agriculture management

8/16/2019 Agriculture Management

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Agriculture

Agriculture is the cultivation of animals , plants , fungi, and other life formsfor food , fiber , biofuel , medicinal and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.

[1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farmingof domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. Thestudy of agriculture is known as agricultural science . The history of agriculture dates back thousandsof years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates , cultures , andtechnologies. n the civilized world, industrial agriculture based on large!scale monoculture farming hasbecome the dominant agricultural methodology.

"odern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers , andtechnological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at thesame time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. #elective

breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, buthave raised concerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the antibiotics , growth hormones ,and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production. $enetically modified organisms arean increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agriculturalfood production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fosteringdebate on a number of fronts. #ignificant degradation of land and water resources, including thedepletion of a%uifers, has been observed in recent decades, and the effects of global warming onagriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood.

The ma&or agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels , and rawmaterials . #pecific foods include cereals 'grains(, vegetables , fruits, oils , meats and spices . )ibersinclude cotton , wool, hemp , silkand fla*. +aw materials include lumber and bamboo . ther usefulmaterials are produced by plants, such as resins , dyes , drugs , perfumes , biofuels and ornamentalproducts such as cut flowers and nursery plants . ver one third of the world-s workers are employed inagriculture, second only to the services- sector, although the percentages of agricultural workers indeveloped countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries.

Etymology and terminology

The word agriculture is a late "iddle nglish adaptation of /atin agricultūra , from ager ,

0field0, and cultūra , 0cultivation 0 or 0growing0.[ ]

Agriculture usually refers to human activities, althoughit is also observed in certain species of ant , termite and ambrosia beetle . To practice agriculture meansto use natural resources to 0produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forestproducts, horticultural crops, and their related services.0 [2] This definition includes arablefarming or agronomy , and horticulture , all terms for the growing of plants, animalhusbandry and forestry .[2] A distinction is sometimes made between forestry and agriculture, based onthe former-s longer management rotations, e*tensive versus intensive management practices anddevelopment mainly by nature, rather than by man. ven then, it is acknowledged that there is a largeamount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture 'the management of forests( andagriculture. [3] n traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to

the term agroforestry .

History

[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Office1999-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_surplushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemicalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemicalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemicalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquiferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_materialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_materialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerealhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_oilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_dyehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_dyehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drughttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drughttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfumehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_(horticulture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silviculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforestryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Office1999-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesticationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_surplushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sciencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_agriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemicalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breedinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormoneshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquiferhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_materialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_materialhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerealhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetablehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_oilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_dyehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drughttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfumehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floriculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursery_(horticulture)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-Maine-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silviculturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroforestryhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal


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Agriculture involving domestication of plants was developed around 11,344 years agoseparately in both the )ertile crescent and at 5hogha $olan in modern day ran, where wild barley,wheat and lentils were cultivated and with domesticated forms of wheat appeared about 6,744 yearsago. Agriculture has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation.The )ertile 5rescent of 8estern Asia , gypt and the ndus 9alley were sites of the earliest plannedsowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. ndependent

development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern 5hina, Africa-s #ahel , :ew $uinea ,parts of ndia and several regions of the Americas .[7] Agricultural techni%ues such as irrigation , croprotation , the application of fertilizers were developed soon after the :eolithic +evolution but havemade significant strides in the past 44 years. The ;aber!


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their predecessors. The cereal domestic product closely correlates with the $ross Eomestic Froductand it was argued that the cereal product is the basis of the $EF .[ 2] The 5old 8ar was wagedbetween two cereal superpowers. [ 3]The outcome of the 5old 8ar corresponds to the cereal factor too>the Gnited #tates produced its agricultural miracle , while the G##+ suffered a progressive cerealcrisis. n 16DC, )rench sociologist mmanuel Todd , impressed by the magnitude of #oviet grainpurchases, predicted the collapse of the G##+ within ten years. [ C]

Contemporary agriculture

n the past century agriculture has been characterized byincreased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizersand pesticides for labor, water pollution , and farm subsidies . nrecent years there has been a backlash againstthe e*ternal environmental effects of conventional agriculture,resulting in the organic and sustainableagriculture movements. ne of the ma&or forces behind thismovement has been the uropean Gnion , which firstcertified organic food in 1661 and began reform of its 5ommon

Agricultural Folicy '5AF( in 443 to phase out commodity!linked farm subsidies, also known as decoupling . The growthof organic farming has renewed research in alternativetechnologies such as integrated pest management and selective breeding. +ecent mainstreamtechnological developments include genetically modified food .

n 44D, higher incentives for farmers to grow non!food biofuel crops combined with otherfactors, such as overdevelopment of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change ,

growing consumer demand in 5hina and ndia, and population growth ,[@1] caused food shortages in Asia, the "iddle ast, Africa, and "e*ico, as well as rising food prices around the globe. [@ ][@@] As ofEecember 44D, @D countries faced food crises, and 4 had imposed some sort of food!price controls.#ome of these shortages resulted in food riots and even deadly stampedes .[@2][@3][@C] The nternational)und for Agricultural Eevelopment posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of thesolution to concerns about food prices and overall food security. They in part base this on thee*perience of 9ietnam, which went from a food importer to large food e*porter and saw a significantdrop in poverty, due mainly to the development of smallholder agriculture in the country.

