Afro asia myth

Persian literature is the jewel in the crown of Persian culture. It has profoundly influenced the literatures of Ottoman Turkey, Muslim India and Turkic Central Asia. It has been a source of inspiration for Goethe, Emerson, Matthew Arnold and Jorge Luis Borges among others and praised by William Jones,Tagore, E. M. Forster and many more. Yet whereas Persian art and architecture, and more recently Iranian cinema, have been written about extensively and at different levels for a varied audience, Persian literature has largely remained the exclusive domain of specialists. And although in the past few years the poems of Rumi have attracted the kind of popular attention enjoyed by Omar Khayyam’s quatrains in the 19th century, Persian literature has never received the attention it truly deserves. A History of Persian Literatureanswers this need and offers a new, comprehensive and detailed history of its subject. This 18-volume, authoritative survey reflects the stature and significance of Persian literature as the single most important accomplishment of the Iranian nation. Prominent scholars in the field bring a fresh critical approach to bear on this important topic and each volume includes representative samples of this literature.

Indian Literature

The Indian literary tradition is primarily one of verse and is also essentially oral. The earliest works were composed to be sung or recited and were so transmitted for many generations before being written down. As a result, the earliest records of a text may be later by several centuries than the conjectured date of its composition. Furthermore, perhaps because so much Indian literature is either religious or a reworking of familiar stories from the Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and the mythological writings known as Puranas, the authors often remain anonymous. Biographical details of the lives of most of the earlier Indian writers exist only in much later stories and legends.

Other Themes

In medieval Indian literature the earliest works in many of the languages were sectarian, designed to advance or to celebrate some unorthodox regional belief. Examples are the Caryapadas in Bengali, Tantric verses of the 12th century, and theLilacaritra (circa 1280), in Marathi. In Kannada (Kanarese) from the 10th century, and later in Gujarati from the 13th century, the first truly indigenous works are Jain romances; ostensibly the lives of Jain saints, these are actually popular tales based on Sanskrit and Pali themes. Other example was in Rajasthani of the bardic tales of chivalry and heroic resistance to the first Muslim invasions - such as the 12th-century epic poem Prithiraja-raso by Chand Bardai of Lahore.

Most important of all for later Indian literature were the first traces in the vernacular languages of the northern Indian cults of Krishna and of Rama. Included are the 12th-century poems by Jaydev, called the Gitagovinda (The Cowherd's Song); and about 1400, a

group of religious love poems written in Maithili (eastern Hindi of Bihar) by the poet Vidyapati were a seminal influence on the cult of Radha-Krishna in Bengal.

Chinese Literature                 Chinese Translator              China Art &

Culture

The history of Chinese literature begins with the Shih Ching or Book of Songs, an anthology of 305

lyrics of various types, compiled ca. 600 B. C. Most of the songs probably were composed and sung

between 1000 and 700 B. C., mostly at Chou court ceremonies (and thus provide a cross-section of

early-Chou culture). Some Sinologists have suggested, however, that certain lyrics from the Book of

Songs may represent much earlier work, dating from the Shang dynasty (as early as ca. 1700 B.

C.). Written Chinese emerged in its embryonic form of carved symbols approximately 6,000 years ago.

The Chinese characters used today evolved from those used in bone and tortoise shell inscriptions

more than 3,000 years ago and the bronze inscriptions produced soon after. Chinese literature extends

back thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature fictional

novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese. The introduction

of widespread woodblock printing during the Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the invention of movable

type printing by Bi Sheng (990-1051) during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) rapidly spread written

knowledge throughout China like never before. In more modern times, the author Lu Xun (1881-1936)

would be considered the founder of modern baihua literature in China.

China has a wealth of classical literature, dating from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-256 BCE) and

including the Classics, whose compilation is attributed to Confucius. Among the most important

classics in Chinese literature is the book of changes (易經，易经), a manual of divination based on eight

trigrams attributed to the mythical emperor Fu Xi. The I Ching is still used by adherents of folk religion.

