aika's document - word literature.docx

8/16/2019 Aika's Document - Word Literature.docx

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I- Introduction to literature

- Meaning :

- Literature (from Latin litterae (plural); letter ) is the art of written work and can, in some

circumstances, refer exclusively to published sources. The word literature literally means "thins

made from letters" and the pars pro Toto term "letters" is sometimes used to sinify "literature,"

as in the fiures of speech "arts and letters" and "man of letters." The two ma!or classifications of

literature are poetry and prose (which can be further subdivided into fiction and nonfiction).

- Literature may consist of texts based on factual information (!ournalistic or nonfiction), as well as

on oriinal imaination, such as polemical works as well as autobioraphy, and reflective essays

as well as belleslettres. Literature can be classified accordin to historical periods, enres, and

political influences. The concept of enre, which earlier was limited, has broadened over the

centuries. # enre consists of artistic works which fall within a certain central theme, andexamples of enre include romance, mystery, crime, fantasy, erotica, and adventure, amon

others. $mportant historical periods in %nlish literature include &ld %nlish, 'iddle %nlish,

the enaissance, the *th +entury hakespearean and %li-abethan times, the th

+entury estoration, /th +entury 0ictorian, and 12th +entury 'odernism. $mportant political

movements that have influenced literature include feminism, post

colonialism,psychoanalysis, poststructuralism, postmodernism, romanticism and 'arxism.

- Importance :

It is a curious and prevalent opinion that literature, like all art, is a mere play of imagination, pleasing

enough, like a new novel, but without any serious or practical importance. Nothing could be farther

from the truth. Literature preserves the ideals of a people; and ideals--love, faith, duty, friendship,

freedom, reverence--are the part of human life most worthy of preservation. The reeks were a

marvelous people; yet of all their mighty works we cherish only a few ideals,--ideals of beauty in

perishable stone, and ideals of truth in imperishable prose and poetry. It was simply the ideals of the

reeks and !ebrews and "omans, preserved in their literature, which made them what they were, and

which determined their value to future generations. #ur democracy, the boast of all $nglish-speaking

nations, is a dream; not the doubtful and sometimes disheartening spectacle presented in our

legislative halls, but the lovely and immortal ideal of a free and e%ual manhood, preserved as a most

precious heritage in every great literature from the reeks to the &nglo-'a(ons. &ll our arts, our

sciences, even our inventions are founded s%uarely upon ideals; for under every invention is still the

dream of Beowulf , that man may overcome the forces of nature; and the foundation of all our sciences

and discoveries is the immortal dream that men )shall be as gods, knowing good and evil.)

In a word, our whole civili*ation, our freedom, our progress, our homes, our religion, rest solidly upon

ideals for their foundation. Nothing but an ideal ever endures upon earth. It is therefore impossible to

overestimate the practical importance of literature, which preserves these ideals from fathers to sons,

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while men, cities, governments, civili*ations, vanish from the face of the earth. It is only when we

remember this that we appreciate the action of the devout +ussulman, who picks up and carefully

preserves every scrap of paper on which words are written, because the scrap may perchance contain

the name of &llah, and the ideal is too enormously important to be neglected or lost.

Iii – forms & elements of literature

• # writer appeals to our feelins, emotions throuh various elements of literature, such as

plot, character, theme, etc. ead more to know about the elements of literature.

3. 4asic Types of Literature5

6rama 7 The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to desinate a specific type of play dates from the /th

century. 6rama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a comedy nor a traedy8for

example, 9ola:s Thérèse Raquin (*3) or +hekhov:s Ivanov (*). $t is this narrow sense that

the film and television industry and film studies adopted to describe "drama" as a genre within their

respective media. "adio drama" has been used in both senses8oriinally transmitted in a liveperformance, it has also been used to describe the more hihbrow and serious end of the dramatic

output of radio.

6rama is often combined with music and dance5 the drama in opera is enerally sun

throuhout; musicals enerally include both spoken dialoue and sons; and some forms of drama

have incidental music or musical accompaniment underscorin the dialoue (melodrama and

apanese oetry 7 >oetry uses forms and conventions to suest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke

emotive responses. 6evices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes

used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiuity, symbolism, irony and

other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations.

imilarly, metaphor , simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate imaes8a

layerin of meanins, formin connections previously not perceived. ?indred forms of resonance may

exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.

ome poetry types are specific to particular cultures and enres and respond to characteristics of thelanuae in which the poet writes. eaders accustomed to identifyin poetry with

6ante, @oethe, 'ickiewic- and umi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and reular meter;

however, there are traditions, such as 4iblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm

and euphony. 'uch modern poetry reflects a critiAue of poetic tradition, playin with and testin, amon

other thins, the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altoether foroin rhyme or set rhythm. $n today:s

increasinly lobali-ed world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniAues from diverse cultures and

lanuaes.

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of maical ritual (ames Dra-er ). Later interpretations re!ected opposition between myth and science,

such as unian archetypes, oseph +ampbell:s "metaphor of spiritual potentiality", or LHvitrauss:s fixed

mental architecture. Tension between +ampbell:s comparative search for monomyth or Irmyth and

anthropoloical mytholoists: skepticism of universal oriin has marked the 12th century. Durther,

modern mythopoeia such as fantasy novels, mana, and urban leend, with many competin artificial

mythoi acknowleded as fiction, supports the idea of myth as onoin social practice.

