Advanced Surveying

Advanced Surveying, EDM, Remote SensingUnit VAim of SurveyingImportance given to determining Precise Position of an entity, with more ease and speed.Thus, the need to determine the coordinates or location of a point resulted in the field of surveying. TechniquesConventional Surveying Techniques: Chain, Compass, Theodolite.Advanced Surveying Techniques: Remote Sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS), and use of Geographic Information System (GIS).Conventional Surveying

ChainTheodoliteDumpy LevelPlane TableUses of Conventional SurveyingChain Surveying:Used for taking linear measurements in the field. one-dimensional measurements.Compass: Used for measuring directions of survey lines.Theodolite: Used for measuring angles of survey lines - both horizontal and vertical angles. 2-Dimensional measurements.Dumpy level: Used to (i) determine elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum; (ii) establish points at a given elevation with respect to a given or assumed datum. one-Dimensional measurement.Plane tabling: graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting done simultaneously.

Characteristics of Conventional SurveyingSuitable for small to moderate areas of extent.Intervisibility between survey stations required. Therefore, range of work gets limited.Can only be used during day timeCannot be used in all weather conditions.Requires more man power to accomplish the task.Takes more time to cover larger areas, i.e., time consuming process and therefore, owing to time limitation, the no. of points to be surveyed gets limited.Pressure of finances.

One or two dimensional measurements taken using above instruments. 3-D is however, not possible.less precise and accurate work.Collection of data or measurements are manual, i.e., entered in the field.Coordinates/Elevation of stations has to be manually calculated from the observations collected in the field. For example, latitude and longitude of a station is obtained mathematically from the horizontal angles observed using normal theodolite. Similarly, level.Storage/retrieval of data not possible.Used for Plane surveying.

Characteristics of Conventional SurveyingAdvanced SurveyingTo overcome the limitations of conventional instruments.important advanced surveying instruments/ technology include Electronic distance measuring device (EDM)Total stationAutomatic, digital levelRemote sensingPhotogrammetryGISGPS

Conventional InstrumentsAdvanced surveying instrumentsSuitable for small to moderate areas of extent.Intervisibility between survey stations required. Can only be used during day time and cannot be used in all weather conditions.Collection of data or measurements are manual, i.e., entered in the field and thus, Storage/retrieval of data not possible.Requires more man power to accomplish the task and Takes more time to cover larger areas, i.e., time consuming process. Coordinates/Elevation of stations has to be manually calculated from the observations collected in the field. One or two dimensional measurements taken using above instruments. 3-D is however, not possible.These above instruments are used for less precise and accurate work.Suitable for areas ranging from small to large to very large areas depending on the type of instrument used. Intervisibility between stations not required.Can be used any time of the day and not affected by weather.Automated data collection involved. These instruments have the capability of storing/retrieving the collected data.Large amount of data can be collected and thus, less time consuming than conventional instruments.These instruments have the ability to download data directly into a computer without human errors and the coordinates, horizontal distance, height difference etc are calculated automatically within the instruments.Instruments have the advantage of providing 3D measurements.These instruments are used for precise surveys like topographic surveys in urban regions and in huge construction sites; for structures of national importance like dams, bridges etc.Working Principlework on the principle of generation, reflection and subsequent reception of electromagnetic waves or radiations (EMR). This is what makes these advanced surveying instruments different from conventional surveying instruments.

Distance MeasurementDistance is one of the most basic engineering measurements. For a long time, distances were measured using Direct distance measurement (DDM) involving the use of chain or tape; or Optical distance measurement (ODM) by the use of theodolites, tacheometry etc. However, DDM is unsuitable in difficult terrain and some times, impossible when obstructions occur. This was overcome by ODM, but here the range of measurement got limited to 15 m to 150 m and the accuracy being limited from 1 in 1000 to 1 in 10000. The introduction of Electromagnetic (or electronic) Distance Measurement (EDM) overcame these problems by providing accuracies 1 in 105, over ranges upto 100 km.

EDMEDM involves measurement of distance using electronic methods. The distances are measured using instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of electromagnetic waves. This kind of instruments is used for geodetic surveys where high precision in the measurement of distances is required. Introduced in 1950s evolved into total stations today

Principle of working of EDMRely on EMR propogation and its characteristics.

Distance measurement using EDM(1) By measuring transit times.Distance measured based on time it takes for the EMR to leave the EDM (T1) strike the object come back to EDM (T2).Distance/Range = (T2 T1)*velocity of wave2

LReflectorDistance measurement using EDM(2) By phase comparisonsince the speed of light (c) is very high, the time interval t would need to be measured extremely accurately.Most commercial EDM fail to measure transit time accurately.

