered with matting made of coconut palm leaves, which were split down the middle,

where after the leaflets were plaited from the split midrib and halfway down. When the grave

had been filled in, three men – one of them an imam or priest – sat under the roof praying in

Arabic, one after the other. After the prayer, a matting, similar to the one that used for the roof,

was placed on the grave under the roof. A fire was burning at one end of the roof. At the opposite

end, the mourners were sitting, the men just outside the roof, and the women a little to one side

of this opening (Wulff, 1962).

Some also put grave stones that shaped like a boat or by putting a grave marker such as in Yakan,

Mapun, Dumagat. Although in Dumagat, they put a cross which they call kudos and it is

borrowed from Spanish.

3.4 Post-Burial

Different death ceremonies, rituals and sacrifices in various ethnolinguistic groups in the

Philippines are usually conducted after the burial of the dead. These, at the same time, manifest

their beliefs on the concept of death and afterlife per se. Aside from this, there are heavy

influences of other religions, i.e. major religions such as Christianity and Islam, to their own

beliefs on the said concepts which, in fact, overlap their unique ways on how to cope with such.

3.4.1 Offerings and Sacrifices

PMP - Ibt ātang (Ilk) (offering to a malevolent spirit) dāton (Ilk) (altar for sacrifice) pakabat (offering to ancestral spirits) parawat (offering to ancestral spirits) limos (offering to God or to the dead) Dum atang (to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the

spirits) deton (to make a small offering to the spirits; to

leave an offering at a grave) tatan (type of offering made to the spirits; to make

an offering to the spirits) sipay (human sacrifice) AM imparaêp (to offer a cooked mountain rice and cut-

up chicken sacrifice to the souls of the dead) Tbl dsu be busaw (spirit offering) demisu (offer sacrifice) AgM sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to

the soul of a dead person) su’guy (offer before hunting) tapus (feast offering for the dead) Btk - Mar getas (sacrifice) kandori’ (sacrifice) lalam (sacrifice) raga’ (sacrifice) Hil halad (sacrifice) Map hakika (a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often

for a child) Yak hekika (animal sacrifice)

Offerings and sacrifices are just two of the ways on how to observe and show respect to the soul

of the dead and to the spirits. These can actually be seen in association with rituals and death

ceremonies, as means also of making peace with them. In the table, we have not seen any PMP

term for ‘offering’ and/or ‘sacrifice’; and there is no term that we have seen in Batak for offering and/or sacrifice. On the other hand, Ibatan and Dumagat show two similar forms: ātang (Ibt) and

dāton (Ibt) and atang (Dum) and deton (Dum) which are actually borrowed from Ilokano. ātang

in Ibatan means ‘offering to a malevolent spirit’ while atang in Dumagat means ‘to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the spirits’. In Ibatan, dāton means ‘altar for sacrifice’ while in

Dumagat, deton means ‘to make a small offering to the spirits; to leave an offering at a grave’. Aside from this, limos in Ibatan which means ‘offering to God or to the dead’ shows another borrowing -- another meaning for this is ‘alms for the poor’. Only Dumagat has a word for ‘human sacrifice’ which is sipay.

3.4.2 Rituals and Death Ceremonies

PMP - Ibt - Dum hulhul (a simple ceremony conducted on the third

night after someone has died) AM pantatlo (for the third night of death ceremony) Tbl - AgM sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink

to the soul of a dead person) Btk panoyәntuyunan (burial ritual) Mar - Hil - Map bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony) hakika (a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often

for a child) Yak bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)