Typical characteristics

The main characters in myths are usually ods, supernatural heroes and humans. #s sacred stories,

myths are often endorsed by rulers and priests and closely linked to reliion or spirituality. $n the society in

which it is told, a myth is usually rearded as a true account of the remote past. $n fact, many societies

have two cateories of traditional narrative, "true stories" or myths, and "false stories" or fables. +reation

myths enerally take place in a primordial ae, when the world had not yet achieved its current form, and

explain how the world ained its current form and how customs, institutions and taboos were established.

Leend 7 is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place

within human history and to possess certain Aualities that ive the tale verisimilitude. Leend, for its active

and passive participants includes no happenins that are outside the realm of "possibility", defined by a

hihly flexible set of parameters, which may include miracles that are perceived as actually havin

happened, within the specific tradition of indoctrination where the leend arises, and within which it may

be transformed over time, in order to keep it fresh and vital, and realistic. # ma!ority of leends operate

within the realm of uncertainty, never bein entirely believed by the participants, but also never bein

resolutely doubted.

The 4rothers @rimm defined leend as folktale historically rounded. # modern folklorist:s professional

definition of legend was proposed by Timothy . Tanherlini in //25

Leend, typically, is a short (mono) episodic, traditional, hihly ecotypified historici-ed narrative

performed in a conversational mode, reflectin on a psycholoical level a symbolic representation of folk

belief and collective experiences and servin as a reaffirmation of commonly held values of the roup to

whose tradition it belons."

3... Dictions 7 %lements of Dictions5

Fiction is the form of any narrative or informative work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or

events that are not factual, but rather, imainary and theoretical8that is, invented by the author. #lthouh

fiction describes a ma!or branch of literary work, it may also refer to theatrical, cinematic or musical work.

Diction contrasts with nonfiction, which deals exclusively with factual (or, at least, assumed factual)

events, descriptions, observations, etc. (e.., bioraphies, histories).

• Themes 7 Theme, a conceptual distillation of the story, is often listed as one of the fundamental

elements of fiction. $t is the central idea or insiht servin as a unifyin element, creatin

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cohesion and is an answer to the Auestion, :Jhat did you learn from the piece of fictionK: $n some

cases a story:s theme is a prominent element and somewhat unmistakable.

• ettins 7 ettin, the location and time of a story, is often listed as one of the fundamental

elements of fiction. ometimes settin is referred to as milieu, to include a context (such as

society) beyond the immediate surroundins of the story. $n some cases, settin becomes acharacter itself and can set the tone of a story.

• +haracters 7 Characterization is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction.

# character is a participant in the story, and is usually a person, but may be any personal identity,

or entity whose existence oriinates from a fictional work or performance.

+haracters may be of several types5

• Protagonist5 The driver of the action of the story and therefore responsible for achievin the

story:s &b!ective tory @oal (the surface !ourney). $n western storytellin tradition the >rotaonist is

usually the main character.

• Antagonist5 # person, or a roup of people(antaonists) who oppose the main character, or main

characters. The #ntaonist rarely succeeds the end of the bookseries.

• Static character 5 # character who does not sinificantly chane durin the course of a story.

• Dynamic character 5 # character who underoes character development durin the course of a

story.

• Foil5 The character that contrasts to the protaonist in a way that illuminates their personality or

characteristic.

• Supporting character 5 # character that plays a part in the plot, but is not ma!or

• Minor character 5 # character in a bitcameo part.

• >lots 7 Plot is what the character(s) did, said, and thouht. $t is the #ction >roper iven unity by

the %nvelopin #ction, the Iniversal #ction, the #rchetypal #ction. #s #ristotle said, Jhat ives a

story unity is not as the masses believe that it is about one person but that it is about one action.

>lot, or storyline, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. $t is the renderin

and orderin of the events and actions of a story. &n a micro level, plot consists of action andreaction, also referred to as stimulus and response. &n a macro level, plot has a beinnin, a

middle, and an endin. >lot is often depicted as an arc with a -i-as line to represent the rise

and fall of action. >lot also has a midlevel structure5 scene and summary. # scene is a unit of

drama7where the action occurs. Then, after a transition of some sort, comes the summary7an

emotional reaction and reroupin, an aftermath. Dor a delihtful tonueincheek comment on

plot, see ?atherine #nne >orter:s "lot, 'y 6ear,


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• >oints of 0iew 7 Point of view character 5 The character from whose perspective (theme) the

audience experiences the story. This is the character that represents the point of view the

audience empathi-es, or at the very least, sympathies with. Therefore this is the "'ain"

+haracter.

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and entertain). 6escribe what each of these terms mean and share an example of a book part of

a book that would fall under each.

• upportin 6etails5 'upporting details are statements which support your topic or theme. ou

support your main idea by e(plaining it, describing it, defining it, or otherwise giving

information about it. ou will usually need to actually look up or research this information

hen you are writing an essay or report, each paragraph after the introduction should discuss

one supporting detail. /epending on how many paragraphs you want to include, you can have

any number of supporting details.

These details are then repeated or rephrased in your concluding paragraph, to restate the fact

that they support your main idea.

ive more information about the topic and or details or information that backs up a sentence.

• 0ocabulary5 is the set of words within a lanuae that are familiar to that person. # vocabulary

usually develops with ae, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool

for communication and acAuirin knowlede. #cAuirin an extensive vocabulary is one of the

larest challenes in learnin a second lanuae.

• Text tructures5 4ein able to identify the structure of a text can reatly increase students:

comprehension of the material bein read. There are six basic structures that are commonly

found in textbooks. &nce the teacher has modeled the text structure, students can follow the

orani-in pattern to identify important events, concepts and ideas. tudents should also be

tauht the sinal words that alert them to text structure. Otudents who are tauht to identify the

structure of expository and narrative text have been found to have better comprehension than

students who have not received such instruction.P

Common Tet Structures

• Compare!Contrast Structure

This type of text examines the similarities and differences between two or more people, events,

concepts, ideas, etc.