Thus, L = (m + p) where m is an integer number of whole wavelengths, p is a fraction of a wavelength

123456789101112pABLp = phase difference in degrees x 360 = (2 1) x 360Where 1 = phase of the wave when being transmitted at A2 = phase of the wave when received at B

Distance measurement using EDM

EDMlllllllPTypes of EDMsplit into 3 categories depending on the range:Short range enable distance measurements less than 3 km. The accuracy is (0.2 + 1 mm/km). Example: Distomats.Medium range less than 25 km. These have a range of 5 km in daylight, and about 25 km in the night by using mercury lamp. The accuracy is (5 + 1 mm/km). Example: Geodimeter Long range less than 100 km. The accuracy is (10 + 3 mm/km). Examples: Tellurometer.

Classified based on wavelength of wave.Visible lightunder the category of Medium range instruments.The measuring set consists of an active transmitter (transmitting component) and receiver (receiving component) at one end of the survey line to be measured (i.e., EDM instrument) and a passive prism reflector at the other end.Range up to 25 km, with an accuracy of (10 mm + 2 mm/km).Visible light, lasers used as carrier wavesDistance reduced by visibility.

Types of EDMInfraredInfrared or laser light utilize transmitter at one end and reflecting prism at otherSome are reflectorlessLong range 10-20 kmMedium range 3-10 km Short range 0.5-3 kmsuitable for most of the civil engineering works. very light and compact and these can be mounted on a theodolite to give what is popularly called a Total Station. This enables angles and distances to be measured simultaneously at the site. Limited to line of sight, i.e., intervisibility between station points is most important.Limited by rain, fog, and other airborne particles.

Types of EDMMicrowaveutilize receiver/transmitter at both ends of lineRange up to 100 km to a maximum of 150 km.Typical maximum ranges for microwave instruments are from 30 80 km with an accuracy of (15 mm +5 mm/km).Wavelength 3 cmNot limited to line of sightUnaffected by visibilityCan penetrate fog, haze etc.This system is expensive as two instruments are required for distance measurement, in comparison to the other instruments which require only one instrument and a prism reflector for distance measurement.

Types of EDMEvolution of EDM InstrumentsGot its start in 1948 with Swiss device using visible light (range=40km only at night)

Microwaves used in 1957 (range=80km)

Infra-red, IR, devices are common today

Current EDM InstrumentsSo called total-station instruments package a digital theodolite (for measuring azimuth and altitude) with an EDM, data storage device, and often a modem for transmitting data from the field.The most common instruments use a pulse of 2 to 4 AM frequencies ranging from 150kHz to 15MHz.This range of frequencies have corresponding half-wavelengths of 1.0km to 10m, respectively.

Digital level

TOTAL STATION

TOTAL STATION with GPSAdvantages of EDMNo need to walk the distance to be measured.Obstacles No problem Distances can be taken across them.Once levelled, it can produce readings every few seconds.Less labours required.Can measure short and long distances.No issues of tape or chain corrections involved.Portable, small, equipped with direct readout capability.Downloading facility available , thus eliminating error associated with manual recording.Automated data collection involved.Fast digital data collection, thus saving time of observation collection.Greater accuracy3D measurementsCoordinates, horizontal distances etc calculated authomatically.Advantages of EDMAtmosphere correction models not present or not calibrated properly.Being electronic restricts the user to use them in environmental conditions.Batteries involved which need to be powered, thus no power, no measurement.High quality instruments are expensive.Disadvantages of EDMRemote SensingMost prominent technique of collecting information from a distance. The data collected from a distance is called remotely sensed data.Indirect method of measuring linear distance.Definitions:It is the science of acquiring information about the earths surface without actually being in physical contact with the surface.It can also be defined as the science or technology by which the characteristics of objects of interest can be identified, measured or analyzed without direct contact.Best example of Remote Sensing is the human eye.

Source of Remote Sensing data is the Electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from an object.

Remote Sensing employ EMR and to a great extent relies on the interaction of EMR with the matter. It refers to the sensing of EMR, which is reflected, scattered or emitted from the object.

Why does a leaf look green? Its because the chlorophyll in the leaf absorbs blue and red spectra and reflects the green spectrum.

Thus, Each object has its own unique and different characteristics of reflection or emission, depending upon different environmental conditions. Every object will reflect out energy in some specific wavelength.

The main principle underlying Remote Sensing is All matter reflects, absorbs, penetrates and emits EMR in a unique way. This unique characteristic of matter is called its Spectral Characteristics.

Principle of Remote SensingFrom laws of nature, mainly 3 forms of interactions taking place based on which we are able to identify objects present on the surface of the earth. They are1. Absorption (A)2. Transmission (T)3. Reflection (R)

What you are interested is only the final reflected energy from the matter after all the above processes.The proportion of each of the above will vary depending on the wavelength of energy incident and the material, composition as well as the condition of the matter.Depending on that, matter will reflect EMR at a particular wavelength, which is thereby captured to help in identifying the matter from a set of several objects.Eg: How are you able to identify different coloured chalks.