The Classic of Poetry(詩經，诗经) is made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs; 74 minor festal

songs, traditionally sung at court festivities; 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court

ceremonies; and 40 hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal

house. The Classic of History (書經，书经) is a collection of documents and speeches alleged to have

been written by rulers and officials of the early Zhou period and before. It contains the best examples

of early Chinese prose. The "Record of Rites" (禮記，礼记), a restoration of the original Classic of

Rites   (禮記), lost in the 3rd century BC, describes ancient rites and court ceremonies. The Spring and

Autumn Annals (春秋) is a historical record of the principality of Lu, Confucius' native state, from 722 to

479 B.C.. It is a log of concise entries probably compiled byConfucius himself. The Analects of

Confucius (論語，论语) is a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples.

There were also important Daoist classics that were written in later periods, such as the Huainanzi （淮南子）written by Liu An in the 2nd century BC, during the Han Dynasty. The Huainanzi was also one of

the earliest Chinese texts to cover topics of Chinese geography and topography. Chinese

historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history.

Japanese literature spans a period of almost two millennia of writing. Early work was heavily influenced by Chinese literature, but Japan quickly developed a style and quality of its own. When Japan reopened its ports to Western trading and diplomacy in the 19th century, Western Literature had a strong effect on Japanese writers, and this influence is still seen today.

As with all literature, Japanese literature is best read in the original. Due to deep linguistic and cultural differences, many Japanese words and phrases are not easily translated. Although Japanese literature and Japanese authors are perhaps not as well known in the west as those in the European and American canons, Japan possesses an ancient and rich literary tradition that draws upon a millennium and a half of written records.

Japanese Literature - History

There is debate regarding the classification of periods in Japanese literature. The following is a general guide based on important political and cultural events. Given the immense span of years covered in this article, it is not comprehensive, but rather highlights prominent works and authors of the various periods. All names are in the Japanese order of surname first, given name second.

Japanese Ancient Literature (pre-8th Century)

With the introduction of kanji (漢字, lit. "Chinese characters") from the Asian mainland, writing became possible, as there was no native writing system. Consequently, the only literary language was classical Chinese to begin with; later, the characters were adapted to write Japanese, creating what is known as the man'yōgana, the earliest form of kana, or syllabic writing. Works created in the Nara Period include Kojiki (712: a partly mythological, partly accurate history of Japan), Nihonshoki (720: a chronicle with a slightly more solid foundation in historical records than the Kojiki), and Man'yōshū (759: a poetry anthology). The language used in the works of this period differs significantly from later periods in both its grammar and phonology. Even in this early era, significant dialectal differences within Japanese are apparent.

Japanese Classical Literature (8th Century - 12th Century)

Classical Japanese literature generally refers to literature produced during the Heian Period, what some would consider a golden era of art and literature. The Tale of Genji (early 11th century) by Murasaki Shikibu is considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of Heian fiction and an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel. Other important works of this period include the Kokin Wakashu (905, waka anthology) and The Pillow Book (990s), the latter written by Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival, Sei Shonagon, about the life, loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court. The iroha poem was also written during the early this period, becoming the standard order for the Japanese syllabary until 19th century Meiji era reforms.

In this time the imperial court and highest ranked kuge patronized the poets. There was no professional poets but most of them were courtiers or ladies-in-waiting. Editing anthologies of poetry was one of national enterprises. Reflecting the aristocratic atmosphere, the poetry in that time was elegant and sophiscated and expressed their emotions in rhetorical style.

Japanese Medieval Literature (13th Century - 16th Century)

A period of civil war and strife in Japan, this era is represented by The Tale of the Heike (1371). This story is an epic account of the struggle between the Minamoto and Taira clans for control of Japan at the end of the 12th century. Other important tales of the period include Kamo no Chōmei's Hōjōki (1212) and Yoshida Kenko's Tsurezuregusa (1331). Writing Japanese using a mixture of kanji and kana the way it is

done today started with these works in the medieval period. Literature of this period evinces the influences that Buddhism and Zen ethics had on the emerging samurai class. Work from this period is noted for insights into life and death, simple lifestyles, and redemption of killing.

Other remarkable genres in this period were renga, collective poetry and Noh theatre. Both were rapidly developed in the middle of the 14th century, that is, early Muromachi period.

