all in one lesson (1 - 11) lecture notes

7/31/2019 All in One Lesson (1 - 11) Lecture Notes

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MBA University of Wales @ January, 2008

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1. LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Understand the nature of business and management research;

Recognise the different approaches to business and management research; and

Develop a holistic understanding of the research process involved in business and

management research.

1.1 NATURE OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

1.1.1 Why Conduct Research?Research may be defined as something that individuals undertake in order to find

out about things in a systematic way and thereby increasing knowledge. Two phrases areimportant in this definition: 'systematic way' and 'to find out things'. 'Systematic'suggests that research is based on logical relationships and not just merely based on beliefs. As

a result, research needs to involve a rational explanation and detailed description of themethods used to collect the data, and will also argue why the results obtained are meaningful,and may explain any limitations that are associated with them. 'To find out things'suggests there may be a multiplicity of possible purposes for your research.

Within the boundaries of advancing knowledge, addressing business issues and solvingmanagerial problems, the purpose and the context of any research project can differ

considerably. For some research projects, the purpose may be to understand and explain the

impact of an issue, such as a particular policy. One may also undertake a research study

within an individual organisation and suggest appropriate actions on the basis of the

findings. In such projects, the purpose may be to discover and understand better the

underlying processes in a wider context, thereby providing greater understanding for

practitioners. Yet in other research projects, one may wish to conduct an in-depth

investigation of an organisation within the context of the processes under operation.

Whatever the case, dominant reasons for conducting research include:

1. Create and build new knowledge in a field of study or a discipline (e.g. HRMproblems during Mergers & Acquisitions)

2. Expand the current frontiers of knowledge in a given discipline (e.g. Game Theory)

3. Gain insights into issues of concern about a real-life occurrence or actual problem

(e.g. Performance Measurement of Non-Executive Directors)

4. Investigate an unresolved problem or find a solution to an unanswered question(e.g. The Negative Impact of Bribery on Business)


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However, as a graduate student undertaking advanced research, the reasons are likely to fallunder some of the following areas:

1. To score an Master (Distinction) grade

2. To have an area of specialisation or field of expertise (e.g. Marketing or Finance)

3. To prepare for a research career (e.g. as a Market Analyst or a Market Researcher)

4. To be equipped with business research and report-writing skills that are soughtafter by employers (e.g. generic managerial skills)

5. To prepare for Graduate Studies (e.g. Doctoral Research such as PhD studies)

1.1.2 What is Business & Management (B&M) Research?

In general, business and management (B&M) research may be conceived as undertakingsystematic research to find out things about topics concerning the fundamental discipline of

business and management. Broadly speaking, there are three things which when combined

together make business and management a distinctive focus for research and they are:

1. the way in which managers (and researchers) draw on knowledge developed by

other disciplines;

2. the fact that managers tend to be busy and influential people whom time isprecious. Therefore they are unlikely to allow research access unless they can

see personal or commercial advantages;

3. the requirement for the research to have some practical consequence. This

means it either needs to possess the potential for taking some form of action or

needs to take account of the practical consequences of the findings.

Another feature of management research is the belief that it should be able to develop ideas

and to relate them to practice, which in turn becomes a blueprint for managerial practice,

thereby increasing the stock of relevant and practical management knowledge. Thus

business and management research needs to engage with both the world of theory and the

world of practice. And in recent years, given the diverse nature of research, business and

management research has essentially three inherent ingredients that lend itself to an area of

specialisation with the business discipline. The three ingredients are namely:

1. The research topic directly concerns core business & management issues;

2. The research draws upon content from subject matter in management

disciplines such as organisational behaviour, strategy, finance & banking,

economics, marketing, human resource management etc;

3. The research findings impact or are likely to influence the existing body of

literature in business & management

Hence we would then argue that business and management research not only needs to

provide findings that advance knowledge and understanding, it also needs to address

business issues and practical managerial problems.


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1.1.3 Examples of B&M Research

All business and management research projects can be placed on a continuum according to

their purpose and context. At one extreme of the continuum is research that is undertakenpurely to understand the processes of business and management and their outcomes. Such

research is undertaken largely in universities and largely as the result of an academic

agenda. Its key consumer is the academic community, with relatively little attention being

given to its practical applications. This is often termed basic, fundamental orpure research.

Given our earlier discussion it is unlikely that such research would fulfill our criteria for busi-

ness and management research without some consideration being made of the practical

consequences. Through doing this, the research would start to move towards the other end of

the continuum. At this end is research that is of direct and immediate relevance to managers,

addresses issues that they see as important, and is presented in ways that they understand and

can act on. This is termed applied research. Some examples of Business and Managementresearch may include the following projects:

1. The Financial Decisions of Small Companies in Singapore

2. Product Diversification and International Expansion: A Business Study of IT Firms

3. The Pricing Strategies of European Petroleum Companies

4. Work Ethics in Voluntary Welfare Organisations

5. Marketing Strategies of Charities

1.2 APPROACHES OF BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT RESEARCH

1.2.1 How is B&M Research conducted? Three Approaches

The nature of a business problem has a great impact on the approach which can be used to solve thatproblem. For problems that are more quantitative in nature, such as operations problems, a more

systematic research approach can be used, while those that are more qualitative in nature, otherrealistic approaches may be more suitable. Recent discussion amongst business schools,

which have debated the status of business and management research, pointed to three

approaches that have enabled academics to gain new insights in terms of contributions toassociated disciplines in the field of business. The three approaches may be classified as:

1. The Model-Building Approach: based on constructing models via modelling

techniques or the use of management models to solve a research problem

2. The Multi-Disciplinary Approach: based on melding of management

knowledge, ideas, principles and concepts from multiple disciplines

3. The Alternate-Solution Approach: centred on the development of more than a

single solution to a research problem


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1.2.2 Which Approach to Use?

One trend that has been increasingly emerged in business and management research, whichhas gained considerable momentum, is the trans-disciplinary nature of such research. In

other words, using knowledge from a range of disciplines enables management research to

gain more insights and therefore expand its knowledge frontiers. For this reason, many

business and management research studies employ a combination of these approaches,

instead of singular approach. Nevertheless, each research approach has its advantages and

disadvantages depending on the context of the research study and there is really no perfect

or ideal research approach --- only suitable research approach(es), depending on research

questions, issues and needs.

1.2.3 Advantages & Disadvantages of Different Approaches

There are inherent advantages and disadvantages in different approaches of business and

management research. In designing an effective research study, one needs to recognise the

advantages and disadvantages of different approaches as tabulated below:

Advantages Disadvantages

Model-Building Can be highly rigorous in researchmethodology

Provide a systems view to theresearch problem and solution

May be narrow in perspective

The robustness of the solutiondepends on the validity of themodel

Multi-

Disciplinary

Broad perspectives in addressing aproblem

Harness the relevance of subjectmatter from different disciplines tosolve a problem

Solution may be overly complexif too many perspectives areincluded in solving the problem

Difficult to find a good solution

Alternate-

Solution

Thorough in exploring and findingdifferent solutions to a problem

Consider the benefits andshortcomings of different solutions

The quality of the solution relieson evaluation criteria

May be cumbersome if too manysolutions are proposed

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

1.3.1 The Research Process

In solving problems of business research, the sub-processes involved may be complex and

requires a systematic approach to developing a solution. Generally, the Research Processconsists of five main stages and they are not always completely linear and in most situations,

are iterative in nature. The five stages can be classified as follows:


