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Standard X - Social Science I

AGE OF REVOLUTIONS2

You have already studied the ideas and movements which ledto the emergence of modern age. They undermined the prevailingorder. Movements which bring about basic or total changes insociety are called revolutions. A revolution which takes place ina particular society may affect other contemporary societies; anda revolution which takes place in one age may influencesubsequent ages. The revolutions which occurred in Europe inthe modern age were mainly against monarchies. The main reasonfor this was the emergence of the Middle Class who were deniedtheir rights and opportunities. These revolutions influenced theworld in general and Europe in particular and brought abouttremendous changes in the socio-economic and political fields.

Civil War in EnglandWe have already discussed the decline of feudalism and theemergence of the Middle Class in Europe. It was in England thatthis Middle Class first revolted against monarchy. The support-base of the Tudor monarchy which emerged towards the end ofthe 15th century and the Stuarts who succeeded it was the risingmerchant class. But the Stuart kings were sympathetic to the feudalorder. The Stuart kings James I and Charles I believed in the divineright of kings. They tried to impose their authority on Parliament.The London-based mercantile companies had established traderelations with distant lands. The English Parliament passed actsin favour of the merchants who controlled production,distribution and transport. The Parliament protected the interestsof the Middle Class which was composed of the new landlords,traders, lawyers, doctors and bureaucrats.

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hnπ-h-ß-fpsS ImewAGE OF REVOLUTIONS

Henry VII was the first Tudor

king of England. The Tudors

ruled the country from 1485

to 1603. They did so by allying

with the Parliament and

curbing the powers of the

feudal lords. This period in English history led

the country to progress and also witnessed the

Renaissance and Reformation movements. The

Stuarts ruled the country from 1603 to 1714.

Thereafter the House of Hanover has been ruling

England.

This led to a long drawn out constitutional

struggle between the King and Parliament.

The basic issue was as to who was supreme

whether it was the King who represented the

feudal interests or the Parliament which

represented the Middle Class.

In this struggle, the prevailing Anglican

Church and the newly formed Puritan

Church rallied on either side. Though the

Stuarts were Catholics, the Anglican Church

supported the Stuarts.

Henry VII

Anglican and Puritan Churches

It was king Henry VIII who initiated theReformation in England by revoltingagainst the Catholic Church. Under his sonEdward VI the Protestant Church wasformed in England. He prepared a prayerbook which was made compulsory for allthe churches in the country. Later, duringthe reign of Queen Elizabeth, the AnglicanChurch was founded which wasacceptable to all people and the revisedversion of the prayer book was adopted.Anglicanism was recognised as the officialChurch of England and only Anglicanscould succeed to the throne of England.

The Puritans were the followers of theProtestant reformer John Calvin inEngland. The Puritans stood for theelection of clergy and the head of theChurch. The Puritans who becamepowerful after Queen Elizabeth controlledthe Parliament from 1640 to 1650.

The Puritans supported the independentapproach of the Parliament and the MiddleClass. The kings imposed many taxes on theMiddle Class without the consent of theParliament and spent the money for theirextravagant life. This intensified the strugglebetween the King and Parliament.

Complete the following chart by identifying the various classes whichparticipated in the constitutional struggle in England.

• King

• • Middle class

• Anglican church

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King Charles I was compelled to sign the

Petition of Right in 1628 which curbed the

autocratic powers of the king. But he soon

violated this and dismissed the Parliamentand ruled for the next eleven years (1629-

1640) tyrannically. The war with Scotland left

him hard pressed for money. He summoned

the Parliament in 1640 to levy new taxes.

This Parliament which continued to function

till 1660 passed several laws against theautocracy of the king. This was known as the

Long Parliament (1640- 1660). In course of

time the relation between the King and the

Parliament deteriorated which led to a civil

war between the two. This led to the defeat

dominating the Parliament. Scientific

experiments were encouraged during this

period. World trade was controlled by

British merchants during this period. Thepeople who did not approve of military

dictatorship asked Cromwell to accept the

title of king. But he refused.

Commonwealth

The Commonwealth of Cromwell wasdifferent from the present Commonwealth.The modern Commonwealth is amovement based in London comprisingBritain and her former colonies.