Japanese Early-Modern Literature (17th Century - mid-19th Century)

Literature during this time was written during the largely peaceful Tokugawa Period (commonly referred to as the Edo Period). Due in large part to the rise of the working and middle classes in the new capital of Edo (modern Tokyo), forms of popular drama developed which would later evolve into kabuki. The joruri and kabuki dramatist Chikamatsu Monzaemon became popular starting at the end of the 17th century. Matsuo Bashō, best known for Oku no Hosomichi (奥の細道, 1702: a travel diary variously rendered 'Narrow Road to the Far North', 'Narrow Road to Oku', and so on into English), is considered to be one of the first and greatest masters of haiku poetry. Hokusai, perhaps Japan's most famous wood block print artist, illustrated fiction aside from his famous 36 Views of Mount Fuji.

Many genres of literature made their debut during the Edo Period, helped by a rising literacy rate that reached well over 90% (according to some sources), as well as the development of a library(-like) system. Ihara Saikaku might be said to have given birth to the modern consciousness of the novel in Japan. Jippensha Ikku (十返舎一九) wrote Tokaido chuhizakurige (東海道中膝栗毛), a mix of travelogue and comedy. Ueda Akinari initiated the modern tradition of weird fiction in Japan with his Ugetsu Monogatari, while Kyokutei Bakin wrote the extremely popular fantasy/historical romance Nanso Satomi Hakkenden (南総里見八犬伝). Santō Kyōden wrote tales of the gay quarters until the Kansei edicts banned such works. Genres included horror, crime stories, morality stories, comedy, and pornography�often accompanied by colorful woodcut prints. Formats included yomihon, various zōshi, and chapbooks.

Japanese Meiji and Taisho Literature (late 19th Century - WW II)

The Meiji era marks the re-opening of Japan to the West, and a period of rapid industrialization. The introduction of European literature brought free verse into the poetic repertoire; it became widely used for longer works embodying new intellectual themes. Young Japanese prose writers and dramatists have struggled with a whole galaxy of new ideas and artistic schools, but novelists were the first to successfully assimilate some of these concepts. A new colloquial literature developed centering on the "I novel," with some unusual protagonists as in Natsume Soseki's Wagahai wa neko de aru (I Am a Cat). Other famous novels written by him include Botchan and Kokoro (1914). Shiga Naoya, the so called "god of the novel," and Mori Ogai were instrumental in adopting and adapting Western literary conventions and techniques. Akutagawa Ryunosuke is known especially for his historical short stories. Ozaki Koyo, Izumi Kyoka, and Higuchi Ichiyo represent a strain of writers whose style hearkens back to early-Modern Japanese literature.

War-time Japan saw the debut of several authors best known for the beauty of their language and their tales of love and sensuality, notably Tanizaki Junichiro and Japan's first winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, Kawabata Yasunari, a master of psychological fiction.

Japanese Post-war literature

World War II, and Japan's defeat, influenced Japanese literature. Many authors wrote stories of disaffection, loss of purpose, and the coping with defeat. Dazai Osamu's novel The Setting Sun tells of a returning soldier from Manchukuo. Mishima Yukio, well-known for both his nihilistic writing and his controversial suicide by seppuku, began writing in the post-war period.

Prominent writers of the 1970s and 1980s, were identified with intellectual and moral issues in their

attempts to raise social and political consciousness. One of them, Oe Kenzaburo wrote his most well-known work, A Personal Matter in 1964 and became Japan's second winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Inoue Mitsuaki had long been concerned with the atomic bomb and continued in the 1980s to write on problems of the nuclear age, while Endo Shusaku depicted the religious dilemma of the Kakure Kirishitan, Roman Catholics in feudal Japan, as a springboard to address spiritual problems. Inoue Yasushi also turned to the past in masterful historical novels of Inner Asia and ancient Japan, in order to portray present human fate.

Avant-garde writers, such as Abe Kobo, who wrote fantastic novels such as Woman in the Dunes (1960), wanted to express the Japanese experience in modern terms without using either international styles or traditional conventions, developed new inner visions. Furui Yoshikichi tellingly related the lives of alienated urban dwellers coping with the minutiae of daily life, while the psychodramas within such daily life crises have been explored by a rising number of important women novelists. The 1988 Naoki Prize went to Todo Shizuko for Ripening Summer, a story capturing the complex psychology of modern women. Other award-winning stories at the end of the decade dealt with current issues of the elderly in hospitals, the recent past (Pure- Hearted Shopping District in Koenji, Tokyo), and the life of a Meiji period ukiyo-e artist. In international literature, Ishiguro Kazuo, a native of Japan, had taken up residence in Britain and won Britain's prestigious Booker Prize.