• Cause!#ffect Structure

This structure presents the causal relationship between an specific event, idea, or concept and

the events, ideas, or concept that follow.

• Se$uence Structure

This text structure ives readers a chronoloical of events or a list of steps in a procedure.

• Pro%lem!Solution Structure

This type of structure sets up a problem or problems, explains the solution, and then discusses

the effects of the solution.

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• Descriptive Structure

This type of text structure features a detailed description of somethin to ive the reader a mental

picture.

• &uestion!Answer Structure

this text starts by posin a Auestion then oes on to answer that Auestion.

• Cyclical Structure

This structure starts with an event then proresses throuh a series until it is back to the

beinnin event.

eaderNs #ids5 # modular article in an electronic environment may have many complicated features. The

reader therefore has to be able to customise the presentation, which implies that the most important oal

of the readers: aids is flexibility.

Locating, retrieving and printing

eaders reAuire a search enine that allows for complex searches of entire articles, complex modules

and elementary modules. $t must be possible to search by5

• module labels;

• phrases from the full text in any particular module;

• link labels;

or combinations thereof. Dor instance, the reader must be able to locate a microscopic Results module,

dealin with the differential cross section of collisions between sodium and iodine atoms, that is

connected to module %xperimental methods, about a molecular beam setup, by means of a problem

solvin dependency link. #nother example is the search for a microscopic Experimental methods module

on surface ioni-ation, that is the taret of at least ten links carryin proximitybased labels indicatin that

the source is not part of the same article and resolutionslabels indicatin that the taret provides details.

&nce the reader has located the modules of interest, he should be able to print individual modules

(automatically includin the imaes and other nontextual but printable parts) as well as any selected

collection of modules.

Modules

ust as for the traditional scientific article, the modular article, as well as each individual module, is a self

contained representation of scientific information. Therefore, we must keep in mind that many of the samepresentation issues that have to be taken into account when writin a traditional article remain valid in the

modular case. The internal structure of modules has to be made visible by means of typoraphy,

pararaphs and sections. $f the reader prefers to print the module on paper, the presentation of the

printed version may be adapted to the paper medium.

$n addition to the traditional presentation reAuirements, the modular structure leads to reAuirements

concernin the composition of modules and links. +omplex modules, which consist of linked constituent


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modules and a Qmodule summary: summari-in them, should be implemented in a Qreconi-able: way.

Dor example, the module summary may be presented in a different font or color than the elementary

modules. The exact presentation should not be hardwired into the module, but rather stored in @'L type

tas. The presentation then can be manaed throuh the style sheet.

The reader:s main reAuirement concernin the implementation is that the presentation should be flexible.

$n particular, the reader must be able to unfold or hide5

• mathematical diressions and other details;

• parts of modules that overlap with other modules that the reader may already have consulted;

• the characteri-ation of the module and the naviation menu;

• full fiures (which can be replaced by thumbnail fiures);

• Inprintable representations of information (e.. !ava applets).

Links

The distributed presentation obscures the coherence of the information5 if the reader does not understand

the taret and the nature of the links connectin the modules, he cannot make a wellconsidered choice

as to whether to follow the links or not. Therefore, the type of the link must be made explicit as well as its

taret. ather than identifyin the taret with an uninformative identification code, the author name and

publication date of the cited module may be made explicit. $n addition to the type and the taret of the link,

a short phrase can provide further clarification. This characteri-ation should be hidden from view, and only

be made visible on demand. Dor example, the link may be represented in the text by a small icon

(different icons may be used to indicate the main function of the link) and the characteri-ation may be

shown in a Qpopup: box when the reader moves his mouse onto the icon.

$f a particular point in a module serves as a startin point for more than one link, the various links may be

routed via a menu. Dor example, at a particular feature in the raphical of the results a link may be

provided for -oomin in on that feature, another for comparison of that feature to a similar feature in

another Results module, and a third to its interpretation.

'any explicit links could also make a modular article unreadable. The reader must therefore be able to

choose how the links are presented5 as elaborate informative icons, as unobtrusive icons, as words, or

completely hidden from view. The different types of links should in principle be distinuishable at first

lance. Links that have been created to express an orani-ational relation may be presented usin a

different color, font or icon than links created for the different kinds of scientific discourse relations.

Durthermore, the reader reAuires tools that enable him to5

• customi-e the orani-ation of his screen. Dor example, if he activates a link, he can view the

taret5

o in the same window that the source of the link occupied previously;

o in a separate window overlappin the window presentin the source;


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o in the other half of a Qsplitwindow: that allows for simultaneous viewin.

The orani-ation of the windows may depend on the type of the link. #n external link may, for

instance, be considered a detour and lead to a separate window, whereas a link expressin a

similarity relation calls for direct comparison and thereby for two neihborin windows; a

seAuential link would stay within the same window, and the Map of contents may be permanently

kept in a corner of the screen.

• 6efine a personal seAuential path. $n the modular model, we have defined seAuential relations

that allow the reader to consult the complete article (via the complete seAuential path) and toconsult the modular article as if it were a traditional, linear article (via the essaytype seAuentialpath). The reader must also be able to define a personal route throuh the article, which he thencan follow by way of Qnext: buttons. oetry has a lon history, datin back to the umerian Epic of !ilgamesh. %arly poems evolved from

folk sons such as the +hinese "hi#ing , or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the

anskrit $edas, 9oroastrian !athas, and the Momeric epics, the Iliad and the %dyssey . #ncient attempts

to define poetry, such as #ristotle:s Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in

rhetoric, drama, son and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as repetition, verse

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgameshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_of_Poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)


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form and rhyme, and emphasi-ed the aesthetics which distinuish poetry from more ob!ectively

informative, prosaic forms of writin. Drom the mid12th century, poetry has sometimes been more

enerally rearded as a fundamental creative act employin lanuae.