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Stage 1: Introduction

Stage 2: Literature Review

Stage 3: MethodologyStage 4: Analysis

Stage 5: Conclusion

1.3.2 Types of Research

Business and management research may be classified into two broad types, namely: (i)exploratory research and (ii) conclusive research which may be further categorised into two

respective types each as follows:

1. Exploratory Research

a. Case Study

b. Pilot Study

2. Conclusive Research

a. Descriptive Study

b. Causal Study

1.3.3 Requirements of Research

While the requirements of business research may vary, the three key qualitative criteria that

determine how well the requirements are met by research studies may be outlined below:

(i) The research study displays evidence of originality

(ii) The research inquiry exercises independent critique in the field of study(iii) The research findings constitute a discovery of new facts and a distinct

contribution to knowledge

1.3.4 A Planned Research Process

To conduct good business and management research, an experienced researcher has to design

a planned research process which follows the five main stages in a systematic fashion whileemploying different approaches through the adoption of appropriate type(s) of research. Atthe same time, it is important to recognize the need to meet the requirements of researchespecially if one aims to develop quality research that fulfils the standards stipulated by either

an educational qualification sought or that of a publisher such as a top-tiered journal.

Review or Tutorial Questions

Conduct this exercise in groups. Based on what you have learnt in the lecture about theplanned research process, execute the three following tasks:(1) Identify a suitable Research Topic;

(2) Determine the proposed Type of Business Research;(3) Recommend the Approach of Research to be adopted:

(4) Justify your choices for (2) and (3).


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2. LESSON 2: FORMULATING AND SPECIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC


Understand the importance of problem formulation

Be familiar with the steps involved in problem identification, selection and definition

Be conversant in the ways to frame research questions and develop research hypotheses

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.1.1 Importance of Problem Formulation

Before one starts a research piece, it is important to have at least some rough idea of what

one wishes to do in terms of problem-solving. This is probably the most difficult, and yet

the most critical part of any research project. For a majority of students, most of their

studies are generally concerned with answering questions that other people have set. But in

this lesson, we are concerned with how to formulate and then specify a research topic and

the related research questions that will help guide a research study.

Formulating a research topic is therefore the starting point of a research project and once

the research topic is systematically specified, one will be able to choose the most

appropriate research strategy, methods and data collection and analysis techniques. Thus,

though the formulating and clarifying process is time consuming, it will definitely avoid the

need to enter into blind alleys that oftentimes results in a waste of time and resources.

However, without spending sufficient time on problem formulation, one is far less likely to

complete a research project successfully.

2.1.2 Why Formulate a Problem?

In business and management research, one must refine research ideas into those that are

feasible and solvable. In formulating a problem, one is actually generating and refining

research ideas. To do this, one will need to turn research ideas into research questions and if

necessary, even hypotheses for testing. For this reason, before one conducts research, a

formulating process is required to understand what needs to be investigated and what makes

good research ideas.

Without formulating a problem, one will not be clear about what one is going to do in terms

of a research study and it will be difficult to plan how one is going to research it. So, in

formulating a research problem, one is actually attempting to construct forms before

trying to find out things about the forms. Its importance can never be overly emphasized

as rightly pointed out by Albert Einstein.

..the formulation of a research problem is often more essential than its solution..

. Albert Einstein (1879-1955)


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2.1.3 What is Problem Formulation?

Being such a critical part of any research project, problem formulation has to be executed

properly. Normally, it requires a systematic and step-by-step approach to carrying out certaintasks during the process. Problem formulation is therefore an important process used toclarify the means of solving a problem and to guide the way to the solution (e.g. narrow the

scope of coverage for a research topic). Problem formulation involves three main steps,namely:

1. Problem Identification;

2. Problem Selection; and

3. Problem Definition.

2.2 FORMULATING THE RESEARCH TOPIC

2.2.1 Problem Identification

Identifying a research problem requires one to be resourceful and be aware of the prevailingstate of knowledge about a specific field or discipline. In reality, the way a researcher goesabout identifying a problem can be rather unsystematic and may even involve an element ofluck. Nevertheless, it pays to be widely read and one should always be kept abreast of the

developments of interesting research topics. Some practical steps that may be used bystudents include the following:

1. Look for symptoms of problems

2. Consult experts in the field of study

3. Perform a literature search for researchable leads

4. Seek out for knowledge gaps

5. Explore opportunities of improving the methodology employed in existing studies

2.2.2 Problem Selection and Criteria for Problem Selection

In a world that constantly competes for limited resources, problem selection is not onlynecessary but almost mandatory. Normally, after identifying a number of research problems,one may have to select a particular problem for study or investigation. A set of criteria such as

the following may be used for problem selection to help researchers in choosing a problemthat has a fair chance of being solved:

1. Level of researchers interest

2. Significance and impact of the research

3. Availability of resources and support

4. Chance of finding a feasible solution


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2.2.3 Problem Definition

After a research problem has been selected, the problem has to be systematically defined.

Problem definition helps one to clearly scope the research topic so that dedicated efforts maybe focused on relevant aspects that matter. Problem definition covers the following areas:

1. Overall Purpose: The objectives, goals and aims associated with conducting theresearch study

2. Motivation: The reasons and underlying rationale behind the intention to solvethe research problem

3. Scope: The extent, span and scale of the anticipated solution to the researchproblem under study

4. Outcome: The research deliverables in terms of output arising from conducting

the research study

2.3 SPECIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC

2.3.1 Refining the Research Problem

One of the most critical tasks of finding a solution(s) to a research topic is to outline clearlythe specifications of the research problem. In specifying a research topic, the first task is to

refine the research problem into parts that are solvable or have a better chance of beingsolved. Thus it involves breaking up the research problem (usually very complex in nature)

into several sub-problems and then solving these sub-problems one by one.

2.3.2 Framing Research Questions

In business and management research, the most important task is to frame the right researchquestions that form the underlying foundation under which a study should be based on. Asarticulated by a Nobel Laureate, Steven Chu (Physics, 1997) said: One of the most important

things that a researcher does is to ask a question that is important and that has a chance ofbeing solved. In other words, a researcher starts by asking good questions and the followingways may be adopted to frame research questions.

1. Brainstorm critical questions about the Research Problem

2. Frame research questions surrounding the Problem with an objective inmind

3. Move from broad-based and general inquiry to narrow and focusedresearch questions

4. Research questions should aim to describe, explain, clarify,illuminateso as to address the Research Problem


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5. Be aware of the nature of the research output (outcome) arising from theresearch questions

6. Challenge the current thinking (e.g. theories, concepts and principles)about the Research Problem

7. Stretch the limits (e.g. relevance in different context) of prior ideas aboutthe Problem

8. Revisit the underlying assumptions (e.g. whether these assumptions areoverly simplistic and impractical)

9. Deepen the prevailing knowledge in relation to the Research Problem(e.g. move away from purely human resource issues to strategic issues)

10. Ensure that all research questions collectively address the Research

Problem

2.3.3 Developing Research Hypotheses

For advanced research at the postgraduate level, one may have to develop research hypothesesbased on research questions, which will then be tested to shed more light into these questions.