Principle of Remote Sensing (Continued)

Device to detect the EMR reflected or emitted from an object is a Sensor. Eg: Cameras, Scanners, Radar.Vehicle to carry the sensor is called a platform. Eg. Aircrafts or satellites.Remote Sensing includes studying aerial photography and satellite imagery to identify objects. Now-a-days, most natural resource mapping is done using remote sensing.Aerial photography has been used to produce topographic maps such as forest maps, geological maps, land use maps and soil maps; detailed city maps. (easy for upgradation; these are formed fast).Satellite-based systems can measure phenomena that change continuously over time and cover large and inaccessible areas.Remote Sensing is similar to normal study of photographs, with the only difference that large scale photographs and images are analyzed.

Concepts of Remote Sensing (Continued)Electromagnetic SpectrumAlthough Visible light is the most popular form of EMR, other forms also exist, that help in identifying objects that visible light cannot achieve.That many wave forms including the Visible light form part of what is known as Electromagnetic Spectrum.

36Electromagnetic Spectrum (Continued)EMR regions used in Remote sensing are UV (0.3 0.4m), visible light (0.4 0.7m), near infrared and thermal infrared (0.7 - 14m) and microwave (1mm 1m).

RegionWave length (m)Principal Application(a) Visible RegionBlue0.45 0.52Soil and Vegetation discrimination, Coastal studiesGreen0.52 0.60Rock and soil discrimination, Water Turbidity studiesRed0.63 0.69Plant species discrimination(b)Infrared RegionNear IR0.76 2.35Vegetation discrimination, Delineation of Water features, Vegetation and Soil moisture content, Geological featuresThermal IR3 14Fires, Volcanoes studies, Thermal Sensing(c) Microwave1mm 1mDistribution of snow, Water vapour, Distribution of rain, rain typeWavelength regions and their application in Remote SensingSpectral SignaturesAll objects on the surface of the earth have spectral signatures.

Spectral signature is the distinctive set of distinguishable characteristics of the object.

It is defined by quantifying the reflectance characteristics of earth surface features by measuring the portion of incident energy that is reflected. This is known as spectral reflectance, given by the expression:() in percentage = ER () / EI()

All matter have their unique spectral reflectance. Based on this, objects are identified on a photograph or image and this forms the basis of Remote Sensing.

38Spectral Signatures: Spectral reflectance curvesThe spectral reflectances are presented graphically in spectral reflectance curves, showing the relationship of EM spectrum wavelength with the associated percent reflectance for any given material.

Basic reasons for ApplicationRepresents a larger area of the earth in a photographic view Facilitates the study of objects and their relationshipsCan provide 3-D view of the objectCharacteristics not visible to human eye can be transformed into imagesProvides a permanent record of an object at any moment of timeThe remote sensing is essential for planning and management. It will help to change the age-old conventional system Remote sensing should be used invariably for policy decision like regularization of built up areas, land acquisition, roads lay outIt is possible to study the existing land use of the area so that future proposals for the area do not clash with existing situation.

41Types of Remote SensingBased on Type of energy sourcePassive Remote SensingSource is the sun.Makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted EMR from natural sources.Active Remote SensingMakes use of sensors that detect reflected responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially generated energy source (Eg. Radar).Based on Wavelength regionsVisible and reflective IR Remote SensingSource is the Sun.Makes use of sensors that are sensitive to the visible and IR region of the EM spectrum.Depends on reflectance of objects on the ground surface, i.e., influenced by solar reflection than emission from the ground.Affected by atmospheric obstacles like dust, smoke, clouds etc.Cannot be used in the night.

42Thermal IR Remote SensingThe source of radiant energy used in Thermal IR remote sensing is the object itself.Under normal temperature conditions, every objects emits radiation.Thus, this remote sensing makes use of sensors sensitive to thermal energy, i.e., emission from grounds surface dominates.Can be used in the night.Microwave Remote SensingUsed to measure MW radiation emitted from objects.High penetration power, thus, Less affected by atmospheric obstacles, scattering, cloud etc.Very useful in studying studying snow, rain, soil moisture as it cannot penetrate them.It can help in determining the exact location of storm centres, measuring the speed of the storm, and notifying the public of areas of potentially severe weather.All weather remote sensing.Example: Precipitation radar, Doppler radar.