After Cromwell, monarchy was restored inEngland under Charles II. His successorJames II adopted autocratic measures whichrevived the conflict with the Parliament. Hetook refuge in France in 1688. His daughterMary and her husband William of Orangewere invited to England. They were

‘Petition of Right’-Introductory page

of the king. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of

Parliamentary army, assumed power and he

expelled his opponents from Parliament.Thereafter only the followers of Cromwell

remained in the Parliament. This was known

as the Rump Parliament. This Parliament put

Charles I to trial and executed him.

The government under the leadership of

Cromwell was called the Commonwealth.

This period (1649-1658) was also one of

military dictatorship. Though the Civil War

ended in England, he ruled the country by

Oliver Cromwell

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declared the Queen and King of England byParliament. Thus the despotic rule ofmonarchs came to an end and monarchycontrolled by Parliament came into being.This transfer of power is known as BloodlessRevolution or Glorious Revolution. Thus thefeudal order became completely weak andthe authority of the king was limited byParliament.

The authority of Parliament over monarchywas asserted through a series of legislations.

The most important of these was the Bill ofRights of 1689. It was followed by thegranting of freedom of religion and ofexpression. But only members of theAnglican Church could succeed to thethrone. Though democracy could not beestablished in England, the people becamefree and the Parliament, supreme. This iswhy it is said that though monarchy isretained, the king never rules.

What are the changes that affected monarchy in England betweenPetition of Right and Bill of Rights? What was the influence of theCommonwealth era in these changes? Examine.

French RevolutionThe French Revolution of 1789 was themovement against the despotic kingship andthe feudal order in France. This put an endto the feudal system which was existing inFrance for centuries together. The aim of theRevolution was to rebuild France on thebasis of the ideals of Liberty, Equality andFraternity.

The Three Estates

The French Revolution was as much againstthe social inequalities of France as againstthe despotic rule of the kings. In all spheresof human life including administration,judiciary and the army inequality wasevident. French society was divided intothree Estates. The clergy formed the FirstEstate and the nobles, the Second. The ThirdEstate consisted of traders, money-lenders,officials, doctors, teachers, etc. All rights andprivileges were the prerogative of the firsttwo estates. Not only were the Third Estate

denied all privileges but they also had tobear the entire burden of taxes.

Even in the second half of the 18th centuryfeudalism was prevalent in France. Themajority of lords were exploiting thepeasants who cultivated their land. The lordsused to employ the peasants for their workwith no wages on three to four days a week.The peasants had to grind their corn only inthe flour mills owned by the lords for whichthey had to pay a fee. The lords collectedrent from the peasants during the harvestseason and also tolls on bridges and roads.The lords performed only military serviceto the state. Most of the cultivatable land wasowned by the king, the lords and the Church.The high clergy led a life of luxury andextravagance. But the condition of theordinary clergy was pitiable. The poverty-stricken clergy joined hands with the ThirdEstate during the Revolution.

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'Nobles fight, clergy pray and people pay'.This statement reveals the inequality of theFrench society. Analyse the given picture andthe above statement and explain how thesocial inequalities led to the Revolution.

The common man of the ThirdEstate bears the First and the

Second Estates

French Middle ClassThe progress of trade, industry and bankingled to the rise of cities in France. An educatedand wealthy Middle Class consisting oftraders, bankers, lawyers and doctors grewup in these cities. They were known asbourgeoisie which meant Middle Class.They were dissatisfied with the prevailingsocial order. They played a key role in theproduction of wealth and its ownership; butthey had no role in the administration of thestate. They realised that it was impossiblefor them to achieve their demands under theexisting structure. Therefore they decided tooverthrow the government by leading therevolution.

BourgeoisieThe word bourgeoisie originated from theFrench word bourgeois which meansdwellers in cities. The feudal society wasdivided into two: lords and serfs. A newclass of traders emerged between the two.This Middle Class was called bourgeoisie.Their descendants amassed wealththrough trade and piracy and startedindustries by investing this money. Theywere the founders of capitalism.