In some research studies, hypotheses may even be considered as potential solutions to aresearch problem. During the research process, all research hypotheses are tested by empiricaldata related to the variables concerned. Hypotheses are then found to be either in agreement

with the empirical data and considered to be conclusions, or are found to be false and hencerejected. To develop research hypotheses, one must bear in mind that they originate fromresearch questions as highlighted below:

1. Well thought-out and focused research questions lead directly intohypotheses

2. Hypotheses are logical extension of a research question

3. Each hypothesis must be matched with a specific research question

4. Hypotheses should give further insights into a research question

5. Hypotheses are basically more specific predictions about the nature anddirection of the relationship between variables

Hypotheses are thus precise statements that reflect the questions to be answered which mustbe supported by empirical evidence. They must not only be relevant to the research under

study, they must be stated in a form that will be testable using statistical methods available tothe researcher. Hypotheses also provide the guidelines for the data types used in the study andthe mathematical techniques for quantitative analysis. Nevertheless the basis for correctformulation of hypotheses is the researchers knowledge, the existing knowledge being

founded in theory and the researchers familiarity with the problem area. Hypotheses thusconstitute the researcher's predictions concerning the solution to the research problem.


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Some of the characteristics inherently in research hypotheses include the following:

1. Independent and dependent variables should be identified first

before one develops research hypotheses in a study2. Each hypothesis is matched with a specific research question and is

normally formulated as causal relationships with if-thenimplications

3. Each hypothesis is testable by controlled experiments

4. Variables associated with each hypothesis are measurable bystatistical data and should be validated by the use of appropriate

statistical tests (e.g. correlation tests)

2.3.4 Researching a ProblemIn conclusion, researching a problem can be a very complicated undertaking. Nevertheless, itmay be viewed as a process that involves two main aspects of dealing with the research topic,i.e. (1) Problem Formulation; and (2) Problem Specification as summarized below:

1. Problem Formulation, which consists of three stages that include (a)identifying, (b) selecting and (c) defining the research problem. Under most

circumstances, it is only after problem definition is properly executed that onemay proceed with specifying the research problem

a. Problem Identification

b. Problem Selection (Criteria for Problem Selection)

c. Problem Definition

2. Problem Specification, which involves three key tasks, namely: (a) refining aresearch problem into sub-problems, (b) framing research questions, and then

(c) developing research hypotheses to solve all the individual sub-problems

a. Refining the Research Problem

b. Framing Research Questions

c. Developing Research Hypotheses


Conduct this exercise in groups. Identify a Research Topic of your interest. Based on thetopic, carry out the following tasks among your group members:

(1) Work out the problem definition of your research topic;

(2) Specify the research topic by framing a list of Research Questions;

(3) Develop hypotheses based on (2).


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3. LESSON 3: PREPARING A LITERATURE REVIEW


Understand the goals, characteristics and processes of a Literature Review

Know what are the resources required to conduct a Literature Review

Learn about the various steps involved in preparing a Literature Review

INTRODUCTION TO A LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1.1 Goals of a Literature Review

A literature review forms the cornerstone of any research piece. There are two major reasonsfor conducting a literature review. First, the preliminary search helps the researcher to

generate and refine his or her research ideas. Second, often referred to as the critical review,is part of the research project proper. Although a researcher may feel that he or she alreadyhas a good knowledge of the research area, reviewing the literature is not only essential butmandatory for an academic dissertation as it demonstrates an awareness of the current state of

knowledge in the subject, its limitations, and how ones research study fits in this widercontext within the body of knowledge. Knowledge does not exist in a vacuum, and yourwork only has value in relation to other people's. Your work and your findings will be

significant only to the extent that they're the same as, or different from, other people's workand findings.

Hence the literature review will lay the foundation on which your research is built; and itsmain purpose is to develop a good understanding and insight into relevant previous researchand the trends that have emerged. For example, you would not expect a scientific researcherinquiring into the causes of cot death to start his or her research without first reading about

the findings of other cot death research. Likewise, you should not expect to start yourresearch without first reading what other researchers in your area have already found out.However, the way of reviewing literature will depend on the approach you are intending to

conduct your research. For some research projects, you will use the literature review toidentify research issues that require investigation. For other research projects, you literaturereview may help you to identify theories and ideas that you will test using data. Whatever thecase may be, the goals of a literature review are generally similar which is to convince

yourself and others that your study is worthwhile researching and has a research valueassociated to it. The Goals of a Literature Review are as follows:-

1. To demonstrate a familiarity with the body of knowledge

2. To show the path of prior research and how a current research study is linked to it.

3. To integrate and summarize what is already known in a research area.

4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.


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3.1.2 What is a Literature Review?

You therefore need to establish what research has been published in your chosen area and try

to identify any other research that might currently be in progress. The items you read andwrite about will enhance your subject knowledge and help you to clarify your research

question(s) further. This process is called critically reviewing the literature and the part in adissertation that reports the review is termed aLiterature Review. For most research projects,a literature review may be an early activity prior to problem selection or definition. Despite

an early start, it is usually necessary to continue searching and reviewing literature throughoutone project's life. In fact, during the initial stage of a literature review, one may use it todefine the parameters related to the research question(s) and objectives of the study and thesearch may continue even up to a very advanced stage of the research process. Some useful

definitions of Literature Review are:

A Literature Review may be defined as: ..... a search and evaluation of the availableliterature in a given subject area or topic.

A Literature Review may be defined as: ......a process that serves to integrate,synthesize, and critique important ideas and concepts on a particular topic.

A Literature Review may be defined as:..... it presents an account of what has beenpublished on a topic by accredited scholars and recognised researchers.

3.1.3 What does a Literature Review involve?

Given the importance of the literature review to any research study, it is also vital to be awareof what a critical literature review is and the processes involved before one starts thereviewing process. Take for instance, after generating key words and conducting firstsearches, one will develop a list of references to authors who have published on the research

topic. Once these references have been obtained, the researcher can then read and evaluatethem, record the ideas and start drafting the literature review. After the initial search, one willthen be able to redefine the parameters more precisely and perhaps, even undertake furthersearches, keeping in mind the preliminary research question(s) and objectives. As new

thoughts and ideas are developed, each subsequent search will be focused more precisely onmaterial that is likely to be relevant. The four main steps involved in a literature review

include the following:1. Surveying (i.e. searching, scanning, retrieving, obtaining etc) the literature in the

chosen research topic or the research problem

2. Synthesizing (i.e. integrating, combining, incorporating etc) the informationgathered with a guiding concept or directional focus

3. Analysing (i.e. evaluating, assessing, appraising etc) on the information gatheredwith a strong critique of the research topic

4. Presenting (i.e. displaying, showing, expounding, imparting etc) the literatureaccording to an organised style.


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3.2 PREPARATORY MATERIALS FOR LITERATURE REVIEW

3.2.1 Information Resources

Information sources are important to preparing a literature review as they help one to developan overall understanding of previous research or current state of knowledge. These sources ofinformation may appear in journals, conference proceedings, books and even newspapers andare usually available in library catalogues. Information sources that are relevant to search for a

literature review may include the following:1. library catalogues2. databases

3. the Internet4. research publications5. selected references

3.2.2 Types of References

Information sources that are referred to in a literature review must be included as references

to an academic dissertation or thesis. There are various types of references which can be usedfor preparing a literature review and these may include the following:

1. Book chapters2. Reports

3. Magazines4. Conference Proceedings

5. Journals6. Internet Resources7. Newspapers8. Magazines

3.2.3 Citations

Besides including information sources used to prepare a literature review as references,

specific parts of these information sources must be credited through the use of appropriatecitations in the main text. For research pieces such as academic dissertation or theses, thespecific details of information sources that should be documented as citations and references,

depending on the referencing system adopted, may include the following:

Author

Date of Publication

Title of Article/Journal/Chapter/Book

Publisher

Edition

One popularly-used referencing system is the Harvard Referencing System which is basicallyan author-date system of referencing. Another variation of this system is the AmericanPsychological Association or APA system. Both systems use the authors name and year of

publication to identify cited documents within the text.