Murakami Haruki is one of the most popular and controversial of today's Japanese authors. His genre-defying, humorous and fantastic works have sparked fierce debates in Japan over whether they are true "literature" or simple pop-fiction: Oe Kenzaburo has been one of his harshest critics. However, Western critics are nearly unanimous in assessing Murakami's works as having serious literary value. Some of his most well-known works include Norwegian Wood (1987) and The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle (1994-1995). Another best-selling contemporary author is Banana Yoshimoto.

Mythology and folklore

King Arthur is the figure at the heart of the Arthurian legends but the Knights of the Round Table play an important part in the story and legend of King Arthur. The Arthurian legend revolves around the Code of Chivalry followed by King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. The basis for the code of Chivalry followed by King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were Honour, Honesty, Valour and Loyalty. King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were ' Brothers in Arms'.

King ArthurThe Legend of King Arthur

The Real King Arthur

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table - the concept of EqualityThe significance of the Round Table was that no one person, not even King Arthur, would be able to sit at the head of such a table. A round table enforced the concept of equality. The legend states that King Arthur ordered the Round Table to be built in order to resolve a conflict among his knights concerning who should have precedence. The Round Table was therefore built to ensure that all the Knights of the Round Table were deemed equal and each of the seats at the Round Table were highly favoured places.

King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table - the Round table at WinchesterA large round wooden table in the Great Hall at Winchester is reputed to be King Arthur's Round Table. The Round Table is made of 121 separate pieces of oak and measures 18 feet across. The round table is nearly 3 inches thick and weighs nearly 1.25 tons. Scientific studies have also revealed that a painting of a King was added to the round table c1522. The King depicted on the Round Table bears a striking resemblance to the Tudor King Henry VII. It is interesting to note that the Tudors claimed lineage to King Arthur as additional justification for their reign and their claims to both the Welsh and English thrones.

King Arthur and the Names of Knights of the Round TableThe Round table at Winchester provides the Names of Knights of the Round Table. The Names of Knights of the Round Table are as follows:

King Arthur Sir Galahad - This knight was the illegitimate son of Sir Lancelot Sir Launcelot Deulake ( Sir Lancelot du Lac who fell in love with Queen

Guinevere ) Sir Gawain - This knight was famed for fighting the Green Knight Sir Percivale - This knight was famed for fighting the Red Knight Sir Lionel - This knight was brother of Sir Bors and cousin to Sir Lancelot Sir Tristram de Lyones - This knight was the son of King Meliodas &

Queen Isabelle of Lyonesse - second greatest of the Knights of the Round Table

Sir Gareth - Sir Kay was the mentor of this young knight Sir Bedivere - a giant of a Knight Sir Bleoberis - This knight was This knight was an arrogant Knight who

later became a hermit Sir Brunor le Noir -  aka La Cote Male Taile because he arrived in

Camelot wearing an ill-fitting coat which had belonged to his dead father Sir Lucan - This knight was a most loyal and trusted of the Knights of the

Round Table Sir Palomides - who was a Saracen knight Sir Lamorak - This knight was This knight was the third greatest of the

Knights of the Round Table Sir Bors de Ganis - This knight was brother of Sir Lionel and cousin to Sir

Lancelot Sir Safir - This knight was a Christian Knight of Saracen descent Sir Pelleas - This knight was of low birth but one of the bravest of the

Knights of the Round Table Sir Kay - King Arthur's foster-brother Sir Ector de Maris - This knight was the Ladies man of the Knights of the

Round Table Sir Dagonet - The jester of King Arthur Sir Tegyr - This knight was the cup-bearer of King Arthur Sir Lybyus Dysconyus ( Sir Guinglain was Sir Gawain's eldest son also

known as Le Bel Desconneu - the Fair Unknown ) Sir Alymere - This knight was totally loyal to King Arthur Sir Mordred - This knight was the treacherous Sir Mordred the son of

King Arthur)

The Names of Knights of the Round Table are displayed on the Round table at Winchester.

AegirGod of the sea. Married to Ran and lives under the waves near the island of Hlesey.