Influence of philosophesYou are already familiar with theEnlightenment which was rooted inrationalism. The advocates ofEnlightenment were the representatives ofthe emerging bourgeoisie. It was theEnlightenment thinkers who encouraged thepeasants and the Middle Class to revoltagainst the feudal order in France. Thestatement of Rousseau that "man is born free;but every where he is in chains" pushedFrance intensely to the revolution. His SocialContract in which he explained that the statecame into being as a result of a contractentered into by the people themselves fortheir own welfare, influenced people to alarge extent. Similarly thinkers like Voltaireand Montesquieu criticised the existingsocial order. Voltaire was highly critical ofthe Church and the clergy. The physiocratswho argued for free economy without theintervention of the state also created anatmosphere suitable for revolution inFrance.

Despotic kingsThe Bourbon kings of France whoconcentrated all powers of the state in theirhands led a life of luxury and pleasure. Theybelieved in the divine right of kingship. The

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attempts made by them to strengthen theirposition affected the economy of Franceadversely. They brutally suppressed allopposition to the monarchy. Frenchdespotism reached its highest during thereign of Louis XIV. At the end of his ruleFrench economy crumbled rudely. Hissuccessors could not prevent the economicdisaster. Turgot, the Finance Minister ofLouis XVI, adopted several economymeasures and encouraged industry andagriculture. Though he was able to revivethe economy, he was soon ousted frompower. He was followed by Necker, thefamous banker of France, as FinanceMinister. The progressive measures adoptedby him made the feudal lords hostile to him.The reforms introduced by Turgot andNecker were to suit the interests of theMiddle Class, which bought the enmity ofthe nobles. The economic crisis wasaggravated by the expulsion of Necker. To

overcome this crisis Louis XVI decided topropose new taxes. He summoned theFrench Parliament, the Estates General, in1789. It was in 1614 that the Estates Generalhad met last.

National AssemblyThe voting pattern of the Estates General wasthat each Estate met and voted separately.The Third Estate, namely, the commons,realised that unless the three Estates mettogether and voted together, the other twoEstates would outnumber and defeat them.Hence they demanded that the three Estatesshould meet together and the principle ‘oneperson = one vote’ should be followedinstead of each Estate having a separatevote. This demand was opposed by theother two Estates. The commons met in anearby tennis court and declared itself as theNational Assembly. They also starteddrafting a constitution for France.

Oath of Tennis CourtOn 20th June 1789, when the ThirdEstate came to the hall where they usedto meet, it was found locked. Hence theymet in a hall nearby which was used asa tennis court. They declared themselvesas a National Assembly and vowed thatthey would not disperse until theydrafted a constitution for France. Thiswas known as the 'Oath of Tennis Court'.This is considered to be the beginningof the French Revolution.

Fall of BastilleRumours spread throughout Paris that theleaders of the National Assembly would bearrested soon. The attempt to topple theassembly provoked the people who werereeling under poverty. They captured anddemolished the fortress of Bastille on 14thJuly, 1789. Bastille was considered to be the

symbol of royal power and therefore 14thJuly, the day of its destruction, is celebratedas national day. The National Assemblydeclared itself as a Constituent Assemblyand drafted a Constitution for France. Thepreamble of the Constitution was the

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'Declaration of Rights of Man' whichreflected the ideas of Roussaeu, 'all men are

born equal and are free'. People aresovereign. Laws are the reflections of

General Will. The people directly or through

their representatives became part of the

government. These were the principles

which the Rights of Man proclaimed. The

National Assembly enacted laws byhonouring the General Will. Through these

legislations several administrative,

economic and religious reforms were

introduced in France.

Fall of Bastille

Why did the fort of Bastille become the target of peoples' wrath?Why did the workers and common people join the Revolution?

Work of the National Assembly• A uniform administrative system was

introduced in France.

• The Church was brought under thecontrol of the State.

• The land owned by the Church wasnationalised.

• Taxes were imposed on all uniformly.

• Special privileges enjoyed by the lordswere abolished.

• Feudalism was abolished.

• A limited monarchy was established.