After the death of a person, certain kinds of ceremonies are conducted. These ceremonies basically involve people, food, and, especially, prayer which often mark the death of the person; and these may be a celebration or very solemn. These ceremonies are either held at home, in the church, or at the gravesite. (Lobar, et al., 2006) Rituals, on the other hand, are often associated with ceremonies and are performed for specific reasons, might be traditionally or religiously. Certain rituals may just solely for remembrance of the dead and/or for closure. However, there are also some rituals performed but no reason at all. (Lobar, et al., 2006) In the table, we have not seen PMP terms for ‘ritual’ and ‘death ceremony’. We have also not seen any terms in Ibatan, T’boli, Maranao, and Hiligaynon. The majority of the terms that we have seen are terms with the meaning ‘for the third night of death ceremony’. These are hulhul in Dumagat, pantatlo in Ayta Magantsi and bahangi in Mapun and Yakan. We assume that the meaning of these terms which refer to the ‘third night’, specifically, is the same with the belief of Aromanon Manobo that the dead will return three days after burial or after death; and, thus, their tribe prepare and perform a ritual called “Pauli Te Himukod” for the returning spirit. (Ong, et al., 2013). On the other hand, other terms such as sugnud, panoyәntuyunan, and hakika involve rituals in offerings, sacrifices, and burials.

3.5 Afterlife (Afterworld)

PMP -

Ibt -

Dum kabilan'buhay (Tag) AM - Tbl - AgM - Btk libsanәn saniban Mar mawri a alongan Hil - Map Ahirat Sumulai Yak Ahilat Sumangat Niyawa ellew (the sun)

The belief in the afterlife is manifested on the performances held after the burials take place. The

afterlife or the place where the soul of a person goes after he/she dies is interconnected with

certain beliefs, for example in ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, that are either subjected

by other beliefs, e.g. major religions such as Christianity, or not. The concept of afterlife or

afterworld in the languages that we have just focused on show some variety. No PMP term for

this concept has been found, same with Ibatan, Ayta Magantsi, T’boli, Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon. However, there is a Tagalog term that we have seen in Dum, kabilan’buhay which

literally means ‘the afterlife’. Others such as in Mapun and Yakan show similarities such as ahirat (Map) and ahilat (Yak).

3.5.1 Soul (Spirit)

PMP *qanitu and *sumaŋed have only a few reflexes such as anito and sumangat.

PMP *qanitu (ghost; ancestral spirit; nature spirit) *sumaŋed (soul of a living being; soul of the rice

plant) Ibt ispirito (Sp) Dum kali’duwa is’piritu (Sp) AM anito kaelwa espirito (Sp) Tbl busaw AgM umagad Btk kiyarowa Mar niyawa Hil espiritu yawa (demon) Map sumangat (evil spirit; demon) aluwa aruwa nyawa umagad (inner courage) Yak sumangat niyawa umāgad

In the concepts of ‘soul’ and ‘spirit’, PMP *qanitu which means ‘ghost; ancestral spirit; nature spirit’ can be seen to have a reflex from Ayta Magantsi, anito. Aside from this, PMP *sumaŋed

which means ‘soul of a living being; soul of the rice plant’ can be seen to have reflexes in Mapun and Yakan, sumangat (Map) which means ‘evil spirit; demon’ and sumangat (Yak). Other terms

such as ispirito (Ibt) which is a Spanish word and kali’duwa (Dum) show similarities in other

languages -- Ayta Magantsi, Batak, Hiligaynon, and Mapun. These terms actually show the

influence of Christianity in the ethnolinguistic groups as well as the influence of other languages

to them.

3.5.2 God

PMP - Ibt Dyos (Sp) Dum Dios (Sp) AM Diyos (Sp) Tbl Dwata AgM ‘Diyus (Sp) Gi’nuu Btk - Mar Tuhan Allah (Arb) Hil Dios (Sp) Ginoo Map Tuhan Allah (Arb) Yak Tuhan Allah (Arb)

The concept of ‘God’ differs here. We have observed that majority of the languages here use terms for ‘God’ with regards to the major religions that influence them. In Ibatan, Dumagat, Ayta Magantsi, Agusan Manobo, and Hiligaynon, the term Dios, a Spanish word, is evident. On the

other hand, in Maranao, Mapun, and Yakan, the term Allah, an Arabic word, is apparent. Thus, it

can be surmised that Christianity and Islam are the two major religions that influence these

languages. No PMP term for the concept has been seen, same with Batak.

3.5.3 Heaven

PMP *laŋit has many reflexes as seen in the table.