AesirA group of warrior gods led by Odin who inhabit Asgard.

BalderSon of Odin and Frigg. Known as a gentle and wise god. Killed accidentally by his brother Hod. Will return after Ragnarok.

BolverkThe alias Odin adopted when disguised as a giant to win the mead of poetry.

BorSon of Buri and father of Odin, Vili and Ve.

BragiGod of poetry and eloquence. Son of Odin and husband of Idun.

BuriAncestor of the gods. Created by the cow Audmula licking him from ice.

DaySon of Night and Delling. Said to ride around the earth on his horse Skinfaxi.

EarthDaughter of Night and Annar.

EinherjarBand of dead warriors in Valhalla who await Ragnarok.

EirGoddess of healing

FjorgynLover of Odin and mother of Thor. Also referred to as Earth.

ForsetiGod of Justice. Son of Balder and Nanna.

FreyjaMain goddess of the Vanir (fertility gods). Daughter of Njord and sister of Freyr.

Freyr

Important god of the Vanir. Son of Njord and brother of Freyja.

FriggMain goddess. Wife of Odin and mother of Balder.

FullaGoddess servant of Frigg.

GangnradPseudonym of Odin when he visits Vafthrudnir.

GefionFertility goddess. Associated with the plough. Tricked the king of Sweden out of a tract of his land.

GrimnirPseudonym of Odin when he visits his foster son Geirrod, King of the Goths.

GullveigA Vanir goddess (probably Freyja) who is burned three times by the Aesir.

HarbardOdin disguised as a ferryman when he wrangles with Thor.

HeimdallWatchman of the gods and owner of the horn Gjall. Son of nine mothers. Often identified with Rig, the creator of three races of men.

HermodSon of Odin. Rode to Hel to try and rescue his brother Balder.

HodSon of Odin. A blind god who accidentally killed his brother Balder. he will return after Ragnarok.

HonirA long-legged, indecisive god. Sent to the Vanir to seal the truce between them and the Aesir. He will survive Ragnarok.

IdunGuardian of the golden apples of youth and wife of Bragi.

LofnGoddess of ilicit unions.

LokiThe sly, trickster god. Son of two giants. Also known as the Sly One, the Trickster, the Shape Changer and the Sky Traveller. Becomes increasingly more evil. He is responsible for the death of Balder. Bound until Ragnarok.

Magni

Son of Thor and the giantess Jarnsaxa. Will inherit Thor's hammer Mjollnir with his brother Modi after Ragnarok.

MimirWise Aesir god. Sent to the Vanir to seal the truce between the two groups of gods. Killed by the Vanir, his head is kept by Odin.

ModgudMaiden guardian of the bridge over the river Gjoll in Jotenheim.

ModiSon of Thor and the giantess Jarnsaxa. Will inherit Thor's hammer Mjollnir with his brother Magni after Ragnarok.

MoonSon of Mundilfari. Guides the moon on it's course.

NannaWife of Balder and daughter of Nep.

NarviAlso known as Nari. Son of Loki and Sigyn who was killed by his brother Vali.

NightDaughter of Narvi and mother of Day. Rides around the earth on her horse Hrimfaxi.

NjordA Vanir god associated with wind and sea. Husband of Skadi and father of Freyja and Freyr.

NornsUrd "fate", Skuld "being" and Verandi "necessity". Three goddesses of destiny.

OdMissing husband of Freyja who she constantly mourns for.

OdinGod of poetry, battle and death. Chief god of the Aesir. Also known as the "all-father", the "terrible one", "one-eyed" and "father of battle".

RanWife of Aegir who dragged drowning men down with her net.

RigPseudonym of Heimdall and the creator of three races of men.

RindGoddess and lover of Odin. Mother of Vali.

Saga

Goddess and drinking companion of Odin.

SifWife of Thor whose golden hair was cut off by Loki.

SigynWife of Loki.

SjofnGoddess of human passion.

SunDaughter of Mundilfari and guide of the sun.

SynGoddess of the accused at trial.

ThorGod of Sky, thunder and fertility. Associated with law and order in Asgard and guardian of the gods. Son of Odin and Earth and husband of Sif. Also known as the "thunder god" and "charioteer".