>oetry uses forms and conventions to suest differential interpretation to words, or to evoke emotive

responses. 6evices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used toachieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiuity, symbolism, irony and

other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations.

imilarly, metaphor , simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate imaes8a

layerin of meanins, formin connections previously not perceived. ?indred forms of resonance may

exist, between individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.

ome poetry types are specific to particular cultures and enres and respond to characteristics of the

lanuae in which the poet writes. eaders accustomed to identifyin poetry with

6ante, @oethe, 'ickiewic- and umi may think of it as written in lines based on rhyme and reular meter;

however, there are traditions, such as 4iblical poetry, that use other means to create rhythm

and euphony. 'uch modern poetry reflects a critiAue of poetic tradition, playin with and testin, amon

other thins, the principle of euphony itself, sometimes altoether foroin rhyme or set rhythm.B3CBRC $n

today:s increasinly lobali-ed world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniAues from diverse

cultures and lanuaes.

• %lements of >oetry 5

Jhen you read a poem, pay attention to some basic ideas5

0oice (Jho is speakinK Mow are they speakinK)

tan-as (how lines are rouped)

ound (includes rhyme, but also many other patterns)

hythm (what kind of "beat" or meter does the poem haveK)

Diures of speech (many poems are full of metaphors and other fiurative lanuae)

Dorm (there are standard types of poem)

0oice

0oice is a word people use to talk about the way poems "talk" to the reader.

Lyric poems and narrative poems are the ones you will see most. Lyric poems express the feelins of the

writer. # narrative poem tells a story.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_dictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighierihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalizationhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#voicehttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#stanzahttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#soundhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#rhythmhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#figurehttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#formhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliterationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomatopoeiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incantationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylistics_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetic_dictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verse_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante_Alighierihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Mickiewiczhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meter_(poetry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalizationhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#voicehttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#stanzahttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#soundhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#rhythmhttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#figurehttp://www.dmturner.org/English/Poetry/elements.htm#form


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>entameter (five beats)

Sou also sometimes see diameter (two beats) and hexameter (six beats) but lines loner than that can:t

be said in one breath, so poets tend to avoid them.

Diures of speech

Diures of speech are also called fiurative lanuae. The most wellknown fiures of speech are simile,

metaphor, and personification. They are used to help with the task of "tellin, not showin."

imile a comparison of one thin to another, usin the words "like," "as," or "as thouh."

'etaphor comparin one thin to another by sayin that one thin is another thin. 'etaphors are

stroner than similes, but they are more difficult to see.

>ersonification speakin as if somethin were human when it:s not.

>oetic forms

There are a number of common poetic forms. .

4allad story told in verse. # ballad stan-a is usually four lines, and there is often a repetitive refrain. #s

you miht uess, this form started out as a son. #n example of a traditional cottish ballad is Lord

andal at http5www.bartleby.com1R3EE.html

Maiku a short poem with seventeen syllables, usually written in three lines with five syllables in the first

line, seven in the second, and five in the third. The present tense is used, the sub!ect is one thin

happenin now, and words are not repeated. $t does not rhyme. The oriin of the haiku is apanese.

+hinAuapin a fiveline poem with two syllables in the first line, four in the second, six in the third, eiht in

the fourth, and two in the fifth. $t expresses one imae or thouht, in one or possibly two sentences.

0illanelle a /line poem with five tersest and one Auatrain at the end. Two of the lines are repeated

alternately at the ends of the tersest, and finish off the poem5 the first line and the third line of the first

terse. #lthouh it sounds very complicated, it:s like a son or a dance and easy to see once you:ve looked

at a villanelle.

Limerick # fiveline poem, usually meant to be funny. The rhythm is anapests. Lines , 1, and F rhyme

with one another, and lines 3 and R rhyme with one another. Lines , 1, and F have three feet, lines 3 and

R have two feet. #n iamb can be substituted for an anapest in the first foot of any line. The last foot can

add another unstressed beat for the rhymin effect.

onnet There are different types of sonnet. The most familiar to us is made of three Auatrains and endswith a couplet. They tend to be complicated and eleant. Jilliam hakespeare wrote the most wellknown

sonnets.

Dree verse (or open form) 'uch modern poetry does not obviously rhyme and doesn:t have a set meter.

Mowever, sound and rhythm are often still important, and it is still often written in short lines.

http://www.bartleby.com/243/66.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/243/66.htmlhttp://www.ludweb.com/poetry/sonnets/http://www.bartleby.com/243/66.htmlhttp://www.bartleby.com/243/66.htmlhttp://www.ludweb.com/poetry/sonnets/


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+oncrete poetry (pattern or shape poetry) is a picture poem, in which the visual shape of the poemcontributes to its meanin.

Language'Figures of Speech(

• Alliteration

The repetition of an initial consonant sound.

• Anaphora

The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beinnin of successive clauses or verses.

(+ontrast with epiphora and epistrophe.)

• #ssonance

$dentity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neihborin words.

• +hiasmus

a verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced aainst the first but with

the parts reversed.

• %uphemism

The substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit.

• Myperbole

an extravaant statement; the use of exaerated terms for the purpose of emphasis or

heihtened effect.

