Agriculture and Natural Resource Based Agriculture and Natural Resource Based IndustriesIndustries

Twelve millennia ago, humankind moved into the Neolithic era and discovered that food, feed and fibre could be produced from the cultivation of plants. This discovery has led to the food and fibre supply that feeds and clothes more than 5

billion people today.Agriculture started in about 9750 BC at

Thailand near the Burmese border, where seeds of peas, beans, cucumbers and water chestnuts

have been found.

This was 2,000 years before true agriculture was discovered in the regions of the Caspian

Sea and Central America.Agriculture is as old as Man, and it Agriculture is as old as Man, and it

remains the largest employer of remains the largest employer of human labor.human labor.

Now the agricultural system produces food, feed and fibre as well as

consequences for occupational health and, more generally, public health and the

environment.

This general profile of the agricultural industry includes its evolution and structure, economic importance of different crop commodities and characteristics of the industry and workforce.

Agricultural workforce systems involve three types of major activities:

1. manual operationsmanual operations2. mechanizationmechanization3. draught powerdraught power, provided specifically

by those engaged in livestock rearing,

Agriculture brought with it several problems:

- Weeds and pests (insects in the fields and mice and rats in the granaries) became a

problem.- Early agriculture concerned itself with taking all that it could from the soil, and it would take

50 years to naturally replenish the soil.- In some places, the stripping of growth from

the soil would turn the land to desert. To provide water to crops, farmers discovered irrigation

about 7,000 years ago.

Solutions to these problems have led to new industriesnew industries.

Ways to control weeds, insects and rodents evolved into the pesticide pesticide

industryindustry, and the need to replenish the soil has resulted in the fertilizer fertilizer

industryindustry. The need to provide water for irrigation has spawned systems of reservoirs and systems of reservoirs and networks of pipes, canals and ditchesnetworks of pipes, canals and ditches.

FAMILY FARMSFAMILY FARMS

The family farm is an enterprise and a homestead on which both children and the elderly are likely to be present and produce

food and other raw materials. Family farms range from small, subsistence or part-time operations worked with draught animals and hand tools to very large, family-held corporations with numerous full-time

employees.

A typical farm operation farm operation may combine the tasks of

- livestock handling, livestock handling, - manure disposal, - manure disposal,

- grain storage, - grain storage, - heavy equipment operation, - heavy equipment operation,

- pesticide application, - pesticide application, - machinery maintenance, - machinery maintenance,

- construction- construction and many other jobs.

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HazardsHazardsThe family farm is a hazardous work The family farm is a hazardous work environment. environment. It is one of few hazardous

workplaces where multiple generations of family members may live, work and play.

A farm can be the source of many and differing life-threatening hazards. The most

important indicator for safety and health is workload per worker—both physical labor workload per worker—both physical labor and decision-making or mental workloadand decision-making or mental workload.

Many serious injuriesinjuries happen to experienced farmers, while doing tasks

that they have been performing for years and even decades.

Hazardous agricultural materials Hazardous agricultural materials including pesticides, fertilizers, pesticides, fertilizers, flammable liquids, solvents and flammable liquids, solvents and other cleanersother cleaners are responsible for acute and chronic illnesses in farm

workers and family members.

Tractors and other mechanized equipment have permitted a dramatic

increase in the land and livestock that can be worked by a single farmer, but

mechanization has contributed to severe injuries in agriculture.

Climate and topography Climate and topography (e.g., weather,

water, slopes) also contribute to the hazards.

Machinery entanglement or tractor rollover, livestock, operating equipment on public roads, falling or being struck by falling objects, material handling,

confined spaces and exposures to toxins, dust, moulds, gases, chemicals, vibration and noise are among the principal risks principal risks

for illness and injury on farms.for illness and injury on farms.

PreventionPrevention

Classic agricultural safety and health Classic agricultural safety and health programs emphasize improved programs emphasize improved

engineering design, education and good engineering design, education and good practices. practices.