In accordance with the new Constitution aLegislative Assembly was formed. The mainpolitical parties there were the Jacobins, theextreme revolutionaries, and the Girondists,the Moderates. The Jacobins wanted to makeFrance a Republic by overthrowing themonarchy. In 1792 a new Constitution wasadopted and the country was declared aRepublic by the assembly called NationalConvention. Monarchy was abolished andthe king Louis XVI and his wife wereexecuted by the Jacobins.

Examine the role of the Middle Class in making France aRepublic.

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Many neighbouring countries declared waron France following the execution of theking. Civil war also broke out in many partsof France. In order to meet this extra-ordinary situation, a Committee of PublicSafety was constituted. When Robespierretook over as its head, the revolutionarygovernment lost its popular character. It ledto a Reign of Terror in France. Therevolutionaries and people who opposedRobespierre were guillotined. At last theenraged people put Robespierre to theguillotine and brought the Reign of Terrorto an end. The French army repulsed allforeign aggressions. The NationalConstitution promulgated a newconstitution. Accordingly a bicameral

Execution of Louis XVI Guillotine

legislature was set up. The executive powerswere vested in a Directory consisting of fiveDirectors. The Directory could not functionproperly because it had only limited powers.In 1799 the Directory was overthrown andNapoleon Bonaparte usurped power.

Tipu Sultan and FrenchRevolution

The French Revolution influenced thewhole world. It had echoes in India whenthe ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, declaredhis solidarity with the Revolution andplanted the Tree of Liberty in his capitalSrirangapattanam. He also became amember of Jacobin Club.

NapoleonThe European countries under theleadership of England tried to undo theachievements of the French Revolution andrestore the old political structure and socialorder. The triumph of the slogans Liberty,Equality and Fraternity frightened them. Acoalition consisting of England, Austria,Russia and Prussia against France was

defeated by Napoleon. He declared himselfthe Emperor of France in 1804. His ambitionwas to establish a united Europe under theleadership of France. For the realisation ofhis ambition he waged a series of warsbetween 1799 and 1815 which terrorisedEurope. He established his sway over Spain,Rhineland, Corsica, Poland and Naples.

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He realised subjugating Britaineconomically would help him to control thewhole of Europe. With a view to achievingthis, he imposed the Continental System. Heimposed an economic embargo againstBritain in 1805 through the Berlin Decrees.His plan was to unite the European countriesagainst Britain. But his plan failed becausehe could not control the whole of Europe.The naval supremacy of Britain enabled her

to blockade the French coast by the 'Ordersin Council'.

The policies of Napoleon helped in theestablishment of French national unity. TheMiddle Class was able to operate in societyon par with the nobles and clergy. TheCatholic Church was brought under thecontrol of the state. The peasants were freedfrom the clutches of the landlords and madethe owners of the land. In order to stabilise

Napoleon Bonaparte

A cartoon showing the division of Europe by Napoleon,who occupied Europe and William Pitt, the British

Prime Minister, who occupied the oceans.

Identify the territories conquered by Napoleon in the Map. Examine whetherhe could realise his aim of conquering Europe.

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the finances of the country, the Bank ofFrance was founded. General education wasmade the responsibility of state.Considerable achievements were made inthe field of transport. The Code of Napoleonwas the greatest contribution of theEmperor. It codified the laws prevailing inthe country. The transition from feudal orderto republican government was broughtabout during the reign of Napoleon.

The advances made by Napoleon frightenedEuropean kings. For fear of loss of theirkingdoms they joined together under theleadership of Britain against Napoleon. Hewas defeated at Waterloo in 1815.

Congress of ViennaThe defeat of Napoleon marked the victoryof monarchy and the nobles. They met atVienna in 1815 and decided to restore thepolitical map of Europe which had beenredrawn by Napoleon. The Congress whichmet under the leadership of the AustrianChancellor, Count Matternich, rejected thebasic concepts of nationalism, democracyand the ideas put forward by the FrenchRevolution. The European countries whichstood united against France during and afterthe French Revolution now began to quarrelamong themselves.