PMP *laŋit Ibt Hanyit Dum para’iso (Sp) AM Langit Tbl Longit AgM Yangit Btk - Mar Langit

sorga' Hil Langit paraiso (Sp) Ginhanan Map sulga’ parang musal (a beautiful garden place in the

afterlife) Yak sulga' surga'

The PMP term *laŋit presents many reflexes such as in Itbayat, Ayta Magantsi, T’boli, Agusan Manobo, Maranao, and Hiligaynon. This term shows that the concept of ‘heaven’ is ‘above the earth’. In Hiligaynon, another word for this concept is ginhanan and paraiso, a Spanish word

which can also be seen in Dumagat as para’iso. In Mapun and Yakan, their terms of ‘heaven’ is sulga’ (surga’ as the variant form in Yakan); and one we would like to emphasize here is the other term of Mapun of ‘heaven’, parang musal which means ‘a beautiful garden place in the

afterlife’. This simply shows that these ethnolinguistic groups consider the concept of ‘heaven’ per se as a good place (above).

3.5.4 Hell and Underworld

PMP - Ibt impyirno (Sp) Dum irnpi'yerno (Sp) AM impiyerno (Sp) Tbl - AgM ma’ubuyan man-u’buyan mai’buyan man-i’buyan u’bue Btk Basád Mar Naraka Diyahanam Diyahanan Hil Impierno Map nalka’ Yak narka' jahannam (Arb)

The concept of ‘hell’ as the counterpart of ‘heaven’ is a place ‘under the earth’. Same with the concept of ‘heaven’, in these languages, it can be seen that major religions, specifically Christianity and Islam, have greatly influenced them. The Spanish word impiyerno which is

actually used in Christianity is evident in Ibatan, Dumagat, Ayta Magantsi, and Hiligaynon;

whereas in Maranao and Yakan, the Arabic word jahannam is evident, showing an occurrence of

borrowing. However, in other languages such as Agusan Manobo, Batak, and Mapun, we have

seen other words for ‘hell’. Moreover, no terms in PMP and T’boli have seen.

3.5.5 Revive (Resurrection)

PMP - Ibt Akdokdoh Ōngar (Ilk) Dum - AM Mahmah Tbl - AgM - Btk - Mar - Hil Pagkabanhaw Map Allum Llum Yak -

Other than the concepts for post-burial and the afterlife, we have thought of including the

concept of ‘revive’ or ‘resurrection’. One of the reasons is that, this is parallel to the concept of ‘afterlife’ and the belief of this concept in some ethnolinguistic groups show another side of their

own beliefs or, perhaps, their own manifestation of this concept from other beliefs through their

own words. We have just seen some words regarding this concept; and this is evident in Ibatan,

Ayta Magantsi, Hiligaynon, and Mapun only. In Ibatan, furthermore, an Ilokano word is also

used, Ōngar (Ilk). No PMP term is seen for the concept of ‘revive’ or ‘resurrection’.

3.5 Others

3.5.1 Euphemisms and Derogatory expressions for Death

In the PMP, *ma-tuqah is used for euphemism of the term dead. It literally means old or old

people. Other meanings are ‘very’, and ‘extremely’. The meaning of being “old” has expanded to the meaning of death, since when you get old, you inevitably die afterwards.

In Mapun, the term abut is used as a euphemism for the word to die or to pass away. It literally

means to reach a destination, or to last a certain length of time. Certainly, when you reached the

last point of your life, you die.

In Yakan, “bekkat napasnen” means ‘his breath snapped’ or ‘his breath broke’. Bekkat meaning

for something to break like a rope, a thread, or wire, and napasnen means breath. This is also the

same meaning as the Tagalog “nalagot ang hininga”, and Dumagat “begsot”. This signifies that

life is as thin and as fragile as a thread or wire, and can easily be broken. Expressions like niya'

anu which means “someone ‘kwaned’”; niya’ mole’, someone went home; and, niya’ udjul, someone died, are used. “kwan” is a filler word which means ‘what-you-may-call-it’. It is a word used to designate something for which one cannot remember the name. Death is a term which

provokes intense emotions, so using light words such as “kwan”, and home lessens the feeling of bereavement. The term niya means ‘there is” or “it exists”.