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3.2.4 Referencing

In all quality research pieces, there are two elements involved in the referencing of literature

sources belonging to other authors or researchers, namely:1. The first is in the body of the text or in the middle of the research report or

dissertation or thesis, when one refers to someones ideas. This is known as a

citation.2. The second is at the back or end of a research report when one lists all literature

sources that have been referred to in full. This is termed as references or

bibliography.

3.2.5 Sample References

Typically references are included at the back of a research report, just before appendixes.Some sample references are listed below as follows:

Anon (2000). The IBM Case Study, http://www.kmworld.com/publication.

Barth, S. (2000). Defining Knowledge Management, CRM Magazine (4 July2000), Information Today Inc., NJ.

Bennett,H. Gunter, H. & Reid, S. (1996) Through a glass darkly: images ofappraisal. Journal of Teacher Development, 5 (3) October, pp. 39-46.

Birkin, S. and Harris, M. (2003). E-Business and CRM: Directions for the Future,

Proceedings of the International Association for the Development of Information

Systems (IADIS) Conference, June 3-6 2003, Lisbon, Portugal.

Davenport, T. (1996). What is a Knowledge Management Project?, ResearchNote CBI311, Ernst & Young LLP Centre for Business Innovation, London, UK.

Grant, R. M. (2001). Knowledge and Organisation. In Nonaka, I. and Teece, I.(Eds.), Managing Industrial Knowledge: Creation, Transfer and Utilization,London:

Sage Publications, 2nd Edition, pp. 145-169.

Leonard-Barton, D. (1995). The Wellsprings of Knowledge, Cambridge, MA:

Harvard Business School Press, 5th Edition.

OBrien, J. (2002). Management Information Systems: Managing Information

Technology in the E-Business Enterprise, McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd Edition.

Toh, A. (2002). Sawadee CRM!, CIO (October 2002), International Data Group

(IDG), Singapore.

3.2.6 Plagiarism

In preparing a literature review, using someone else's ideas or phrases is permitted andconstitutes part and parcel of good research practices. However, presenting those ideas or

phrases like they are your own, either on purpose or through carelessness, is a very seriousoffense known as plagiarism. All students who are pursuing qualifications or undertakingeducational programmes under the University of Wales (UOW) in the ManagementDevelopment Institute of Singapore (MDIS) are reminded to take note of both MDIS and

UOW Assessment Rules and Regulations that govern plagiarism.


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3.3 CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

3.3.1 Questions Posed During a Literature Review

Conducting a literature review is more an art rather than a science. It calls for creativity,resourcefulness and sometimes even inspiration. If one wishes to generate some preliminarythinking, the following questions may be helpful for conducting a literature review:

1. What is known about the subject or the research topic?

2. What is the chronology of the development of knowledge about the subject orresearch topic?

3. Are there any knowledge gaps in the subject or the research topic?

4. How can these knowledge gaps be bridged?5. Which openings in terms of research topic have been identified by other researchers?6. Is there a consensus on relevant issues in relation to the subject?

7. Is there significant debate on the relevant issues?8. What are the various positions on the subject?9. What is the most viable direction for the research as a result of the literature review?10. Are there any directions indicated by the works of other researchers?

3.3.2 Parts of the Literature Review

A literature review contains at least three parts, namely:1. An introduction;

define the topic, and provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature

establish the writer's reasons (point of view) for reviewing the literature explain the organisation of the review (logical sequence) state what the literature is and is not included (scope)

2. A middle (body); and

group the literature according to common themes provide insights into relationship between central topic and a larger area (i.e. discipline) proceed from the general, wider view of the research under review to the specific

problem3. A conclusion.

summarise major contributions of the current literature summarise the reviewed state of the art literature

point out major flaws or summarise knowledge gaps in current research outline issues pertinent to future study

3.3.3 Dos and Donts of a Literature Review

Some dos of a Literature Review include: Provide your perspectives on the critical knowledge, ideas and concepts that have been

established on the Research Topic Include a discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of extant knowledge on the

Research Topic Highlight the current debate and controversies surrounding the Research Topic

Discuss the links between your Research Problem and the larger body of knowledge


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Some donts of a Literature Review are:

It should NOT be just a descriptive list of materials available on the research topic It should NOT be merely a set of summaries about the research topic

It should NOT be simply a linear presentation of paragraphs on related works ofauthors

It should NOT be a compilation of other researchers views about the topic, but you

views

3.3.4 How to conduct a Literature Review

To conduct a Literature Review systematically, one may focus on four areas:1. WHY Identify all the goals of the Literature Review that you will be

conducting as you have to be aware and convinced of the need to undertakethe research study;

2. WHERE Know exactly where to gather your literature sources required forpreparing the Literature Review and include all necessary citations andreferences in the research report;

3. WHAT Organize the Literature Review into three parts (i.e. introduction,body and conclusion), take into consideration of the ten questions posed

during a Literature Review; and know the dos and donts of preparing aLiterature Review; and adopt appropriate writing strategies; and

4. HOW Be familiar with the various steps involved in preparing a Literature

Review (e.g. Surveying (i.e. searching and retrieving); Synthesizing (i.e.integrating and combining); Analysing (i.e. evaluating and appraising); andPresenting (i.e. displaying and expounding)


Conduct this exercise in groups. Based on a Research Topic of your choice, you are required

to list down the various sections of your literature review. Examples of sections may include:

(1) Body of Knowledge

(2) Existing Theories

(3) Prior Research

(4) Comparative Literature

(5) Prevailing Controversies

(6) Current Debate

Describe in a few sentences the coverage of these sections.


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4. LESSON 4: CHOOSING A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY


Develop a holistic understanding of the role of a research methodology in business and

management research;

Be familiar with the various components associated with a research methodology;

Know the different types of research design that may be used in business and managementresearch; and

Understand the use of selection criteria which may be employed in choosing a suitableresearch methodology.

4.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1.1 Defining Research Methodology

In all quality research studies, a systematic and step-by-step investigation to find answers to a

problem through the process of research design, sampling, data collection, data analysis andreporting is highly critical. Therefore an appropriate research methodology must be chosen todesign, collect and analyze the results, in order to meet the objectives of the research study. Veryoften, the decisions one made about research methodology at the start of the research process

do much to determine the quality of the conclusions one may draw from the research results.Hence a research methodology should attempt to state clearly the specific procedures,methods and steps used to plan, gather and analyse the research data so that useful results canbe derived from the research study.

But the question remains: what exactly is a research methodology? There are many definitions of

what a research methodology really is. Some definitions of research methodology for the fieldof business and management include the following:

A Research Methodology can be defined as: "the study of a particular method

or methods for reaching a desired end" . In practice, there is a wide variety ofmethods available for designing, carrying out and analyzing the results of a

research.

A Research Methodology for Business & Management Research concerns allthe specific procedures, methods and steps used to systematically gather andanalyse research data.

A Research Methodology for Business & Management Research underpins all

substantive aspects of management theory and practice in that it facilitates thedesign, collection, analysis and interpretation of both primary and secondarydata.


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4.1.2 Essential Components of a Research Methodology

As far as devising a research methodology is concerned, one may divide the undertaking into

three distinct parts which constitute the essential components of a research methodology andthey are, namely: (1) Research Design; (2) Data Collection; and (3) Method of Analysis.