Special attention on these farms needs to be placed on age-appropriate tasks for children

and older adults.

Young children should neither be allowed near operating farm equipment nor ever ride on

tractors and other farm equipment. They should also be excluded from farmstead excluded from farmstead

buildings that present hazards including buildings that present hazards including electricity, confined spaces, chemical storage electricity, confined spaces, chemical storage

areas and operating equipmentareas and operating equipment. Warning labels should be maintained on

equipment and chemicals so adults are informed of hazards and can thus better protect their

families.

PLANTATIONSPLANTATIONS The term plantation is widely used to

describe large-scale units where industrial large-scale units where industrial methods are applied to certain agricultural methods are applied to certain agricultural

enterprisesenterprises. The main activity on a plantation is the

cultivation of crops. This involves the following kinds of work:

- soil preparation, - planting, - cultivation, weeding, - crop treatment, - harvesting, transportation and - storage of produce.

These operations entail the use of a These operations entail the use of a variety of tools, machines and variety of tools, machines and

agricultural chemicals.agricultural chemicals. Child labor could be employed on plantations.

Children work with their parents as part of a team for task-based compensation, or they are employed directly for special plantation jobs.

They typically experience long working hours, little safety and health protection and

inadequate diet, rest and education.

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERYAGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

Agricultural machinery is designed to render the soil more suitable for crop

growth, to sow seeds, to apply agricultural chemicals for improved

plant growth and control of pests and diseases, and to harvest and store the

mature crops.

There is an extremely wide variety of agricultural machines, but all are

essentially a combination of gears, shafts, chains, belts, knives, shakers and so on,

assembled to perform a certain task. These parts are usually suspended in a

frame which may be either stationary or, as is more often the case, mobile and

designed to perform the desired operation while moving across a field.

The major groups of agricultural machines: The major groups of agricultural machines: - soil tillage machines; - planting machines;

- cultivating machines; - forage harvesting machines;

- grain, fibre, vegetable, and fruit and nut harvesting machines;

- agricultural chemical applicators; - transport and elevating machines; and

- sorting and packaging machines.

• Agricultural workers constitute some three-quarters of the world’s working population

• The National Safety Council of the United States estimates that agriculture was the most dangerous occupation, followed by mining and construction

• Exact data on level of exposure and associated disease prevalence (or health effect) for agricultural workers in the developing world are limited.

According to the International According to the International Labour Organization (ILO)Labour Organization (ILO)

• The Agricultural sector is one of the most hazardous to health worldwide

• However this aspect has been neglected for a long time due to more focus on industries.

TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL HEALTH CHALLENGES.

General Health Problems – Causes ranges from poor hygiene, inadequate water supply, malnutrition, bacterial and parasitic infections, others include malaria, tuberculosis, hypertention and diabetes.

Occupational Health ProblemsOccupational Health Problems

These are harzards arising due to the

exposure of workers to the agents of

disease asssociated with the environmental

components of agriculture i.e the

physical, chemical, biological and physical, chemical, biological and

mechanical.mechanical.

PHYSICAL HARZARDSPHYSICAL HARZARDS

1) Dust:Dust: vegetable dusts, pollens and other organic dust can result into the following conditions:

a) Farmers lungs due to excessive inhalation of dust containing fungi (mouldy hay).

b) Allergic conjuctivitis from latex rubber.c) Dermatitis from wood dust.d) Upper Respiratory Tract Disease due to

allergy from wood dust.

e) ByssinosisByssinosis: This is a respiratory disease caused by prolonged inhalation of dust from textile fibers eg cotton, marked by coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and permanent lung damage. (Monday disease)

f) BagassosisBagassosis: Seen in sugar cane farmers which occurs as a result of exposure to dust of fungi that grow on decaying sugar cane flax, after the sugar water has been pressed out.

2)2) HHot termal envorinmentot termal envorinment: excessive heat from the mashines and sun, resulting into heat fatigue, heat stroke and heat cramps. Skin cancer due to UV rays.Skin cancer due to UV rays.