In Ayta Mag-antsi, there is a term called hagpa which pertains to “zoom to death”. Example

sentence is “Bat yan naghagpa ha apoy ya hukhuk”, meaning “The moth just dove into the fire”. In Tagalog, it should mean “isang paa, nasa hukay” or in English, it simply means digging your

own grave, taken in a lightly context which does not necessarily mean dying.

There have been many examples of euphemisms in Tagalog, like pumanaw which means to

leave, depart, disappear, and to leave this world; “kinuha na ni Lord” and “kasama na ni Lord”

which signifies that the dead person has lived a fulfilled life and has now been taken by God;

‘wala na siya’ which means the person’s now gone; and agaw-buhay which means between life

and death, or literally “life about to be snatched away”. Also, there’s an expression “nagpapahinga na” which literally means the person is resting in peace, and “oras na niya” which means his time has come. “Iniwan na niya tayo” and “Nauna na siya” implies that we are all going to the afterlife, and the person who died before us has gone too soon. “Sumakabilang-

buhay” meaning went to the afterlife, is also being used often. This clearly suggests the concept

of afterlife among the Tagalogs.

There is also a term called “babang luksa” which can also mean the gathering to mark the end of

a mourning period or the first death anniversary of a person. The Kapampangan counterpart of it

is called lukas paldas which literally means the removing of the dress for mourning.

In Cebuano, there is a derogatory term for death called tigok which has its semantic expansion –

aborted fetus, to die from lack of oxygen by suffocation or by drowning, to die of starvation, and

to die in a battle or hunt. In Tagalog, it just means sound produced in the throat by swallowing.

Recently, it has been used also as euphemism in Tagalog by using a hand gesture in the throat or

neck while producing a sound.

In Mapun, the expression ‘bat ku’ or ‘ibot ku’ is used to swear upon the death of a living loved

one.

In Yakan, there is a derogatory term “leggi’” which means stiff, pertaining to a fish dried too hard. It means that when you die, your body becomes stiff as a dried fish. A term “pininsan” means death as a curse, in which it means “may you be unconscious”.

3.5.2 Jokes about Death

In Yakan, “Hap Basilan diyawa’ ne iye.” is an expression used to joke about death. It literally means, “He has gone to lower Basilan.” Also, “Tetellenne napasnen” is used to mean “He

swallowed his breath.” This probably means to stop one’s breath, to play dead, and to literally swallow the breath until there is no more.

In Tagalog, there is a joke about fooling around the death of a loved one, “Ang bait mo naman,

sana kunin ka na ni Lord”.

3.5.2 Terms for a Deceased Person

In Agusan Manobo, ‘mina’ is used to pertain to the dead person, or “the late”. It is placed before the name of a deceased person. In Mapun, the terms ‘imuwa’, and uwapat is used. In Ibatan,

borrowed terms from Ivatan, simna; and from Filipino, yaon for personal marker is used. In

Kapampangan, there is the term ‘mangubye’, and in Tagalog, it is ‘yumao’.

3.5.3 Last Testament

In Agusan Manobo, there are terms for the remaining instructions of a dying person, pamilin-

'bilin and panugun-’tugun. In Dumagat, garil is the term ‘to talk garbled of a person near death’. In Tagalog, ‘huling habilin’ is the expression used before the deceased person goes to the

afterlife, leaving responsibility to the people he left.

3.5.4 Other Culture-specific terms

In Dumagat, there is a term to hide a corpse by tying a stone to it and dropping it in to the sea,

batel. Also, a term loblob is for the sibling of someone who has died to entice the

widow/widower of the dead person. It is for him/her to disregard a vow he/she made at the time

of the funeral. Example of this is if a woman vowed not to eat pig meat because her late husband

used to hunt pigs a lot, the sibling of the dead husband will force her to eat pig meat and will also

give her some gift so she won't be mad at him.