Eisease and land degradation are two of the ma&or concerns in agriculture today. )or

e*ample, an epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by the Gg66 lineage is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing ma&or concerns due to crop losses of D4H or more under someconditions. [@7] Appro*imately 24H of the world-s agricultural land is seriously degraded. n Africa, ifcurrent trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed &ust 3H of itspopulation by 4 3, according to G:G -s $hana!based nstitute for :atural +esources in Africa.

Agrarian structure is a long!term structure in the


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Safety

Agriculture, specifically farming , remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwideremain at high risk of work!related in&uries, lung disease, noise!induced hearing loss , skin diseases, aswell as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolongedsun e*posure. n industrialized farms , in&uries fre%uently

involve the use of agricultural machinery , and a common causeof fatal agricultural in&uries in developed countries is tractor rollovers .[2D]Festicides and other chemicals used in farming canalso be hazardous to worker health, and workers e*posed topesticides may e*perience illness or have children with birthdefects. [27] As an industry in which families commonly share inwork and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for in&uries, illness, and death. [26] 5ommoncauses of fatal in&uries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle!related accidents.

The nternational /abour rganization considers agriculture 0one of the most hazardous ofall economic sectors.0 t estimates that the annual work!related death toll among agriculturalemployees is at least 1D4,444, twice the average rate of other &obs. n addition, incidences of death,in&ury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported. [34] The organization hasdeveloped the #afety and ;ealth in Agriculture 5onvention, 441 , which covers the range of risks inthe agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizationsengaged in agriculture should play.

Agricultural production systems

5ropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources andconstraintsJ geography and climate of the farmJ government policyJ economic, social and politicalpressuresJ and the philosophy and culture of the farmer. [31][3 ]

#hifting cultivation 'or slash and burn ( is a system in which forests are burnt, releasingnutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Thenthe plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to anew plot, returning after many more years '14K 4(. This fallowperiod is shortened if population density grows, re%uiring theinput of nutrients 'fertilizer or manure ( and some manual pest control . Annual cultivation is the ne*t

phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This re%uires even greater nutrient and pestcontrol inputs.

)urther industrialization led to the use of monocultures , when one cultivar is planted on alarge acreage.


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Crop statistics

mportant categories of crops include cereals and pseudocereals , pulses 'legumes(,forage, and fruits and vegetables. #pecific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughoutthe world. n millions of metric tons, based on )A estimate.

Livestock production systems

Animals, including horses, mules , o*en , water buffalo , camels , llamas , alpacas , donkeys ,and dogs, are often used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transportfarm products to buyers. Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals formeat or to harvest animal products 'like milk, eggs , or wool( on a continual basis, but also to thebreeding and care of species for work and companionship.

/ivestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland !based,mi*ed, and landless. As of 414, @4H of arth-s ice! and water!free area was used for producing

livestock, with the sector employing appro*imately 1.@ billion people.


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production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.[33] ndustrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry andpork. #cientists estimate that D3H of the growth in livestock production between 44@ and 4@4 will bein confined animal feeding operations , sometimes called factory farming . "uch of this growth ishappening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa. [3C] #ome ofthe practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of growth hormones , are

controversial. [36]

Production practices

)arming is the practice of agriculture by specialized labor in an area primarily devoted toagricultural processes, in service of a dislocated population usually in a city.

Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to prepare for planting or for nutrient incorporation orfor pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no!till. t may improve productivity bywarming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone toerosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing 5 , and reduces the abundance and

diversity of soil organisms.

Fest control includes the management of weeds, insects , mites , and diseases. 5hemical' pesticides (, biological ' biocontrol (, mechanical 'tillage(, and cultural practices are used. 5ulturalpractices include crop rotation , culling, cover crops , intercropping , composting , avoidance,and resistance . ntegrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pestpopulations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as alast resort.

:utrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock

production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. :utrient inputs can bechemical inorganic fertilizers, manure , green manure , compost and mined minerals .[C@] 5rop nutrientuse may also be managed using cultural techni%ues such as crop rotation or a fallow period. "anureis used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensiverotational grazing , or by spreading either dry or li%uid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures .

8ater management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs tosome degree in most regions of the world .[3@] #ome farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. nother areas such as the $reat Flains in the G.#. and 5anada, farmers use a fallow year to conservesoil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year .[CC] Agriculture represents D4H of

freshwater use worldwide.

According to a report by the nternational )ood Folicy +esearch nstitute , agriculturaltechnologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with eachotherJ using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity,food security and trade by 434, the nternational )ood Folicy +esearch nstitute found that the

[6]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-FAO_lps-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confined_animal_feeding_operationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-LP-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-LP-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-59https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-till_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-till_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocontrolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_rotationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_crophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_crophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercroppinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_pest_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_pest_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Soil-63https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Soil-63https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Soil-63https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manure_spreaderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-CS-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-CS-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-CS-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Water-66https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Water-66https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Water-66https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-FAO_lps-55https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confined_animal_feeding_operationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-LP-56https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-59https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-till_farminghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocontrolhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_rotationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cullinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_crophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercroppinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compostinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_pest_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_manurehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Soil-63https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_intensive_rotational_grazinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manure_spreaderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_managementhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-CS-53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Plainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallowhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-PCP_Water-66https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institute


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number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 24H and food prices could bereduced by almost half.

0Fayment for ecosystem services 'F #( can further incentivise efforts to green theagriculture sector. This is an approach that verifies values and rewards the benefits of ecosystemservices provided by green agricultural practices.0 [C6] 0 nnovative F # measures could include

reforestation payments made by cities to upstream communities in rural areas of shared watershedsfor improved %uantities and %uality of fresh water for municipal users. coservice payments by farmersto upstream forest stewards for properly managing the flow of soil nutrients, and methods to monetisethe carbon se%uestration and emission reduction credit benefits of green agriculture practices in orderto compensate farmers for their efforts to restore and build # " and employ other practices.0

Crop alteration and biotechnology

5rop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since thebeginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make!up of aplant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for e*ample, larger fruits orseeds, drought!tolerance, or resistance to pests. #ignificant advances in plant breeding ensued afterthe work of geneticist $regor "endel . ;is work on dominant and recessive alleles , although initiallylargely ignored for almost 34 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics andbreeding techni%ues. 5rop breeding includes techni%ues such as plant selection with desirabletraits, self!pollination and cross!pollination , and molecular techni%ues that genetically modify theorganism.

Eomestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved diseaseresistance and drought tolerance , eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of cropplants. 5areful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of cropplants. Flant selection and breeding in the 16 4s and 16@4s improved pasture 'grasses and clover(in :ew ?ealand . *tensive L!ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts 'i.e. primitive geneticengineering( during the 1634s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat,corn 'maize( and barley.

The $reen +evolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharplyincrease yield by creating 0high!yielding varieties0. )or e*ample, average yields of corn 'maize( in theG#A have increased from around .3 tons per hectare 'tMha( '24 bushels per acre( in 1644 to about 6.2tMha '134 bushels per acre( in 441. #imilarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased fromless than 1 tMha in 1644 to more than .3 tMha in 1664. #outh American average wheat yields arearound tMha, African under 1 tMha, and gypt and Arabia up to @.3 to 2 tMha with irrigation. n contrast,

the average wheat yield in countries such as )rance is over 7 tMha. 9ariations in yields are due mainlyto variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techni%ues 'use of fertilizers,chemical pest control , growth control to avoid lodging(.

Genetic engineering

[7]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_for_ecosystem_serviceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-unep.org-69https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_allelehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recessive_allelehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pollinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pollinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-pollinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought_tolerancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_controlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_for_ecosystem_serviceshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-unep.org-69https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_allelehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recessive_allelehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-pollinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-pollinationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_resistance_in_fruit_and_vegetableshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought_tolerancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_control


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$enetically modified organisms '$" ( are organisms whose genetic material has beenaltered by genetic engineering techni%ues generally known as recombinant E:A technology . $eneticengineering has e*panded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines fornew crops. ncreased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide toleranceare a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering. [DC] )or some, $" cropscause food safety and food labeling concerns. :umerous countries have placed restrictions on the

production, import or use of $" foods and crops, which have been put in place due to concerns over potential health issues, declining agricultural diversity and contamination of non!$" crops.[DD] 5urrently a global treaty, the


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Livestock issues

A senior G: official and co!author of a G: report detailing this problem, ;enning #teinfeld,said 0/ivestock are one of the most significant contributors to today-s most serious environmentalproblems0. [77] /ivestock production occupies D4H of all land used for agriculture, or @4H of the landsurface of the planet. t is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases , responsible for 17H of the

world-s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in 5 e%uivalents.