Matternich systemThe basic principles of the Matternichsystem were legitimacy, restoration andcompensation. The Vienna Congressdecided to restore the kings who lost theirkingdoms during the Napoleonic wars, tocompensate those who worked for his fall,and confiscate the territories of those whohelped him in his wars. The Frenchdiplomat, Talleyrand, who pleaded thatit was Napoleon who was personallyresponsible for all the wars and not France,saved the country from partition.

Industrial Revolution

We have already discussed the

achievements made in the field of science.

Man’s control over his environment with the

help of science and machines brought about

basic changes in the socio - economic sectors.

The changes which took place in England

from the 18th century onwards came to be

known as the Industrial Revolution. The

basic feature of this was that human labour

was substituted by machines. Their details

have been discussed in previous classes.

Although the Industrial Revolution began

in England, its impact was global. An

important feature of this was the emergence

of the factory system. The Industrial

Revolution demanded the investment of

capital in the manufacture of machines and

development of transport. It led to the

growth of banks and joint stock companies.

The raising of capital through the sale of

shares reduced the risk of individual loss.

You are familiar with the guild system of

the medieval times. The transition from

guild system to factory system in industrial

production brought about changes in the

relations between entrepreneurs and the

labourers. In order to increase their profit the

entrepreneurs employed the labourers

through long hours and paid them only low

wages.

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A textile mill running under factory system

The novels of Charles Dickens such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfielddescribe the miserable life led by women and children in the industrialsociety. Read these novels and evaluate the nature of exploitation undergoneby women and children in the industrial towns and factories and mines inthe above novels and also from the information gathered in the previousclasses.

The new capitalists who grew intoprominence as a result of the IndustrialRevolution demanded equal status with thenobles. The nobles opposed this. Defeatingthe opposition of the nobles and the king,the British Parliament passed the Reform Actin 1832. As a result of this Act the capitalistswere enfranchised. Consequently the pocketboroughs were abolished. It was also thevictory won by the commons over the Houseof Lords. But the workers did not get the

right to vote. The Chartist Movement arosein England in order to achieve the rights ofthe workers. You have already learnt aboutthis movement in the previous classes.

The capitalists did not want the governmentto interfere in their activities. This wasknown as the Laissez-faire policy. TheBritish followed this policy. The workersprotested against the exploitation by thecapitalists and the consequent hardships. Asa result, unity was forged among the

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workers. This led to the formation of labourunions and enactment of labour laws. TheGovernment had to abandon the policy ofLaissez-faire and was forced to enact factorylaws to regulate the working conditions inthe factories. It effected many changes in thefactories.

• Officials were appointed to inspectfactories.

• Employing children below the age ofnine was prohibited.

• The working hours of women labourerswere reduced to ten.

Theories of Capitalism

Certain economic theories emerged as a

result of the Industrial Revolution. Later

they influenced political thought. Political

economists like Adam Smith, Thomas

Malthus and David Ricardo argued for free

economic activities. They were of the

opinion that the wealthy people had the

right to spend the money in ways they chose

fit.

the responsibility of maintaining law and

order and protecting private properties.

They never recognised the right of the

workers for collective bargaining or the

interference of external forces in improving

the service conditions. The political

philosophy which emerged during this

period was Utilitarianism. Jeremy Bentham

was the advocate of this theory. It gave

priority to individual achievements over

those of the state. Though the Utilitarians

opposed the interference of the state in the

industrial and commercial activities of the

capitalists, they supported democratic form

of government.

The economic theories which emerged after the Industrial Revolutionencouraged the growth of capitalism. Analyse the statement.

Adam Smith

Various kinds of exploitation caused by the Industrial Revolution ledto the emergence of the working class movements. Analyse thisstatement.

They severely

c r i t i c i s e d

g o v e r n m e n t a l

interference in

their activities.