In Mapun,’katubagan’ is a vital area on one's body where if injured will bring sudden death. The

term ‘unung’ is used to accompany someone as their companion into any danger or hardship.

The Mapuns have a term for a child whose mother is deceased but father is still alive, and it is

called ilu'-ilu'; while a child whose father has died but mother is still alive is called iyatin.

In Yakan, sarakka is a term for the possessions of a deceased person given to someone especially

to poor people. Kiyam is the term which pertains to the position of a deceased person, hands

placed on top of each other on the chest. Suki is a certain board game, similar to checkers, played

when someone died.

4.0 CONCLUSION

It has been known that all languages studied in the paper exhibit their beliefs on the concept of

death and afterlife.

With culture-specific terms, death, preparation of the body, burial, mourning, post-burial, and

afterlife beliefs, the languages portrayed their culture in a unique way and established

relationship with other languages. Maranao and Yakan being influenced with Islam can be seen

in their term “bono” which means to kill; and Yakan and Mapun as Sama-Bajaw languages

outside the Philippine subgroup. Also, headhunting as a part of their culture and its reconstructed

proto-form of the languages mentioned in the paper – Casiguran Dumagat, Ayta Mag-antsi,

Agusan Manobo, and T’boli – has been used to associate headhunting with death and killings.

In the languages of the Philippines that this paper has focused on, the concepts of death and the

afterlife have been greatly influenced by world’s major religions such as Christianity and Islam. There can be seen reflexes of some PMP terms in the languages used in this paper, showing

some words that are still being used by some ethnolinguistic groups nowadays. The term for

death, to die, kill, and corpse all reflect to a single proto-form *atay in relation with the body part

liver as the seat of emotions in the Philippine languages; and with the canoe term boat “bangka” and “balanghay” in relation with “bangkay”.

The results exhibit the cultural and archaeological implications of the languages. Little linguistic

implications have been analyzed in the paper, for some of the terms have been borrowed from

other languages.

.

5.0 RECOMMENDATION

Due to time constraint and availability of data, the study was limited to only the few proto-forms

in PMP, and ten (10) languages. The eight (8) languages are not good representatives of the

Philippine microgroups. It is recommended to add other languages like the Sangiric and

Minahasan, and the language isolates, Inati and Kalamian to have a more conclusive study. They

should also be scrutinized in order to see other patterns in the concepts of death and the afterlife.

In relation to death, pre-burial, mourning, actual burial, post-burial, and afterlife, we recommend

the future researchers to focus also on superstitions, songs, and stories. In the concepts used here,

we also suggest to further study the euphemisms, jokes, and the like, in other languages in the

Philippines and outside Philippines.

Also, the researchers suggest searching for terms in relation with water, since “Bangka” as mode of water transportation has been used, and since in going to the afterlife, one must cross

something like a river.

Furthermore, languages not limited to the Philippines are recommended to study, like Batak, not

only in Palawan, but also in Indonesia, and those of the Mapun and Yakan.

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English, T’boli, Pilipino, Hiligaynon. (1980). Summer Institute of Linguistics.

7.0 Appendix

7.1. Before Death

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Death

*atay minatay ate kamatsan matay kamatayon natay kapatay kamatayon patay

patey (also, turn off a machine)

dalegan patoy

kalab kamatoyan

matay

matoy

kapatay

To Die *m-atay minatay ate patsi matay patoy natay matay matay patay matey

anhing (last gasp)

tubag

(to die

tubag (die a violent

immediately because of a bullet, falling cocounut, etc)

death (become unconscious that way))

tinga (last gasp)

bugtang (die instantly because of an outside cause like shooting, being slashed, falling, poison, etc)

lawa (baby who died in the womb; stillborn)

To Kill

*pa-m-atay diman (kill someone or something animate)

pusung (damage; kill; harm for no reason)

patsi himatoy bono patyon (kill; massacre; slay)

imuwa (kill a common person)

bono

pisti (kill all; plague)

bumebunag (person who kills wherever he goes)

tanhag (killed instantly)

gusow (exterminate a person)

batas

(kill opponent in fight)

pumatay binasa (inflict pain)

otan (kill off)

putol (behead)

mipakabili (will be killed)

gapa’