Together, the three parts provide the foundational approaches under which a research studysystematically identifies, collects and analyses data to arrive at conclusions about a researchproblem. These three components can be further elaborated as follows:

1. Research Design can be thought of as the structure of research --- it is the"glue" that holds all of the elements in a research project together. It showshow all the major parts of the research project -- samples, measures and

treatments work together to address the central research questions.

2. Data Collection is the process of gathering and measuring information onvariables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to

answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

3. A Method of Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical

and/or logical techniques to describe, illustrate, condense, recap, and evaluatedata for the purpose of interpreting research results.

For instance, a sample summary of the Research Methodology adopted for a studyentitled: An Analysis of Waiting Times at MRT Stations outlining the three essentialcomponents may look like the following:

Research Topic: An Analysis of Waiting Times at MRT Stations

Research Design Data Collection Method of Analysis

Quantitative, Field,and Interview

Methods

Convenience Samplingand Purposive

Sampling

Mean, Median andMode; Standard

Deviation

4.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is one key component of any research methodology and it determines thedetailed plan which will be used to guide a research study in order to get the most valid andreliable findings (Hussey, J and Hussey, R, 1997). It also includes the approaches and decides

the methods used for collecting the types of data needed for the research study. Specifically,we will discuss three contrasting research designs that are of relevance to most business andmanagement research studies, namely:

1. Quantitative versus Qualitative

2. Field versus Laboratory

3. Survey versus Interview


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4.2.1 Quantitative versus Qualitative

Quantitative Method a research method by which information gathered are

primarily in numerical form (e.g. figures about performance or statistics onrevenue or profits). Normally, such as method requires the specification ofvariables under study and a statement of research hypotheses before datacollection begins. It also requires one to operationalize both independent and

dependent variables that are analyzed statistically

Qualitative Method a research method by which information gathered areprimarily in narrative (non-numerical) form (e.g. a transcript of an unstructuredinterview). Qualitative methods are discovery-oriented and focus on describingwhat is naturally occurring in a specified phenomenon, event or interaction. It

does not prescribe any specific outcomes and a wealth of detailed information can

be produced. In other words, qualitative methods allow variables to emergefrom the research and thus increase the understanding of the situation under study

4.2.2 Field versus Laboratory

Field (observational) methods relate to measurement of actual observation ofbehaviour, event or occurrence that actually exists so that elements of human errorcan be reduced considerably. In a field method, data collected are original and

constitute primary data. Data collection done by field methods are also generallymore valid and reliable than laboratory method which produces secondary data

Laboratory (experimental) methods relate to controlled measurement ofbehaviour, event or occurrence that had already taken place sometime in the past.In laboratory methods, control of the conditions being tested can be exercised withgreater ease and data collection can be repeated. The laboratory method is

normally less costly than the field method as the former may be implemented on amuch larger scale in a laboratory

4.2.3 Survey versus Interview

Survey Method is designed to collect systematic descriptions and data of existingphenomena in order to describe or explain what is going on. Data are obtained through

answers based on information collected from a sample of respondents. It usuallyinvolves a survey instrument (e.g. a structured questionnaire) given to respondentsto elicit specific information. Thus it allows the collection of large amount of datafrom a sizeable population in a highly economical way.

Interview Method is designed as a way of collecting information about a situation orevent or phenomenon by asking questions of another person (a respondent) either face-to-face or over the telephone or via any other telecommunication means. This method

may be in the form of structured interview (with a predetermined instrument thatspecifies precise wording of questions asked) or unstructured interview (wherebyresearcher asks open-ended questions about a topic with no predetermined plan).


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4.3 SELECTION CRITERIA

As far as the selection criteria for a research methodology is concerned, three areas of concern

that require specific attention are (1) practical considerations; (2) general guidelines; and (3)selecting a suitable research design.

4.3.1 Practical Considerations

When choosing a research methodology, one has to be well-informed and aware of thepractical considerations relating to the research study. For example, if a researcher is givenonly three months to complete a research study, then the research methodology has to factorthe constraint of limited time duration into consideration and not plan for a study that takes an

exceedingly long time to execute. Another important practical consideration that must be

considered is the financial resources allocated for a research study such as whether travelexpenses are provided to allow the researcher to use field methods (e.g. fly to the country of

study). Practical considerations may involve the following:

Availability of research resources (e.g. financial grants, research subsidies,

computer laboratories and library facilities)

Allotted duration for research or imposed time constraints (e.g. a Masters

dissertation should be completed within the stipulated time of say, oneyear)

Ease of data collection or availability of data (e.g. residential or office

addresses of respondents or interviewees) Nature of research problem, research topic or area of research (e.g. topic on

fund embezzlements or commercial frauds may be confidential)

4.3.2 General Guidelines

The general guidelines of selecting a research methodology often include catering to practical

considerations such as being cost-effective and timely. As a rule of thumb, one should adopt aminimalist approach in terms of usage of resources but at the same time, give provision foradditional research methods to be included if the situation permits. Other related issues may

also include increasing response rate, protecting respondents confidentiality and maintainingprofessional code of ethics.

Select the research design that can obtain the minimum but adequateinformation in the most cost-effective, practical and timely fashion

Include additional research methods if resources allowed

Take into account whether the audience is likely to conform to the research

methods (e.g. response rate)

and the manpower needed to administer the research methods (e.g. data

collection and analysis)


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4.3.3 Selecting a Research Design

In selecting a research design, one should assess the suitability of various contrasting research

methods, namely: (a) Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods; (b) Field versus LaboratoryMethods; and (b) Survey versus Interview Methods, to determine which are the mostappropriate methods for ones research study, taking into account the practical considerationswith reference to the general guidelines as discussed in the sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2. Generally

speaking, the research objectives of the study, research questions and the associated researchhypotheses will holistically form the overriding basis for ones choice of the appropriateresearch methods adopted. In any research report, the justification of ones choice of research

design is not only crucial but also mandatory, especially in an academic dissertation. Asummary table of the selected research design for a study: Queuing Time and CustomerService at Supermarkets in Singapore is tabulated below:

Research Topic: Queuing Time and Customer Service at Supermarkets in Singapore

Research Design

Types Choice Practical Considerations

Qualitative

versusQuantitative

Quantitative and

Qualitative

The study requires the use of both numerical data

and narrative information to analyse the queuingtimes and customer service experienced bycustomers when they shopped at hyper-marts

Field versusLaboratory

Laboratory only Laboratory method is used as it allows theresearch study to be conducted outside the hyper-

marts (e.g. car parks or nearby eateries) wherecustomers are more willing to provideinformation about queuing time and customer

service

Survey versusInterview

Interview(Structured) only

The interview (structured) method is chosen forthe research study as face-to-face interaction willbe more cost-effective, quicker and better

accepted by customers when gatheringinformation from them at hyper-marts.


Conduct the following tasks in groups. Based on a Research Topic your group members haveidentified, carry out the following:

(1) Select a suitable Research Design which you will adopt for the Methodology of yourstudy;

(2) Provide reasons for the choice of your Research Design based on practical

considerations.