• $rony

The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meanin. # statement or situation where

the meanin is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

• Litotes

# fiure of speech consistin of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by

neatin its opposite.

• 'etaphor

#n implied comparison between two unlike thins that actually have somethin important in

common.

• 'etonymy

# fiure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely

associated; also, the rhetorical stratey of describin somethin indirectly by referrin to thins

http://grammar.about.com/od/terms/g/alliteration.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/anaphora.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epiphoraterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epiphoraterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epiphoraterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epistropheterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epistropheterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/assonance.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/chiasmusterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/euphemismterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/hyperboleterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/ironyterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/litotesterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/metaphorterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/metonymy.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/terms/g/alliteration.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/anaphora.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epiphoraterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/epistropheterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/assonance.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/chiasmusterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/e/g/euphemismterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/hyperboleterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/ironyterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/litotesterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/metaphorterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/metonymy.htm


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around it.

• &nomatopoeia

the use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the ob!ects or actions they refer to.

• &xymoron

# fiure of speech in which inconruous or contradictory terms appear side by side.

• >aradox

# statement that appears to contradict itself.

• >ersonification

# fiure of speech in which an inanimate ob!ect or abstraction is endowed with human Aualities or

abilities.

• >un

a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar

sense or sound of different words.

• imile

# stated comparison (usually formed with "like" or "as") between two fundamentally dissimilar

thins that have certain Aualities in common.

• ynecdoche

# fiure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, &'s for alphabet )

or the whole for a part ("England won the Jorld +up in /EE").

• Inderstatement

a fiure of speech in which a writer or a speaker deliberately makes a situation seem lessimportant or serious than it is.

Moo) an) Meaning(

'ood5

The mood is the feelin or atmosphere of a piece. The mood can be many different thins. omeexamples included5

• # feelin of love.

• # feelin of doom.

• # feelin of fear.

• # feelin of pride.

http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/onomaterms.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/oxymoronterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/paradoxterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/personifterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/punterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/simileterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/synecdocheterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/understateterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/onomaterms.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/oxymoronterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/paradoxterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/personifterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/punterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/simileterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/synecdocheterm.htmhttp://grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/understateterm.htm


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• #n atmosphere of chaos.

• #n atmosphere of peace.

'eanin5

what is the author tryin to communicateK

Mow to #chieve 'ood and 'eaninyou should be able to establish mood or purpose in poetry by5

• choice of words,

• summary terms,

• symbolic lanuae,

• structure of the sentences,

• the lenth of each poetic line,

• #nd the punctuation marks chosen.

• o to do this, you must first have backround knowlede on the sub!ect, or research it.

6ialect5a reional way of speakin that is different from the norm. Dor example, a southerner miht say (a)ll while

a oets can invent words. ust look at any 6r. uesN book. Mis words always convey some meanin andoften come with the mood of levity. These words are never !ust thrown in to fit a place; they add color andclarity to a work.

ensory and fiurative lanuae5ensory lanuae is lanuae that appeals to the senses (e.. seein, hearin, feelin, touchin, andsmellin). Diurative Lanuae are words used for descriptive effect that express some truth behind theirliteral meanin (e.. similes, metaphors, personification).

entence structure5Sou could choose lon compound sentences to, perhaps, create an air of formality and seriousness. &rmaybe you want a livelier piece in which you can choose loner and shorter sentences. >erhaps, instead,you want to create a feelin of confusion, you miht choose to use framents.

Line lenth5The lenth of sentences and stan-as in poems. #ain, you can convey mood and meanin by varyinyour line lenth, !ust as you can by varyin your sentence structure.


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>unctuation5The use of standard marks and sins in writin and printin to separate words into sentences, clauses,and phrases in order to clarify meanin. Sou can create confusion or perhaps insecurity by includin nopunctuation.

hythm5

The arranement of stressed and unstressed sounds in writin and speech. hythm may be reular or itmay be varied.

*+,+- Drama(

• Elements:

%ssential elements of drama are present in any play that you see. #ristotle was the first to write about

these essential elements, more than two thousand years ao. Jhile ideas have chaned slihtly over the

years, we still discuss #ristotle:s list when talkin about what makes the best drama.

Aristotle.s Si #lements of Drama

#ristotle considered these six thins to be essential to ood drama.

• Plot( This is what happens in the play. >lot refers to the action; the basic storyline of the play.

• Theme( Jhile plot refers to the action of the play, theme refers to the meanin of the play. Theme is

the main idea or lesson to be learned from the play. $n some cases, the theme of a play is obvious; other

times it is Auite subtle.

• Characters( +haracters are the people (sometimes animals or ideas) portrayed by the actors in the

play. $t is the characters who move the action, or plot, of the play forward.

• Dialogue( This refers to the words written by the playwriht and spoken by the characters in the play.

The dialoue helps move the action of the play alon.

• Music'/hythm( Jhile music is often featured in drama, in this case #ristotle was referrin to the

rhythm of the actors: voices as they speak.

• Spectacle( This refers to the visual elements of a play5 sets, costumes, special effects, etc. pectacle

is everythin that the audience sees as they watch the play.

$n modern theater, this list has chaned slihtly, althouh you will notice that many of the elements remain

the same.

The lists of essential elements in modern theater are5

• +haracter

• >lot

• Theme

• 6ialoue


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• +onvention

• @enre

• #udience

The first four, character, plot, theme and dialoue remain the same, but the followin additions are now

also considered essential elements of drama.

• Convention( These are the techniAues and methods used by the playwriht and director tocreate the desired stylistic effect.