ThrudDaughter of Thor. Promised to the dwarf Alvis.

TyrWar god. Son of Odin who sacrified his hand in the binding of Fenrir.

UllGod of archery and skiing.

ValiSon of Loki and Sigyn. Turned into a wolf and killed his brother Narvi.

ValiSon of Odin and the giantess Rind. Conceived to avenge the death of Balder.

ValkyriesBeautiful women who carried dying warriors to Valhalla.

VanirFertility gods.

VarGoddess of marriage oaths.

VeSon of Bor and brother of Odin and Vili.

VidarSon of Odin and the giantess Grid who will avenge Odin's death after Ragnarok.

ViliSon of Bor and brother of Odin and Ve.

VorGoddess wh.000000000000000000000o knows all.

Prior to Roman or Christian influence the Celts preferred to pass on their sacred teachings and myths orally. After the coming of Christianity in the fifth century onwards, the monks recorded the myths, and it is thanks to them that so many survive today.

One might expect Christian monks to have qualms about recording pagan tales, but this does not seem to have been the case. St Patrick, who brought Christianity to Ireland in 432, had his doubts about the old stories until he received a vision in which he was told to respect and record them.

Deities

Some of the myths have been Christianized, especially those recorded in Wales. However, a particular feature of Celtic myths may have prevented this from happening more often: namely, the way in which deities have been euhemerized (given human form), so that, unlike the Greek myths, they are not obviously of a religious nature.

The god Lugh

We can see this ‘euhemerization’ clearly in the case of the god Lugh, who gives his name to the Irish summer festival of Lughnasadh. In the earliest Irish myths he is clearly a deity. As such, he offers himself as the saviour of the Tuatha dé Danann, the predecessors of the Milesians or Gaels. Seeking entry at the palace of King Nuada of the Silver Hand, at Tara, he announces each of his skills in turn – ‘Blacksmith, warrior, musician, poet, scholar …’. Each time he is refused entry, until he points out that no one else combines all these skills in one person, as he does.

In the Mabinogion, the main source of British myths, Lugh has become the much more human Lleu Llaw Gyfes, nephew (and possibly son) of the magician Gwydion. He is skilled, and protected by charms, but he is not obviously a god: in fact at one point he appears to be mortal.

The Dagda, father of the gods

Lugh shares some characteristics with the Dagda, a larger-than-life figure prominent in myths of the Tuatha dé Danann. Like Lugh, he is powerful and omnicompetent. Yet he is often represented as a rather comic figure whose short tunic fails to cover his buttocks, and whose huge club has to be carried on wheels. He has great magical powers, and he possesses a harp which comes to him when he calls, and a cauldron of abundance which restores dead warriors to life (but without powers of speech.

Goddesses

Powerful though these gods were, the Celtic goddesses were perhaps even more so. They were closely associated with the land, and in this identification they sometimes seem to be aspects of a single all-embracing Goddess. Their link to the seasonal cycles, to fertility and death, may partly account for the fact that a single goddess often takes three forms, or aspects – usually maiden, mother and crone.

Celtic goddesses could be life-giving and sustaining, but were also, in their dark aspect, associated with sex and death, which in Celtic terms are part of the round of life. The most powerful Irish example is the red-haired shape-shifting Morrigan, said to have coupled with the Dagda.

Sources of the myths

The surviving Celtic myths come from Scotland and Ireland, which were at one time closely related, from Wales (though many of these originated orally further east), and from Brittany. No myths survive from Romanized areas,

such as Gaul on the Continent. They do not appear to have been written down in Latin.

The greatest body of myth comes from Ireland, which was untouched by the Romans, although much of its mythic material was destroyed by Viking marauders. An Irish myth, ‘The Harp of the Dagda’ is given below.

The Harp of the Dagda

This story concerns the most ancient Irish Celtic gods, the first generation of the Tuatha dé Danaan who had to fight off the giant races of the Firbolgs and the Formorians. Their history is found in the Lebor Gabála, ‘The Book of Invasions’.

When the fairy race of the Tuatha dé Danann arrived in Ireland, they came like a mist across the waters, bringing with them magical gifts. These were the lia fail – the coronation stone, the spear of Lugh, the sword of Nuada, and the great cauldron of the Dagda, which was said to be able to restore life.