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5. LESSON 5: COLLECTING SECONDARY DATA


Understand what is secondary data and its differences compared with primary data;

Appreciate the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data;

Recognize the usefulness of secondary data and know how to go about collecting

secondary data;

Be familiar with the different types of secondary data available and understand the need toselect secondary data for specific use;

Understand the issues involved in the choice of secondary data and know how to evaluatethe secondary data collected.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

5.1.1 What is Secondary Data?

Secondary data are data that have already been collected or assembled previously by otherresearchers for some other specific purpose(s). Secondary data are data that have formerlybeen collected by other researchers and were created as primary data by these researchers.

Therefore secondary data are considered as information of the past and are sometimestermed as historical data. Secondary data may include both numerical data (e.g. population

growth figures) or narrative information (e.g. published summaries, newspaper reports or casestudies). Some examples of secondary data include: departmental progress reports; industry ormarket surveys; minutes of company meetings; or official statistics on social, demographicand economic trends.

5.1.2 Why is Secondary Data useful?

Some of the main reasons why secondary data are useful for research include the following:

Secondary data can provide a vital alternative source of information from

which a researcher may use to answer specific research questions

Secondary data collection can be fast and normally requires few resources Secondary data may sometimes allow research to be completed efficiently

without the problems (e.g. low response rate) encountered in primary datacollection

For certain types of research topics such as those requiring national or

international comparisons (e.g. economic growth of countries), secondarydata normally provides the main source of information

Even for research problems relating to company statistics, secondary data(e.g. company annual reports) may be better (i.e. speedy, inexpensive andreliable) than primary data


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5.1.3 Collecting Secondary Data

Secondary data is normally collected from previously published or compiled sources (e.g.

archival government census data, annual reports, industry reports) and may even be collectedfrom sources that are unintended for research purpose (e.g. parliamentary speeches or minutes

of meetings). Collecting secondary data, if carefully planned, can achieve the outcomes ofprimary data collection with a fraction of efforts such as being (1) less expensive to gatherthan primary data; and (2) requires less time to locate, find and source them.

5.1.4 Differences between Secondary Data and Primary data

Unlike primary data, secondary data are different due to the fact that they are collected under

different circumstances, in different settings and for different contexts. For this reason,secondary data may sometimes be lower in terms of quality as compared to primary data. Thedifferences between these two types of data can be summarised in the following table:

Secondary Data Primary Data

Original only to the creator but notthe user

Original in nature and customized

Has been prepared or designed for a

specific purpose or a particularaudience

Has not been filtered or condensed or

adapted by a second party other thanthe collector

Collectors of secondary data do notenjoy the same freedom ascollectors of primary data

Collectors of primary data have thefreedom to gather precisely theinformation (e.g. content) needed forresearch

Time and costs involved incollection are lower

Time and costs involved in collectionare higher

5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SECONDARY DATA

While secondary data may be very useful in management and business research, one has to bemindful of its pitfalls and potential shortcomings. Take for instance, if a researcher comes

across a set of secondary data and finds it to be useful without first understanding the context(or the methodology) under which the secondary data were generated, he or she might thenerroneously proceed to use the secondary data in a research study and may make wrong

conclusions about the research problem. Therefore it is important to be aware of theadvantages and disadvantages of secondary data.


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The advantages and disadvantages of secondary data in terms of its usage in business andmanagement research can be summarised as follows:

5.2.1 Advantages of Secondary Data

Secondary data collection usually poses fewer resource requirementscompared to primary data collection

Secondary data collection is less obtrusive than primary data collection (e.g.no issue of response rate)

The use of secondary data in research may sometimes lead to unforeseendiscoveries

Almost all forms of secondary data collection are in general lesscumbersome than primary data collection

5.2.2 Disadvantages of Secondary Data

Secondary data may be collected for a purpose that does not matchresearchers needs or requirements

Secondary data access may sometimes be costly, especially those that arepublished by professional bodies (e.g. industry reports)

Aggregations and definitions of secondary data may be unsuitable

Users of secondary data has no control over data quality and in contrast,primary data provides richer and more detailed information than secondarydata

5.2.3 Types of Secondary Data

There are three broad types of secondary data, namely: (1) documentary secondary data; (2)survey secondary data; and (3) multiple source secondary data, as described below:

Documentary Secondary Data: may be in the form of written materials or

non-written materials

Survey Secondary Data: refers usually to data collected by questionnairesthat have already been analyzed for their original purpose

Multiple Source Secondary Data: can be based entirely on documentary oron survey data, or can be a combination of the two types of secondary data

(i.e. document and survey secondary data)

Each type of secondary data may be further categorised into different sub-types of secondary

data as illustrated in the figure below.


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5.2.4 Selecting Secondary Data

One may use secondary data to find the solution(s) to a research problem if such data exists.

However a selection process, which has to be justified, may be adopted wherever necessary.

When selecting secondary data for a research study, a four-step process is proposed:

For each research question, determine the data required for analysis

Explore the potential use of secondary data to answer the research question

Identify the potential source of secondary data

Evaluate the identified secondary data in terms of (a) suitability,(b) reliability and validity, and (c) cost and benefits

5.3 EVALUATING SECONDARY DATA5.3.1 Choice of Secondary Data

As mentioned in the section 5.2.4, the evaluation process leading to the choice of secondarydata rests on three aspects of the secondary data as outlined below:

Assess overall suitability of secondary data to research questions andobjectives of study

Evaluate the precise suitability of secondary data for analyses needed to

answer research questions and to meet objectives of study

Judge whether to use secondary data based on an assessment of costs andbenefits in comparison with alternative sources (e.g. primary data collection)


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5.3.2 The Evaluation Process

In the evaluation process, one should always view secondary data with caution and try as far

as possible, comment on the three aspects by asking some of the following questions:(1) Overall Suitability

Does the data set cover the population that is the subject of your research?

Can data about the population that is the subject of your research be separated fromunwanted data?

Are the data sufficiently up to date?

Is the data set a proxy for the data you really need?

Examples:

Secondary data relates to manufacturing companies, not service companies

Secondary data concerns sales figures, not profits

(2) Reliability & Validity

How reliable is the data set?

Who owns the copyrights of the data?

Is the methodology clearly described?

Is there a copy of the questionnaire or interview checklist included?

What was the original purpose for which the data were collected?

Are you clear how the data are analysed and compiled?

Examples:

Sampling techniques adopted are inadequate for answering specific research

questions Methodology used is unsuitable for research undertaken

(3) Costs & Benefits

What are the financial and time costs of obtaining these data?

Have the data already been entered into a computer?

Do the overall benefits of using these secondary data sources outweigh theassociated costs?

Examples:

Usage of the secondary data requires written permission from multiple

parties The level of reliability is overly high to be ignored for research purpose


Conduct the exercise in groups. Based on a Research Problem agreed by your group membersand with a methodology in mind, carry out the following tasks:(1) identify the secondary data required for your research study;(2) specify the type(s) of secondary data to be collected in your research study;

(3) evaluate the secondary data.


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6. LESSON 6: COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA (SAMPLING METHODS)


Understand the purpose of sampling and the meanings of terms such as population,

sample; sampling unit, and sampling frame;

Appreciate the advantages of sampling;

Be familiar with the two types of sampling: Probability and Non-Probability Samplingmethods;

Know how to use the various types of Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methodswhen collecting primary data;

Understand how to develop a sampling plan and the issues involved in the choice ofsampling methods.

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING

6.1.1 What is a Population and a Sample?

A population is defined as the total set of entities or subjects (e.g. managers or workers orcompanies) which are under investigation in a research study. It is sometimes known as the

universe of all samples that form the basis for undertaking a study to better understand

certain behaviour or specific characteristics. Usually, a population is large in number and maynot be studied in total for practical reasons.