(kill or murder)

magpatay bono’ (to fight with the intent to kill)

pisa (kill with one hit; disposed of)

ngelngel (behead)

ampangayaw (killing) gisa’

(kill en masse)

pagpatay sing tawo (murder)

la’ug (to kill s.o innocent)

apseh (strangle)

bangkayan (reverse killings)

kitas

(kill for revenge)

ihaw (butcher)

kowa

(kill)

lakaw (kill with a weapon)

lanas

(kill all)

olid

(kill each other)

otang

(kill)

Manibelek

(killer)

Suicide

*paka-m-atay bikti (commit suicide; die of heartbreak)

ampah (because of shame, suicide)

paka’matoy

pageget (to hold the breath, suicide)

hikog (suicide; hang oneself)

sabil (commit suicide; run amok)

usot nagbitke pagonay (take a hand in something, suicide)

hingap-us

7.2. Preparation of the Body for Burial

magpakamatsi

pangeday da lalag (commit suicide)

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Dead

*m-atay bangkay (Ilk)

bangkay bangkay lówó yem matay

matoy bangkay bangkay mayat bangkey

minatay

(Ilk) mi'natoy domiyalong mlef mayat

maparah

met (Ilk) mait patey

mayat tatap (cloth covering a corpse)

Wrap in

Cloth

Balun

The

corpse will

be washed

in order to

purify and

physically

cleanse

the body.

sutsi

The

process

wherein

the body

will be

completely

wrapped

in white

linen.

tatap

White

Linen

kakana’

Grave

Clothes

saput

Ceremony

During

the

Preparatio

n of the

Dead

palihala

Washing

the

Private

Parts of

the Dead

Body

piluwang

Compensatio

n to the

Religious

Leader who

Washed the

Corpse

kabaratan

Wrapping of

the Dead with

a White New

Cloth

katungkusan

White

New Cloth

tungkus

Embalm

embalsamahon

Death

Messengers lapuy

Heirloom

Pieces ‘ankae

Coffin

andasan papag (made of bamboo)

bangkabangkay

tuung

(typical wooden box for the remains of their loved ones)

ka’baong kapan

lantanga’

sondok

panolong

(cognate for

boat prow)

Bowl badong

Spear bankaw

Plate pingan

Water danum

Tobaco pupud

Betel Nut mamak

Leaf beye

Lime apog

Lime

Container dalakun

Term for

Articles

which are

Buried

with a

duwel

7.3. Mourning to Actual Burial

Body

Kind of

Softwood

Tree Used

Especially

in Making

Coffins

ayu’yow

Gong agung

Making a

Coffin by

Hollowing

a Tree

kabaong likit

langkaya

n

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Mourn the *baluq

Dead

Wail

because of

a Death

deg'matoy

Grief

boyton nakem

To Long

for an

Absent

Loved

One

ala ‘ala

To Refuse

to Talk to

or See

Someone

(Because

You are in

Grief

Over a

Recent

Death)

megewad

To konsimi langag bokoboko kasakit dagun

Grieve;

To Mourn

’

ta’awi kasulub-on

dukka’

magkalisud

magloto

pagkalisud

To Wail pagpanangis

pagpangan

duhoy

A

Funeral;

A Great

Sorrow

udju

Visiting

the

Bereaved

Family

mangay du nadiman

7.4. Post-Burial

7.4.1. Death Ceremony, Rituals and Sacrifices

while the

Dead Lies

in State

Wake for

the Dead

maparahmet

Occasion

for the

Wake for

the Dead

padahmetan

modung

Share of

the Dead

Man

natay nu nadiman

Lullaby

for the

Dead

ay dingding

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Offerings

and

Sacrifices

ātang (Ilk)