3) Cold thermal environment in winter3) Cold thermal environment in winter 44) Noise) Noise and vibration and vibration (hand-arm and whole

body): this is from the machinery used eg tractors especially in the mechanized form of farming. 5) Static posture5) Static posture–backache

MECHANICAL HARZARDSMECHANICAL HARZARDS1)1) CutsCuts with machinery parts and

instruments.2)2) PuncturesPunctures and their complications

(tetanus). 3)3) AmputationAmputation4) 4) All forms of accidentAll forms of accident ranging from

-Falling off tractors-Falling from farm building -Overturning of tractors

CHEMICAL HARZARDSCHEMICAL HARZARDS

Agricultural workers are exposed to chemical hazards because chemicals are used extensively for control of insects, fungi, rodents e.t.c and these pesticides, herbicides and insecticides could be harmful to man especially when used carelessly. Sources include fertilizers, fertilizers, insecticides or pesticides.insecticides or pesticides.

INSECTICIDESINSECTICIDES

• i)i) OrganophosphatesOrganophosphates e.g Parathion, Malathion:- these are acetylcholinesterase inhibitor insecticides.

• They cause acute poisoning which is due to the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase inhibition of acetylcholinesterase functionfunction, causing excessive salivation, lacrimation, nervousness, tremors and spasms which can even lead to death. Chronic poisoning leads to peripheral neuropathy.

ii)Halogenated Hydrocarbonsii)Halogenated Hydrocarbons –Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT),Dieldrin, Aldrine, Benzylhexachloride.

The side effects mostly are chronic poisoining with peripheral neuropathy, however there could acute poisoning which is not common but produces anxiety, nervousness and respiratory embarrassment.

iii)Carbamatesiii)Carbamates are also acetylcholinesterase inhibitors but different from the organophostates.

HERBICIDESHERBICIDES

i) Paraquat and Diquat (Garamoxone weedol): this is a free oxygen radical releasing and oxidizing agent used as herbicides.

It is absorbed by inhalation, ingestion and skin absorption.

Side effect is acute inflammatory lung parenchymal destruction.

BIOLOGICAL HAZARDSBIOLOGICAL HAZARDSThese can be broadly classified into:-i)Zoonosesi)Zoonoses: These are diseases of animals

transmitted to man in handling animals and animal products.

1.BACTERIAL1.BACTERIAL–Bovine TB–Brucellosis–Anthrax–Salmonellosis

- Listeriosis- listeria monocytogenes

- Erysipeloid

2. CHLAMYDIAL - Psittacosis - Chlamydia psittaci.-birds

3. VIRAL3. VIRAL - Rabies - New castle disease myxovirus

(chicken)- Orf - affects sheep

4) Protozoal4) Protozoal–Trypanosomiasis –

• Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense• Trypanosoma brucei gambiense• Trypanosoma cruzi

–Tse-tse fly - Glossina morsitans.

• Bovine TuberculosisBovine Tuberculosis - - spread not only by drinking milk of infected cattle but also by direct contact with diseased cattle. It’s caused by Mycobacterium bovis.

• Brucellosis -Brucellosis - spread by direct contact with infected animals or by drinking the raw milk of infected cattle and pigs. Aetiology: Brucella melitensis.

- Acute form - weakness, chills, and high night fevers and often results in central nervous system disorders & painful joints.

- Chronic form is characterised by chronic undulant fever, remittent fevers and disorders of the central nervous system.

• Anthrax Anthrax - - Spread by subcutaneous inoculation, inhalation and ingestion.

–Symptoms - Papule first appears then vesicle surrounded by edema (malignant pustule); lymph node enlargement.

• Psittacosis -Psittacosis - Human infection is due to exposure to infected birds. Aetiology: Chlamydia psittaci. A contagious disease related to birds such as parrots, turkeys, ducks and chickens. Causes pneumonia.