The Dagda himself was known as the Good God and he was chief of the gods at this time. Besides his cauldron, he had a harp which was battle-scarred and made of oak. It was covered in rich decorations including a double-headed fish which ran up and down the curved pillar and had jewels for its eyes. Although he had a harper, Uaithne, he could also play it himself.

The Dagda had this harp with him always – he even took it into battle. So it was, that after the second Battle of Mag Tuiread, or Moytura, the Dagda discovered that his harp, together with his harper, had been captured by the Formorians and taken with them in their flight. Angered beyond measure, he set out with his son Aengus Og to reclaim it.

Stealthily they approached the Formorian camp. Soon they could hear the sounds of the feasting hall in which Bres, the Formorian king, was dining.

Approaching the doorway, they could just make out through the smoke and candle-flame the outline of the old harp hanging on the wall. Then the Dagda entered boldly and summoned his harp with this chant:

Come Daurdabla, apple-sweet murmurerCome, Coir-cethair-chuir, four-angled frame of harmony,Come summer, come winter,Out of the mouths of harps and bags and pipes!

Immediately the old harp flew to his hand across the hall, killing nine men as it came. A shocked hush fell on the company. In the silence the Dagda laid his hands on the strings and unleashed the Three Noble Strains of Ireland that he had bound into his harp. First he played the goltrai, or strain of weeping, so that all present began to mourn and lament their defeat. Then he played the geantrai, the strain of merriment, so that the company turned to laughter and drunken foolery. Lastly he played the suantrai, or sleep-strain, whereupon the warriors fell into a profound slumber. After this the Dagda and Aengus Og left the camp as quietly as they had come, taking Uaithne and the harp with them.

Commentary

The Tuatha de Danann

The Tuatha dé Danann were the children of the great goddess Dana. They are depicted as magical fairy people who were later overrun by the Milesians who allowed them to reside underground in the sidhe, or fairy mounds. They were traditionally believed to have arrived like a mist, but this is a poetic reflection of the fact that they ritually burned their boats on landing in Ireland so that they could never leave.

The Dagda

The Dagda was the chief of the Tuatha but, because he is much coarser than their other gods, he might be a remnant of a much older deity. His antiquity is demonstrated by the fact that he carried a great club. At the same time, like Lugh, he claimed to be multi-skilled. This is indicated by his name, the Good God: to the Celts, ‘good’ meant skilled, and the Dagda is depicted as being a master of music along with a range of other magical and warrior attributes.

He also had a prodigious appetite and earlier in the Battle of Moyturah was forced by the Formorians to eat a huge amount of porridge which had been prepared in his own cauldron. Undaunted, he ate the lot, after which his stomach was so distended that his tunic no longer covered it.

The Dagda can be seen as an ancient father-god who was symbolically linked to the great mother goddess through his great cauldron of regeneration. (The Dagda’s cauldron became a forerunner of the Arthurian Holy Grail.) Being multi-skilled, he also demonstrates the Celtic understanding that gods were not limited to a single skill or attribute.

The Three Noble Strains

These relate to the three sons that Uaithne, the Dagda’s harper, fathered on the Goddess Boann. She gave birth to the oldest, Goltraiges, in great pain, to the second, Gentraiges, in joy, while, after the third one, Suantres, she became heavy with fatigue. All three were harpers and became representative of the three main effects, or strains, of music.

The power of music

Music was of great importance to the Celts because they believed it had the power to enchant. The names of the Three Noble Strains end in trai, which means enchanter. Music could therefore magically summon or control emotion. It could also take the hearer into a place of dream and vision or bring the soothing of forgetfulness. It was an integral part of the Otherworld.

The sound of beautiful music greeted the entry of every hero into this realm, often being produced by magical birds. Magical birds also attended the silver-stringed harp of Aengus Og who used it, like Apollo, to charm them. For the harp was considered particularly magical. It was often owned and played by gods. It was the favoured accompaniment for telling the old tales, being able to conjure all the different moods as well as to accompany the vocal declamations of poetry. Thus every bard was expected to be skilled on

it. Later, broken-stringed, the harp came to symbolize the sorrows of Ireland. Its magical music also retreated, along with the Tuatha, into thesidhe. Some evocative Irish music today is said to have come from tunes overheard in fairy revels.