A sample is defined as a subset or a portion of a larger population, usually representative(though not all the time) of the total population, for the purpose of understanding specificbehaviour or studying certain characteristics of the population. Normally, it is only a small

fraction of the entire population and therefore much easier (e.g. requiring lesser resources)and often faster for conducting a research study.

6.1.2 What is a Sampling Unit?

A sampling unit is a constituent of a sample which forms the research sample underinvestigation in a study. It may be drawn either from a sampling frame or a population andtogether with other sampling units, constitute a sample. A sampling unit is thus the smallest

case or element of the entire population that are chosen to be represented in a sample.

6.1.3 What is Sampling?

The process of selecting a subgroup or part of a population to represent the entire population

is termed sampling. The use of samples to represent a population requires a researcher tomake use of suitable sampling methods or techniques. There are two main types of sampling:

(1) Probability; and (2) Non-Probability Sampling.


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6.1.4 What is a Sampling Frame?

A Sampling Frame is a list of units of the population from which a sample can be drawn.

The creation of sampling frames is necessary when complete information about thepopulation is not known or difficult to obtain. Examples of sampling frame are:

A list of companies in a trade directory

A list of individuals compiled from a phone directory

A list of managers compiled through personal contacts

6.1.5 Advantages of Sampling

There are many inherent advantages in using sampling methods for research especially when

the population under study is large in number. Some advantages of sampling include:

Sampling allows research to be undertaken on a smaller pool of entities thanthe actual population

Sampling can be sufficiently accurate and yet saves much time and resources

Sampling allows research to be conducted at a single point in time so that theopinions and information of all respondents are comparable

Sampling generally enjoys greater cooperation from respondents than say,

census (which is mandatory)

6.2 PROBABILITY SAMPLINGProbability Sampling is a sampling technique in which all sampling units are selected bychance (in the statistical sense). The unbiased nature of probability sampling enables theresults (that are based on the sample under study) to lead to conclusions of wide general use

(i.e. on the population). For this reason, the statistical requirements imposed on probabilitysampling are generally more stringent than non-probability sampling. There are four types ofProbability Sampling, namely:

(1) Random Sampling;

(2) Systematic Sampling;

(3) Stratified Random Sampling; and

(4) Cluster Sampling.

6.2.1 Random Sampling

Random sampling is a probability sampling method whereby each unit or element of thepopulation has an equal chance of being selected as the sample. Take for example, in apopulation of N elements, the probability of selecting each sampling unit in a randomsampling process is therefore 1/N. Random sampling is not census and thus does away the

need for the laborious process of conducting research via census. In practice, randomsampling can be implemented either by a random number generator (a function available in ascientific calculator) or through the use of unbiased dices.


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6.2.2 Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling technique involving the selection of sampling

units randomly drawn from a sampling frame at fixed positions or intervals (e.g. every 5thelement). First, a sampling frame of randomly positioned M elements is created from a

population of N elements (N is usually estimated). Second, a sampling unit of size n (usuallyas a percentage of the population e.g. n=1% of N or 0.01N) is determined. Third, the fixedposition of the sampling unit selected is determined based on the relative sizes of the sampling

frame and sample. In some research studies, the fixed position may be randomly chosendepending on the sampling frame created

6.2.3 Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified Random sampling is a probability sampling method which selects sampling units

randomly drawn from non-overlapping sampling frames (called strata). First, the populationelements are separated into non-overlapping groups termed strata (sizes of different stratamay be different). Second, a random sample is created from each strata using randomsampling (sizes of these random samples may also vary). Third, the collection of all random

samples drawn from each strata, constitutes the sample.

6.2.4 Cluster Sampling

Cluster (Area) Sampling is a probability sampling method involving sampling from differentclusters (a collection of sampling units based on clustering) via two sampling frames. First, a

sampling frame of clusters (e.g. food companies) is created via random sampling. Second,sampling units (e.g. managers) are then selected randomly from each cluster. Third, all thesampling units randomly selected constitute the sample under study.

6.3 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

In non-probability sampling, the researcher takes full advantage of available respondentswithout the statistical complexity of probability sampling. Generally, the statisticalrequirements imposed on non-probability sampling are less stringent than non-probabilitysampling. Non-probability sampling is normally used when there is no desire or intention togeneralize the findings (based on the sample) beyond the context of study. There are four

types of Non- Probability Sampling, namely:

(1) Convenience Sampling(2) Quota Sampling

(3) Purposive Sampling(4) Snowball Sampling


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6.3.1 Convenience Sampling

Convenience (Accidental) Sampling is a non-probability sampling strategy that uses the most

easily accessible (or available) people (or subjects) to participate in a study.

6.3.2 Quota Sampling

Quota Sampling is a non-probability sampling strategy where the researcher identifies thevarious strata of a population and ensures that all these strata are proportionately representedwithin the sample to increase its representative-ness.

6.3.2 Purposive Sampling

Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling is a non-probability sampling strategy in which theresearcher selects participants who are considered to be typical of the wider population

(sometimes referred to as judgmental sampling)

6.3.4 Snowball Sampling

Snowball Sampling is a non-probability sampling strategy whereby referrals from earlier

participants are used to gather the required number of participants

6.4 SAMPLING PLAN

6.4.1 Summary of Sampling Methods

In summary, there are two main types of sampling methods: (1) Probability; and (2) Non-

Probability Sampling. The former is multi-stage while the latter is single-stage in terms ofapproach and the use of these sampling methods depends on the requirements of the researchstudy. An overall summary of the different types of sampling methods under these two main

types of sampling methods can be illustrated in the figure below:

6.4.2 What is a Sampling Plan?

A sampling plan is a set of prescribed sampling methods which have been specially chosenfor the purpose of data collection in a study. A sampling plan guides the manner which all

samples from the population will be selected for study. A sampling plan may use acombination of different sampling methods for specific samples under study depending on thefactors and conditions associated with these samples. A sampling plan should select samplingmethods that are suitable and appropriate based on the potential problems encountered during

sampling.


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34

Sampling

Probability Non-Probability

Random

Cluster

Stratified

Random

Systematic

Quota

Purposive

Convenience

Snowball

Multi-stage Single-stage

6.4.3 Choice of Sampling Methods: Guidelines

In general, the choice of sampling methods depends primarily on the generalisability of the

research study. The guidelines for selecting sampling methods include the following: Sampling methods are selected on the basis of whether there is a need to

generalise the findings beyond the sample under study

The choice of sampling methods depends on the availability of samples toselect from

Sampling methods are selected based on practical considerations such as timeconstraints and whether the statistical requirements for probability sampling can

be satisfied

Non-probability sampling may have to be employed because of the difficultiesencountered if probability sampling is executed


Conduct the exercise in groups. Based on the Research Methodology adopted for your study,carry out a discussion with your group members and execute the following tasks:

(1) Identify the population, samples and the types of sampling which you will use to executeyour adopted Methodology;

(2) Justify the choice of your sampling types and explain why they are most appropriate foryour study.


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7. LESSON 7: COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA

(OBSERVATION AND INTERVIEW METHODS)


Understand the various types of observation methods, its usefulness and know how to use

these observation methods for research;

Know the meaning of participant observation and the different roles of researchers rolesin participant observation;

Understand the different types of interview methods and know how to use these interviewmethods for different types of research;

Be familiar with the competences required for observation and interview methods;

Understand the guidelines in relation to selecting observation and interview methods.