They argued that

the state had only

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Advent of SocialismSocialism arose as an ideology againstcapitalist exploitation. The aim ofsocialism is to bringproduction anddistribution underthe collectiveownership andcontrol of society.Robert Owen,Charles Fourier,Saint Simon andothers were theearly socialistthinkers. Theydreamt of a society where each one didhis work according to his ability and thefruits of his labour consumed collectivelyby all through cooperative societies. Sinceit was too idealistic it came to be knownas 'Utopian Socialism'. Louis Blanc

pleaded that the state should controlproduction through workshops owned byit, it should supervise the distribution ofthe goods thus produced, the labourers

should be paid fairwages and a shareof the profit. Thiswas known as StateSocialism orC o l l e c t i v i s m .Proudhon was ofthe opinion thatfactories should becontrolled by jointcommittees ofworkers and

consumers. This was known asSyndicalism. The Fabian Socialists underBernard Shaw stood for the constructionof a socialist society rooted in democracyand peace.

Robert Owen Bernard Shaw

What were the features of the various types of socialism put forwardby their advocates? What is the logic of the word 'Utopian Socialism'?

Scientific Socialism

The socialist ideas were developed into ascientific ideology and practical programmefor progress by Karl Marx. His ideas areknown as scientific socialism. He putforward the ideology of scientific socialismin the Communist Manifesto co-authored byhis friend Frederik Engels. His other worksinclude the Capital and Theory of SurplusValue. He was of the opinion that the modeof production determines the social,political, intellectual and all other humanactivities in a particular society. The surplus Karl Marx

produced by the workers is appropriated bythe capitalists. He declared that it was moreimportant to change the world than interpretit.

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Agrarian Revolution

The contributions made in the field ofscience brought about tremendous changesin the agrarian sector also. The progressachieved by industry in 18th century inEngland resulted in the increase ofpopulation which necessitated the increaseof food production. The outdatedagricultural implements and methods ofcultivation were replaced by machines. Thecultivators of England used to cultivate infragmented pieces of land and they laid thefield fallow after two years of continuouscultivation or one third of the land laidfallow every two years. This method knownas 'Open Field System' was not profitable tothe cultivators. Lord Townshend found thatthe cultivation of crops like turnip wouldenable the field to regain its fertility. Heintroduced the system of four year rotationof crops. He realised that the cultivation ofcrops like wheat, barley, turnip and cloveralternately every year would not onlyincrease the fertility of the soil but also yieldgood harvest as cattle fodder. The use offertilisers and pesticides later increased theproduction of food further. The changes inthe method of cultivation brought about

changes in animal husbandry also. Rearingof hybrid varieties of cattle increased theproduction of meat and milk.

The cultivators of small pieces of land couldnot experiment scientific method of

agriculture. Butthose who investedcapital began topurchase smallpieces of land andenclose themtogether. Theyi n f l u e n c e dParliament to pass aseries of Enclosure

Laws. As a result, small parcels of openfields were enclosed together and fenced forscientific cultivation. This method known asEnclosure Movement expelled the smallpeasants from their fields and a class of richpeasants emerged in England.

The developments in industry andagriculture increased production. Thisnecessitated the search for raw materials andmarkets for the finished goods. Thisintensified the process of colonisation andimperialist expansion.

Charles Townshend

The Industrial and Agrarian Revolutions in England made India theircolony. Explain this statement.

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Activities

• Did the progress of trade bring about constitutional crisis inEngland? Why?

• Why do the French people celebrate the fall of Bastille as theirNational Day in spite of many other incidents during the FrenchRevolution?

• Prepare a flow chart showing the growth of the French MiddleClass.

• To what extend did the French revolutionary ideals influencethe reforms of Napoleon?

• “When France sneezes all Europe catches cold”. Examine how the French Revolutioninfluenced Europe in the light of the above statement of Matterinch?

• Of the three estates in France why did the Third Estate alone stand for social change?

• Waterloo was the victory of England and the defeat of Napoleon in gaining worldeconomic hegemony. Examine the statement.

• How did the Industrial Revolution enable England to attain progress in commercial,military and administrative fields?

• What is the difference between Scientific Socialism and other early socialist ideas?

• How were the peasants subjected to exploitation?

• Unlike the French Revolution, the Agrarian Revolution was not caused by the socialinequalities directly. But it brought about many changes in the social life of people.Examine the relevance of this statement.

• A revolution is one which overthrows the existing order by establishing a new one.In the light of the above statement analyse the following revolutions.

- Bloodless Revolution

- French Revolution

- Industrial Revolution

- Agrarian Revolution

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