Parasitic Infections:Parasitic Infections:• AnkylostomiasisAnkylostomiasis - caused by infestation of the

small intestine by hookworms. Symptoms are anemia and tirednesss. Also hookworm disease in barefooted workers.

• Leptospirosis Leptospirosis – transmitted to the organism through skin. Ingestion of contaminated water and food. Human may become infected because of a wet occupation e.g working in rice fields, wet sugarcane fields. Affects the kidneys and liver.Causes kidney disease and destruction of red blood cells with potential anaemia.

Other biological hazardsOther biological hazards

–Snake bites

–Scorpion bites

–Insect bites e.g simulium fly causing onchocerciasis

–Skin disease due to poison oak, poison ivy etc.

HEALTHHEALTH PREVENTION OF PREVENTION OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERSAGRICULTURAL WORKERS

Primary level involves:• Health educationHealth education about occupational hazards,

raising awareness on safety in the work space and specific prevention including:

- Safe work practices :

1. Use of personal protective devices - e.g ear plugs for noise, boots. Face mask and gloves especially for chemicals, apron and mask to reduce skin or respiratory absorption.

2. Adequate labeling of bottles & avoid the use of domestic bottles.

3. Education on appropriate use of farm machinery.

4. Immunization e.g tetanus toxoid against tetanus.

5. Complete elimination of hazardous substances or substitution for less harzardous ones.

6. Vaccination of farm animals

7. The use of protective apparels such as face masks, hand gloves, while working with the insecticides, pesticides and herbicides.

- - Secondary levelSecondary level

–Early diagnosis and prompt treatment

–Routine medical check up such as: lung function test & chest X-ray for those working with dust.

– Audiometry.

–Sputum test for tuberculosis.

– Various forms of blood tests e.g blood agglutination test in brucellosis.

Treatment of specific illnessesTreatment of specific illnesses

- Atropine is given as an antidote for organophosphates and Carbamate poisoning.

-Benzodiazepines for Halogenated Hydrocarbons

• Farmer’s lung - Prednisolone

• Anthrax – Ciprofloxacin

• Brucellosis - Doxycycline 200 mg daily with Rifampicine 600-900 mg daily for 6 weeks.

• Psittacosis – Clarithromycin.

• Bagassosis - Predisolone 30-60mg

• Tetanus - management is supportive medical and nursing care. Benzodiazepines given to control spasm and sedate patients. IV Metronidazole, Antibiotics and Human Tetanus Immunoglobulin 10000IU given IM to neutralize the circulating toxins.

• Leptospirosis - Oral doxycycline in mild case is given, IV Penicillin or Clarithromycin given in severe cases.

Tertiary levelTertiary level

This involves limiting physical and social damage from disease by providing skilled clinical care and social support.

• Rehabilitation for the people affected that can no longer work, so as to restore fuction and capability.

• Provision of another job for the affected people.

RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS

1. Commercial farms owned by Government, individuals or organizations should provide a well organised occupational health service for workers.

2. Adequate training of agricultural workers on the appropriate use of farm machinery.

3. Subsistent farmers should receive primary health care services from the nearest health centre.

4. Explaining to workers the hazards of every operation they perform.

CONCLUSION

A healthy worker is a productive worker.

Bearing this in mind and the importance of agriculture in the

development of a nation, the provision of excellent occupational health services for

the agricultural workers is a promising investment.

Health Hazards of Power plant workersHealth Hazards of Power plant workers

1) Hot thermal environment1) Hot thermal environment: Workers are exposed to high degree of temperature (and humidity) at boiler rooms, turbine rooms and other work stations closer to boilers.

Health effectsHealth effects: • Heat exhaustionHeat exhaustion due to loss of body fluids

due to excessive sweating. Signs and symptoms:- Person feels weakness , high body temperature, rapid pulse , fainting.

• Heat crampsHeat cramps: Due to loss of electrolytes from the body. Signs and symptoms: painful cramps of calf muscles and abdominal muscles.

• Heat strokeHeat stroke: Due to exposure to excessive temperature. Signs and symptoms: high body temperature i.e. 38°C – 40°C, increased frequency of urination, giddiness and loss of consciousness.