7.1 OBSERVATION

7.1.1 What is an Observation Method?

An observation method is a direct way of collecting primary data without the need to impose

on the subjects under study to provide data. It normally requires the researcher to observe aphenomenon, occurrence or activity and to gather the primary data herself or himself. Such amethod is usually fast, easy to execute and often termed as the Do-It-Yourself (DIY)

primary data collection method.

7.1.2 Usefulness of Observation Methods

One advantage of observation methods is that it enables the researcher to collect data withminimum respondents bias. Moreover, the amount of invasion of privacy or intrusion can bedirectly controlled. In most circumstances, the success of an observation method does notdepend on response rate of respondents (in fact, it depends only on how well the observation

method is designed). It is therefore commonly used in situations where speed is critical and

the researcher cannot afford the resources required for conducting interviews or surveys.

7.1.3 What is Participant Observation?

Participant Observation is qualitative in nature and is derived from the work of socialanthropology or sociology in the twentieth century. Its emphasis is on discovering the

meanings that people attached to their actions. In participant observation, the researcherparticipates (or sometimes observes) in the activities of the subjects under study. However, tomake use of participant observation effectively, the researcher normally requires a strongappreciation of the contextual circumstances (e.g. social sciences research).


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7.1.4 Types of Researchers Roles

Researcher roles are critical in ensuring the success of primary data collection in participant

observation. Gill & Johnsons four-fold categorisation for participant observation specifiesthat there are four possible roles:

(1) Complete Participant

(2) Complete Observer

(3) Observer as Participant

(4) Participant as Observer

The four-fold categorisation of researcher roles is based on two dimensions, namely:

(1) whether the identity of the researcher is concealed or revealed;(2) whether the researcher takes part or simply observes the activity under study

For research study which employs the observation method for primary data collection, theresearcher role(s) need to be predetermined in advance. Typically, in most studies, a singleresearcher may play more than one role

7.1.5 Using the Observation Method

Before adopting the observation method, one has to be clear of what are the available

methods are and what they can achieve in the context of the research study. The stepsinvolved may include the following:

Decide on the observation method over other primary data collectionmethods (e.g. interview or survey) by recognising the benefits and pitfalls

Identify all the primary data items to be collected based on theobservation method

Select the most suitable researcher role(s) (e.g. Complete Observer) for

the observation method

Prepare a list of possible answers for all primary data items beforeimplementing the observation method

7.2. STRUCTURED, SEMI-STRUCTURED AND IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

7.2.1 Types of Interview

As far as interview methods are concerned, they are basically three main types of interviewswhich can be used in business and management research, namely: (1) structured; (2) semi-structured; and (3) in-depth interviews. The underlying differences among these three types

of interviews lie in the level of flexibility in terms of execution, the amount of preparationrequired and the nature of topic to be discussed during the interview.


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7.2.2 Certainty About Primary Data

One factor which influences a researchers decision in the selection of suitable interview

methods is the degree of certainty about the primary data to be collected. If a researcher isvery certain about the type of primary data to be collected, a structured interview is probably

the best method. One the other hand, if a researcher is unsure about the primary data items tobe collected, an in-depth interview offers an effective alternative method. Thus the choice ofinterview method depends on the researchers degree of certainty about the primary data

items to be collected to address the research questions

7.2.3 Interviewers Burden

In terms of the amount of preparation and efforts required for interview methods, in-depthinterviews require experienced and professional interviewing skills on the part of theresearcher to solicit answers from a subject under study (e.g. Chairman of a MNC or aPolitical Leader). In comparison, structured interviews are merely guided surveys whose

success depends on how well the interviewer hand-holds the subject under study. Hencethe burden on the interviewer, in terms of interviewing competences, becomes heavier whenin-depth interviews are employed as compared to structured or semi-structured interviews.

7.2.4 Use of Interview for Different Types of Research

The three interview methods may be employed for different types of research, depending onthe resources available, degree of certainty and the research requirements as shown below:

Structured

Interview

Semi-Structured

Interview

In-Depth

Interview

Case Study * **

Pilot Study **

Descriptive Study ** *

*: Suitable**: Most Suitable

7.2.5 Forms of Interview Interaction

There are two main forms of interview interaction, namely:

(1) One-to-one (i.e. a typical interviewer-interviewee session)

(2) One-to-many (i.e. an interviewer talking to several interviewees simultaneously)

When conducting interviews, different means of communications like face-to-face, telephone

or electronic communications are possible.


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7.3 SELECTION OF METHODS

7.3.1 Observation Competences

Some of the competences necessary for executing observation methods include:

Ability to design a study to collect primary data based on Observation

Strong observational skills (e.g. body language)

Power of Concentration (e.g. focus on important manifestations)

Listening skills and understanding many languages (e.g. able to comprehendlocal dialects)

Able to record primary data discretely

7.3.2 Interviewing Competences

Some of the competences needed for executing interview methods include the following:

Opening the interview (e.g. making the interviewee feels comfortable)

Using appropriate language (e.g. being polite and respectful)

Questioning skills (e.g. asking, not interrogating)

Listening skills (e.g. discern noise from important answers)

Testing and summarising answers

Recording data (e.g. able to gather primary data quickly)

7.3.3 Choice between Observation and Interview: Guidelines

When choosing between observation and interview methods, some of the guidelines which a

researcher may wish to consider before making a decision include the following:

Is response rate likely to be very low if interview methods or surveys areused? (e.g. difficulties encountered in arranging interviews with managers or

executives)

Can the phenomenon, occurrence or activity under study be observedobjectively? (e.g. respondents opinions cannot be watched)

How do the two methods: (1) Observation and (2) Interview compared in

terms of time and financial resources required for implementing primarydata collection?

Does the researcher possess the competences needed for conductingobservation or interview?

Is it crucial that data collection require interaction between the researcherand the subject?

Does the observation method result in substantial loss in data compared to

the interview method?

Can observation quantify the behaviour, occurrence or activity under study?


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7.3.4 Selecting Observation and Interview Methods

If a researcher wishes to select between observation and interview methods, he or she may

follow a four-step process as described below:

Step 1: Based on the research questions or research objectives, identify theprimary data required for the study;

Step 2: Select the primary data collection method (e.g. ParticipantObservation) to be used for the study (Note: Refer to the guidelines for thechoice between Observation and Interview to justify the choice of theprimary data collection method)

Step 3: Determine the source of primary data to be collected;

Step 4: Incorporate the primary data collection method in the Research

Methodology

A sample table tabulated for a research question of a research topic entitled: AComparative Study of the Customer Service Standards in Local Banks of Singapore is

shown here.

Research

Topic:

A Comparative Study of the Customer Service Standards in Local

Banks of Singapore

Research

QuestionNo.

Primary

DataRequired

Data

CollectionMethod

Source of

PrimaryData Justification

ResearchQuestion 1

Informationrelating tocustomerserviceprocedures,processes andpractices

ParticipantObservation(CompleteParticipantandCompleteObserver)

ResearchersObservationin localbanks

Participant observation enablesthe researcher to collect primarydata about customer serviceprocedures, processes andpractices with a better control oftime. This method does notdepend on response rate. Keepingthe researchers identityconcealed does not drive awayparticipants


Conduct the exercise in groups. Based on a Research Problem and a Methodology agreed byyour group members, carry out the following tasks:

(1) Identify the primary data required for your research study;

(2) Select the primary data collection method(s) (e.g. Structured Interview

all in one lesson (1 - 11) lecture notes

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