• 0enre( @enre refers to the type of play. ome examples of different enres include, comedy,

traedy, mystery and historical play.

• Au)ience( This is the roup of people who watch the play. 'any playwrihts and actors consider

the audience to be the most important element of drama, as all of the effort put in to writin and producin

a play is for the en!oyment of the audience.

Stage Direction(

-

6irectors and actors work toether to create a stae production. Jhen and where the actorsmove can add to tension, provoke a lauh or cause the audience to shift their attention to a new

part of the stae. This movement is called blockin, or stae direction. Throuh the years,

instructions have become standardi-ed when referrin to stae directions. #ctors should write the

appropriate directions in their scripts durin rehearsals.

1asic Stage 1rea2)own

• Ipstae is farthest away from the audience. 6ownstae is closest to the audience. tae riht is

on your riht when you are facin the audience. tae left is your left when you are facin the audience.

These directions form the basis of dividin the stae into a rid of nine eAual parts.

+enter tae

• #bbreviated as +, this is the exact center of the stae. This is often where the best acoustics

are found.

6ownstae

• 6own riht (6) refers to the corner of the stae closest to the audience and on your riht as you

face the audience. 6own left (6L) refers to the correspondin corner on the left side of the stae as you

face the audience. 6own center (6+) refers to the center of the stae, close to the audience.

Ipstae

• Ip riht (I) refers to the corner of the stae farthest from the audience and on your riht as you

face the audience. Ip left (IL) refers to the correspondin corner on the left side of the stae. Ip center

(I+) refers to the center of the stae, farthest away from the audience.


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iht and Left +enter

• iht center (+) is on your riht as you face the audience, and about halfway from the audience

to the back of the stae. Left center (L+) is on your left as you face the audience, and about halfway from

the audience to the back of the stae.

#dditional hoenicianderived alphabet

that arose primarily in @reek $onia and was fully adopted by #thens by the fifth century 4+.

>reclassical

#t the beinnin of @reek literature stand the two monumental works of Momer , the Iliad and

the %dyssey . Thouh dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 22 4+ or after . The

other reat poet of the preclassical period was Mesiod. Mis two survivin works are *or+s and

,ays and Theogony . ome ancients thouht Momer and Mesiod rouhly contemporaneous, even rivals in

contests, but modern scholarship raises doubts on these issues.

+lassical

$n the classical period many of the enres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical

poetry, odes, pastorals, eleies, epirams;dramatic presentations

of comedy and traedy; histories, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_scholarshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greekshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Athenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_scholarshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elegyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dramahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic


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%ratosthenes of #lexandria, who died about /R 4+, wrote on astronomy and eoraphy, but his work is

known mainly from later summaries. The physician @alen, in the history of ancient science, is the most

sinificant person in medicine after Mippocrates, who laid the foundation of medicine in the Fth century

4+.

The aul.

>atristic literature was written in the Mellenistic @reek of this period. yria and #lexandria, especially,

flourished.

@reek #lphabet5

• The @reek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the @reek lanuae since the th

century 4+. $t was derived from the earlier >hoenician alphabet, and was in turn the ancestor ofnumerous other %uropean and 'iddle %astern scripts, includin +yrillic and Latin. #part from its

use in writin the @reek lanuae, both in its ancient and its modern forms, the @reek alphabet

today also serves as a source of technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics,

science and other fields.

• $n its classical and modern form, the alphabet has 1R letters, ordered from alpha to omea. Like

Latin and +yrillic, @reek oriinally had only a sinle form of each letter; it developed

the distinction between upper case and lower case in parallel with Latin durin the modern era.

(The letter sima ⟨V⟩ has two different lowercase forms, ⟨W⟩ and ⟨X⟩, with ⟨X⟩ bein used in word

final position and ⟨W⟩ elsewhere.)

• ound values and conventional transcriptions for some of the letters differ between #ncient

@reek and 'odern @reek usae, owin to phonoloical chanes in the lanuae.

• $n traditional ("polytonic") @reek orthoraphy, vowel letters can be combined with

several diacritics, includin accent marks, socalled "breathin" marks, and the iota subscript. $n

common presentday usae for 'odern @reek since the /2s, this system has been simplified

to a socalled "monotonic" convention.

@reek 'yths5

@reek mytholoy are myths and leends belonin to the ancient @reeks, concernin

their ods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the oriins and sinificance of their own cult and

ritual practices. They were a part of reliion in ancient @reece and are part of reliion in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratostheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diacriticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_subscripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures#Immortalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_hero_culthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology#Metaphysical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratostheneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patristichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_alphabethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omegahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Greekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diacriticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iota_subscripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures#Immortalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_hero_culthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology#Metaphysical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece


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modern @reece and around the world as Mellenisms. 'odern scholars refer to, and study, the myths in an

attempt to throw liht on the reliious and political institutions of #ncient @reece, its civili-ation, and to

ain understandin of the nature of mythmakin itself.

@reek mytholoy is embodied, explicitly, in a lare collection of narratives, and implicitly in @reek

representational arts, such as vasepaintins and votive ifts. @reek myth attempts to explain the oriinsof the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of ods, oddesses, heroes, heroines,

and mytholoical creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oralpoetic tradition; today

the @reek myths are known primarily from @reek literature.

The oldest known @reek literary sources, Momer:s epic poems Iliad and %dyssey , focus on events

surroundin the Tro!an Jar . Two poems by Momer:s near contemporary Mesiod, theTheogony and

the *or+s and ,ays, contain accounts of the enesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the

succession of human aes, the oriin of human woes, and the oriin of sacrificial practices. 'yths also

are preserved in the Momeric Mymns, in framents of epic poems of the %pic +ycle, in lyric poems, in the

works of the traedians of the fifth century 4+, in writins of scholars and poets of the Mellenistic #e and

in texts from the time of the oman %mpire by writers such as >lutarch and >ausanias.