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for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the -pesticide treadmill- inwhich pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.

An alternative argument is that the way to -save the environment- and prevent famine is byusing pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view e*emplified by a %uote heading the 5enter for $lobal )ood ssues website= -$rowing more per acre leaves more land for nature-. ;owever, critics

argue that a trade!off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable, and thatpesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation. The G: F introducesthe FushKpull agricultural pest management techni%ue which involves intercropping that uses plantaromas to repel or push away pests while pulling in or attracting the right insects. 0The implementationof push!pull in eastern Africa has significantly increased maize yields and the combined cultivation of:!fi*ing forage crops has enriched the soil and has also provided farmers with feed for livestock. 8ithincreased livestock operations, the farmers are able to produce meat, milk and other dairy productsand they use the manure as organic fertiliser that returns nutrients to the fields.0 [C6]

Climate change

5limate change has the potential to affect agriculture through changes in temperature,rainfall 'timing and %uantity(, 5 , solar radiation and the interaction of these elements. [3@] *tremeevents, such as droughts and floods, are forecast to increase as climate change takes hold.[14@] Agriculture is among sectors most vulnerable to the impacts of climate changeJ water supply fore*ample, will be critical to sustain agricultural production and provide the increase in food outputre%uired to sustain the world-s growing population. )luctuations in the flow of rivers are likely toincrease in the twenty!first century.


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Euring the soil preparation stage tillers and plows will be used to disrupt the soil. Euring growthwatering pumps and sprayers are used to keep the crops hydrated. And when the crops are ready forpicking a forage or combine harvester is used. These types of machinery all re%uire additional energywhich leads to increased carbon dio*ide emissions from the basic tractors. The final ma&or contributionto 5 emissions in agriculture is in the final transport of produce. /ocal farming suffered a declineover the past century due to large amounts of farm subsidies. The ma&ority of crops are shipped

hundreds of miles to various processing plants before ending up in the grocery store. These shipmentsare made using fossil fuel burning modes of transportation. nevitably these transport adds to carbondio*ide emissions.

Sustainability

#ome ma&or organizations are hailing farming within agroecosystems as the way forwardfor mainstream agriculture. 5urrent farming methods have resulted in over!stretched water resources,high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. According to a report by the nternational 8ater"anagement nstitute and G: F ,[11 ] there is not enough water to continue farming using currentpracticesJ therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yieldsmust be reconsidered. The report suggested assigning value to ecosystems, recognizingenvironmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.

ne%uities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as thereallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland,or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.

Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to makefarming more sustainable. :ew technologies have given rise to innovations like conservation tillage , afarming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, water pollution and enhances carbonse%uestration.

According to a report by the nternational )ood Folicy +esearchnstitute ' )F+ (, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted

in combination with each otherJ using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impactagricultural productivity, food security and trade by 434, )F+ found that the number of people at riskfrom hunger could be reduced by as much as 24H and food prices could be reduced by almost half.

Agricultural economics

Agricultural economics refers to economics as it relates to the 0production, distribution andconsumption of [agricultural] goods and services0. [11C] 5ombining agricultural production with generaltheories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1744s, and grewsignificantly through the 4th century. [11D] Although the study of agricultural economics is relativelyrecent, ma&or trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economiesthroughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post! American 5ivil

8ar #outhern Gnited #tates[117]

to the uropean feudal system of manorialism .[116]

n the Gnited #tates,and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing , distribution, and agricultural marketing ,sometimes referred to as the value chain , have risen while the costs attributed to farming havedeclined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of valueaddition 'e.g. more highly processed products( provided by the supply chain. "arket concentration has

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroecosystemshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNEPhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNEPhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-112https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-112https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillage#Conservation_tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillage#Conservation_tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-116https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-117https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenant_farmerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharecroppinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-118https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manorialismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-119https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-119https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_marketinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_marketinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_value_chainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_value_chainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_addedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_addedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_concentrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agroecosystemshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Water_Management_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNEPhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-112https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tillage#Conservation_tillagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Food_Policy_Research_Institutehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-116https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-117https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenant_farmerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharecroppinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_Warhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_Stateshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-118https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manorialismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture#cite_note-119https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_marketinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_value_chainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_addedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_addedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_concentration


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increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration islikely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers 'farmers( andconsumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.

:ational government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace foragricultural products, in the form of ta*ation, subsidies , tariffs and other measures. #ince at least the

16C4s, a combination of importMe*port restrictions, e*change rate policies and subsidies have affectedfarmers in both the developing and developed world. n the 1674s, it was clear that non!subsidizedfarmers in developing countries were e*periencing adverse affects from national policies that createdartificially low global prices for farm products.

agriculture management

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