Prevention and control:Prevention and control:

- Proper ventilation and air conditioning of work place,

- use of loose fitting clothes,

- provision of effervescent salt drinks to affected workers,

- physical fitness of workers.

2) Exposure to Noise2) Exposure to Noise Exposure at boiler rooms, turbine rooms and

other work stations. Type of noise: a) steady wide band

noise from continuously operating motors and machines. b) Impact noise from steam let

outs. Effects: - social deafnesssocial deafness: person is

habituated for loud talking could not appreciate whisper, hearing impairment.

Occupational hearing loss. Lack of concentration, annoyance, mental

stress, hypertension and peptic ulcer.

Prevention and control: Prevention and control:

- Pre-placement and periodic medical examination of exposed workers.

- Use of protective devices such as ear muffs and ear plugs.

- Enclosing noise producing machines, reduction of noise by fitting mufflers and

silencers to noisy machines.

- Sound proofing of work stations.

3) Coal and other Dusts3) Coal and other Dusts

• Exposure at coal handling plant, tippling stations, boiler rooms.

• Respirable dust: dust particles 0.3 to 5 µm in size.

• Effects of dust inhalation: respiratory disorders like pneumoconiosis and

progressive massive fibrosis of lungs.

Prevention and controlPrevention and control• Pre-placement and periodic medical

examination of exposed workers.• Proper ventilationventilation of working place.

• Good house keepinghouse keeping.• Use of personal protective devicespersonal protective devices such as

masks and respirators by exposed workers.• Dust suppression measures like wet wet mopping of the floor, use of aerosol mopping of the floor, use of aerosol

sprayssprays.

Health effects of RadiationHealth effects of Radiation

• ExposureExposure at atomic power plants, near Nuclear Reactor, monitoring panels and

other work stations.• Effects of radiationEffects of radiation: high degree of

exposure due to accidental leakage of Nuclear Reactor causing radiation burns, acute radiation syndrome, skin cancer,

blood and bones cancer, still births, intrauterine foetal death, abortions,

shortening of life span.

Prevention and ControlPrevention and Control• Pre-placement and periodic medical medical

checkupcheckup of workers.• Shielding the source of radiation: the

source of X-rays, gamma rays and particulate radiation should be enclosed in radio protective material such as lead and

concrete of suitable thickness. • Distance from the source of radiation : the controls should be located as far as possible

or remotely operated.

Electromagnetic Field in the Power PlantElectromagnetic Field in the Power Plant

• E.M.F. generates magnetic flux density at work place and near over head high tension

power transmission lines, electrical sub stations and power generation plants.

• Safety limits: maximum field strength should not exceed 10 Kv /M.

• Recommended continuous exposure limit: 5 gauss with a maximum of 50 gauss for 2

hours.

Effects on Human HealthEffects on Human Health

• Sleep disturbances.

• Headache.

• Increased susceptibility to respiratory infections.

• Increased risk of blood and brain cancer.

Prevention and ControlPrevention and Control

• Insulation and shieldingInsulation and shielding of machines.

• Barrier operation of machines.

• Continuous monitoring of E.M.F. monitoring of E.M.F. levellevel at work place.

• Periodic medical checkupmedical checkup of exposed workers.

Hazards due to social factorsHazards due to social factors

• Workers are affected by industrial psychoses and neuroses.

• Tensions and worries arising out of social environments in the industry i.e. poor intra- and inter-personal relations, poor housing conditions,

separation from family, job satisfaction and sickness absenteeism.

• Sickness absenteeism is related to low productivity and low workers morale.

• Level of absenteeism in the country: to the tune of 8 – 10 days / head /year.

Prevention & ControlPrevention & Control

1. Periodic Medical Examination of Workers.

2. Provision of good housing facility & Recreational activities.

3. Good intra- & inter-personal relations in the factory.

4. Health Education & Addiction control programs in the Factory.

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