#rchaeoloical findins provide a principal source of detail about @reek mytholoy, with ods and heroes

featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. @eometric desins on pottery of the eihth

century 4+ depict scenes from the Tro!an cycle as well as the adventures of Meracles. $n the

succeedin #rchaic, +lassical, and Mellenistic periods, Momeric and various other mytholoical scenes

appear, supplementin the existin literary evidence. @reek mytholoy has had an extensive influence on

the culture, arts, and literature of civili-ation and remains part of Jestern heritae and lanuae. >oets

and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from @reek mytholoy and have

discovered contemporary sinificance and relevance in the themes.

Jorld Dolktales5

Dolktales (or folk tales) are stories passed down throuh enerations, mainly by tellin. 6ifferent kinds of

folktales include fairy tales (or fairytales), tall tales, trickster tales, myths, and leends.

# tale or leend oriinatin and traditional amon a people orfolk, especially one formin part of the oral tr adition of the common people.

#ny belief or story passed on traditionally, especially oneconsidered to be false or based on superstition.

'a!or +haracter in @reek 'yths5

0eus

1oseidon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votive_deposithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_creatureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_in_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votive_deposithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_creatureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_in_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece


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!ades

!era

&pollo

&rtemis

!ephaestus

/ionysus

&phrodite

&res

&thena

!ermes

V- Greek Myths:

@reek mytholoy are myths and leends belonin to the ancient @reeks, concernin

their ods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the oriins and sinificance of their own cult and

ritual practices. They were a part of reliion in ancient @reece and are part of reliion in

modern @reece and around the world as MellenismsN. 'odern scholars refer to, and study, the myths in

an attempt to throw liht on the reliious and political institutions of #ncient @reece, its civili-ation, and to

ain understandin of the nature of mythmakin itself.BC

@reek mytholoy is embodied, explicitly, in a lare collection of narratives, and implicitly in @reek

representational arts, such as vasepaintins and votive ifts. @reek myth attempts to explain the oriins

of the world, and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of ods, oddesses, heroes, heroines,

and mytholoical creatures. These accounts initially were disseminated in an oralpoetic tradition; today

the @reek myths are known primarily from @reek literature.

The oldest known @reek literary sources, Momer:s epic poems Iliad and %dyssey , focus on events

surroundin the Tro!an Jar . Two poems by Momer:s near contemporary Mesiod, theTheogony and

the *or+s and ,ays, contain accounts of the enesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the

succession of human aes, the oriin of human woes, and the oriin of sacrificial practices. 'yths also

are preserved in the Momeric Mymns, in framents of epic poems of the %pic +ycle, in lyric poems, in the

works of the traedians of the fifth century 4+, in writins of scholars and poets of the Mellenistic #e and

in texts from the time of the oman %mpire by writers such as >lutarch and >ausanias.

#rchaeoloical findins provide a principal source of detail about @reek mytholoy, with ods and heroes

featured prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. @eometric desins on pottery of the eihth

century 4+ depict scenes from the Tro!an cycle as well as the adventures of Meracles. $n the

succeedin #rchaic, +lassical, and Mellenistic periods, Momeric and various other mytholoical scenes

appear, supplementin the existin literary evidence.B1C @reek mytholoy has had an extensive influence

on the culture, arts, and literature of civili-ation and remains part of Jestern heritae and lanuae.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures#Immortalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_hero_culthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology#Metaphysical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology#cite_note-Helios-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votive_deposithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_creatureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_in_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology#cite_note-Br-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology#cite_note-Br-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures#Immortalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_hero_culthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology#Metaphysical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology#cite_note-Helios-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Votive_deposithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_creatureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_traditionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_and_Dayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_in_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology#cite_note-Br-1


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>oets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from @reek mytholoy and

have discovered contemporary sinificance and relevance in the themes.

'eanin of 'yths5

The term "mytholoy" can refer either to the study of myths (e.., comparative mytholoy), or to a body or

collection of myths (a mythos, e.., $nca mytholoy).BC $n folkloristic, a myth is sacred narrative usually

explainin how the world or humankind came to be in its present form, althouh, in a very broad sense,

the word can refer to any traditional story. Lincoln defines myth as "ideoloy in narrative form".BRC 'yths

typically involve supernatural characters and are endorsed by rulers or priests. They may arise as over

elaborated accounts of historical events, as alleory for or personification of natural phenomena, or as

an explanation of ritual. They are transmitted to convey reliious or ideali-ed experience, to establish

behavioral models, and to teach.

%arly rival classifications of @reek mythos by %uhemerus, >lato:s Phaedrus, and allustius were

developed by the neoplatonists and revived by enaissance mythoraphers as in theTheologia

mythologica (F31).


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Literary Docus5 +onflict

The conflict in a story is its drivin tension. This tension is used to further the plot, and its resolution leads

to climactic and cathartic moments. 6ependin on the lenth of the literature, there miht be a sinle

conflict or many conflicts, as well as ma!or conflicts and minor conflicts. +onventionally, these conflicts are

divided into three cateories5 character versus character, character versus nature and character versus

self. ometimes, a fourth cateory, character versus society, is included.

$very storyline involves some kind of conflict. It is a struggle between two forces, but these forces can

be either internal 2feelings3 or e(ternal 2physical3.