(offering to a malevolent spirit)

atang

(to make a sacrifice or a special offering to the spirits)

imparaêp (to offer a cooked mountain rice and cut-up chicken sacrifice to the souls of the dead)

dsu be busaw (spirit offering)

sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to the soul of a dead person)

getas (sacrifice)

halad (sacrifice)

hakika

(a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often for a child)

hekika (animal sacrifice)

dāton (Ilk)

(altar for sacrifice)

deton

(to make a small offering to the spirits; to leave an offering at a grave)

demisu (offer sacrifice)

su’guy (offer before hunting)

kandori’ (sacrifice)

pakabat (offering to ancestral spirits)

tatan (type of offering made to the spirits; to make an offering to the spirits)

tapus (feast offering for the dead)

lalam (sacrifice)

parawat (offering to ancestral spirits)

sipay (human sacrifice)

raga’ (sacrifice)

limos (offering to God or to the dead)

Rituals and

Death

Ceremonie

s

hulhul

(a simple ceremony conducted on the third night after someone has died)

pantatlo (for the third night of death ceremony)

sugnud (ritually offer things such as food or drink to the soul of a dead person)

panoyәntuyunan (burial ritual)

bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)

bahangi (for the third night of death ceremony)

hakika

(a ritual slaughtering of a goat or cow often for a child)

7.5. Afterlife (Afterworld)

7.5.1. Soul (Spirit) and God

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Afterlife

(Afterworld

)

kabilan'buhay (Tag) libsanәn mawri a

alongan ahirat ahilat

saniban sumulai sumangat

niyawa

ellew (the

sun)

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Soul

(Spirit)

*qanitu (ghost; ancestral spirit; nature

ispirito (Sp)

kali’duwa anito busaw umagad kiyarowa niyawa espiritu sumangat

(evil spirit; demon)

sumangat

7.5.2. Heaven and Hell and Underworld

spirit)

*sumaŋed (soul of a living being; soul of the rice plant)

is’piritu (Sp)

kaelwa yawa (demon)

aluwa niyawa

espirito

(Sp) aruwa umāgad

nyawa

umagad (inner courage)

God Dyos

(Sp) Dios (Sp) Diyos

(Sp) Dwata ‘Diyus

(Sp) Tuhan Dios (Sp) Tuhan Tuhan

Gi’nuu Allah

(Arb) Ginoo Allah

(Arb) Allah (Arb)

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Heaven *laŋit hanyit para’iso

(Sp) langit longit yangit langit langit sulga’ sulga'

sorga' paraiso (Sp)

parang musal

(a beautiful garden place in the afterlife)

surga'

ginhanan

Hell and

Underworl

d

impyirno (Sp)

irnpi'yerno (Sp)

impiyerno (Sp)

ma’ubuyan basád naraka impierno nalka’ narka'

man-u’buyan diyahanam jahannam

(Arb)

mai’buya

n diyahanan

man-i’buyan

u’bue

7.5.3. Revive (Resurrection)

7.6. Others (Yakan)

EUPHEMISMS FOR

DEATH

bekkat napasnen his breath snapped

niya' anu someone “kwaned”

PMP Ibt Dum AM Tbl AgM Btk Mar Hil Map Yak

Revive

(Resurrection

)

akdokdoh mahmah pagkabanhaw allum

Ōngar

(Ilk) llum

niya' mole' someone went home

niya' udjul someone died

DEROGATORY

EXPRESSIONS FOR

DEATH OR BEING

DEAD

leggi' stiff (as fish dried too hard)

niya' tulla someone died

pininsan death as a curse: may you be unconscious

tubag die a violent death (become unconscious that way)

JOKING ABOUT

DEATH

Hap Basilan diyawa' ne

iye. He has gone to lower Basilan.

Tetellenne napasnen. He swallowed his breath.

Abbreviations

PMP - Proto-Malayo Polynesian

Ibt - Ibatan

Dum - Dumagat

AM - Ayta Magantsi

Tbl - T’boli

AgM - Agusan Manobo

Btk - Batak

Mar - Maranao

Hil - Hiligaynon

Map - Mapun

Yak - Yakan

Ilk – Ilokano

Tag – Tagalog

Arb – Arabic

Sp - Spanish