$(ternal conflict can e(ist between to characters, like the conflict that e(ists between a controlling

father and youthful, mischievous son or the tension that occurs between a virtuous woman and a

rogue of a man 2and we know what can happen there3.

$(ternal conflict can also be the conflict that occurs when a human encounters a physical challenge,

like when a family is lost in a snowstorm.

Internal conflict e(ists when a character struggles with an ethical or emotional challenge. ou can

identify an internal conflict when you sense that a character is constantly asking himself or herself

)&m I doing the right thing4) or )'hould I speak out against this behavior4)

#ne story that contains a lot of internal conflict isThe Red Badge of Courage. !enry evaluates his own

self-worth constantly, as he observes, contemplates, and e(periences fear, courage, bravery, and

shame on the battlefield.

The internal conflict that a character e(periences will usually represent a %uestion about moral

behavior within societies and among humankind. In The Red Badge of Courage, !enry e(periences

emotional turmoil because he is afraid of death 2who isn5t43 and he doesn5t really want to kill others

2who would43. &s we read about !enry5s e(perience, we can5t help %uestioning the morality of war.

'elected &rticle6

elected articles

edit

elected article

>ortal5 Mellenismoselected article Mellenism may refer to5

Mellenic studies

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Hellenismos/Selected_article/1&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Hellenismos/Selected_article/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Hellenismos/Selected_article/1&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Hellenismos/Selected_article/1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_studies


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Mellenistic civili-ation

Mellenistic period, in @reek antiAuity

Mellenistic @reece

Melleni-ation, the spread of @reek culture over forein peoples

Mellenistic philosophy in the Mellenistic period and late antiAuity

Mellenic >olytheistic econstructionism

Mellenistic art

Mellenism (neoclassicism), an esthetic movement in th and /th century %nland and @ermany

Mellenism (#cademia), the academic study of ancient @reece (a scholar in this discipline may be

called a -ellenist )

@reek people and their culture in eneral

$n the context of the ancient rammarians, the proper use of the @reek lanuae

# combination of all, or some, of the above in synthesis, as a personal philosophy or worldview.

+idas6

'idas is the name of at least three members of the royal house of >hryia.

The most famous ?in 'idas is popularly remembered in @reek mytholoy for his ability to turn

everythin he touched into old. This came to be called the !olden touch, or the Midas touch.BC The

>hryian city 'idaeum was presumably named after this 'idas, and this is probably also the 'idas that

accordin to >ausanias founded #ncyra. #ccordin to #ristotle, leend held that 'idas died of huner as

a result of his "vain prayer" for the old touch. The leends told about this 'idas and his father @ordias,

credited with foundin the >hryian capital city @ordium and tyin the @ordian ?not, indicate that theywere believed to have lived sometime in the 1nd millennium 4+ well before the Tro!an Jar . Mowever,

Momer does not mention 'idas or @ordias, while instead mentionin two other famed >hryian

kins, 'ydon and &treus.

#nother ?in 'idas ruled >hryia in the late th century 4+, up until the sackin of @ordium by

the +immerians, when he is said to have committed suicide. 'ost historians believe this 'idas is the

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenism_(neoclassicism)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenism_(Academia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midas#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midas#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midaeum&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausaniashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancyrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordian_Knothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mygdon_of_Phrygiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otreus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_periodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Polytheistic_Reconstructionismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenism_(neoclassicism)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenism_(Academia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midas#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Midaeum&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausaniashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancyrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordian_Knothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mygdon_of_Phrygiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Otreus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimmerians


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same person as the Mita, called kin of the 'ushki in #ssyrian texts, who warred with #ssyria and

its #natolian provinces durin the same period.

# third 'idas is said by Merodotus to have been a member of the royal house of >hryia and the

randfather of an #drastus who fled >hryia after accidentally killin his brother and took asylum

in Lydia durin the rein of +roesus. >hryia was by that time a Lydian sub!ect. Merodotus says that+roesus rearded the >hryian royal house as "friends" but does not mention whether the >hryian royal

house still ruled as (vassal) kins of >hryia.

1yramus6

>yramus and ThisbY are two characters of oman mytholoy, whose love story of illfated lovers is also a

sentimental romance. The tale is told by &vid in his Metamorphoses.

1L#T6

$n the &vidian version, >yramus and Thisbe is the story of two lovers in the city of 4abylon who occupyconnected houseswalls, forbidden by their parents to be wed, because of their parents: rivalry. Throuh a

crack in one of the walls, they whisper their love for each other. They arrane to meet near at yramus arrives, he is

horrified at the siht of Thisbe:s veil, assumin that a fierce beast had killed her. >yramus kills himself,

fallin on his sword in proper oman fashion, and in turn splashin blood on the white mulberry leaves.

>yramus: blood stains the white mulberry fruits, turnin them dark. Thisbe returns, eaer to tell >yramus

what had happened to her, but she finds >yramus: dead body under the shade of the mulberry tree.

Thisbe, after a brief period of mournin, stabs herself with the same sword. $n the end, the ods listen to

Thisbe:s lament, and forever chane the colour of the mulberry fruits into the stained colour to honour theforbidden love.

#doptations5

The story of Pyramus and Thisbe appears in @iovanni 4occaccio:s %n .amous *omen as bioraphy

number twelve (sometimes thirteen)BC and in his ,ecameron, in the fifth story on the seventh day, where a

desperate housewife falls in love with her neihbor, and communicates with him throuh a crack in the

wall, attractin his attention by droppin pieces of stone and straw throuh the crack.

@eoffrey +haucer was amon the first to tell the sto

aika's document - word literature.docx

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