Types of Remote Sensing (Continued)Chart10-20.0626665641-2.06266656410.1243448408-2.12434484080.1840621283-2.18406212830.240876651-2.2408766510.2938924115-2.29389241150.3422733208-2.34227332080.3852563846-2.38525638460.4221637353-2.42216373530.4524133229-2.45241332290.4755280941-2.47552809410.491143516-2.4911435160.4990133242-2.49901332420.4990134075-2.49901340750.4911437646-2.49114376460.4755285041-2.47552850410.4524138878-2.45241388780.4221644462-2.42216444620.3852572303-2.38525723030.342274288-2.3422742880.2938934849-2.29389348490.2408778137-2.24087781370.1840633619-2.18406336190.1243461259-2.12434612590.0626678805-2.06266788050.0000013268-2.0000013268-0.0626652478-1.9373347522-0.1243435557-1.8756564443-0.1840608947-1.8159391053-0.2408754883-1.7591245117-0.2938913381-1.7061086619-0.3422723536-1.6577276464-0.3852555389-1.6147444611-0.4221630243-1.5778369757-0.4524127579-1.5475872421-0.4755276841-1.5244723159-0.4911432674-1.5088567326-0.4990132409-1.5009867591-0.4990134908-1.5009865092-0.4911440132-1.5088559868-0.4755289141-1.5244710859-0.4524144527-1.5475855473-0.4221651571-1.5778348429-0.385258076-1.614741924-0.3422752552-1.6577247448-0.2938945583-1.7061054417-0.2408789764-1.7591210236-0.1840645956-1.8159354044-0.124347411-1.875652589-0.0626691968-1.9373308032-0.0000026536-1.99999734640.0626639315-2.06266393150.1243422705-2.12434227050.1840596611-2.18405966110.2408743257-2.24087432570.2938902647-2.29389026470.3422713864-2.34227138640.3852546931-2.38525469310.4221623134-2.42216231340.452412193-2.4524121930.4755272741-2.47552727410.4911430187-2.49114301870.4990131576-2.49901315760.4990135741-2.49901357410.4911442618-2.49114426180.4755293241-2.47552932410.4524150176-2.45241501760.422165868-2.4221658680.3852589218-2.38525892180.3422762224-2.34227622240.2938956317-2.29389563170.2408801391-2.24088013910.1840658292-2.18406582920.1243486961-2.12434869610.0626705131-2.06267051310.0000039804-2.0000039804-0.0626626151-1.9373373849-0.1243409854-1.8756590146-0.1840584274-1.8159415726-0.240873163-1.759126837-0.2938891913-1.7061108087-0.3422704193-1.6577295807-0.3852538474-1.6147461526-0.4221616024-1.5778383976-0.4524116281-1.5475883719-0.4755268641-1.5244731359-0.4911427701-1.5088572299-0.4990130743-1.5009869257-0.4990136574-1.5009863426-0.4911445104-1.5088554896-0.4755297341-1.5244702659-0.4524155825-1.5475844175-0.422166579-1.577833421-0.3852597675-1.6147402325-0.3422771896-1.6577228104-0.293896705-1.706103295-0.2408813017-1.7591186983-0.1840670628-1.8159329372-0.1243499812-1.8756500188-0.0626718295-1.9373281705-0.0000053072-1.99999469280.0626612988-2.06266129880.1243397003-2.12433970030.1840571938-2.18405719380.2408720003-2.24087200030.2938881178-2.29388811780.342269452-2.3422694520.3852530016-2.38525300160.4221608915-2.42216089150.4524110631-2.45241106310.4755264541-2.47552645410.4911425215-2.49114252150.4990129909-2.49901299090.4990137407-2.49901374070.491144759-2.4911447590.4755301441-2.47553014410.4524161474-2.45241614740.4221672899-2.42216728990.3852606132-2.38526061320.3422781568-2.34227815680.2938977784-2.29389777840.2408824644-2.24088246440.1840682964-2.18406829640.1243512663-2.12435126630.0626731458-2.06267314580.000006634-2.000006634-0.0626599825-1.9373400175-0.1243384152-1.8756615848-0.1840559602-1.8159440398-0.2408708376-1.7591291624-0.2938870444-1.7061129556-0.3422684848-1.6577315152-0.3852521559-1.6147478441-0.4221601805-1.5778398195-0.4524104982-1.5475895018-0.4755260441-1.5244739559-0.4911422728-1.5088577272-0.4990129076-1.5009870924-0.499013824-1.500986176-0.4911450076-1.5088549924-0.4755305541-1.5244694459-0.4524167123-1.5475832877-0.4221680008-1.5778319992-0.3852614589-1.6147385411-0.3422791239-1.6577208761-0.2938988518-1.7061011482-0.2408836271-1.7591163729-0.18406953-1.81593047-0.1243525514-1.8756474486-0.0626744621-1.9373255379-0.0000079608-1.99999203920.0626586661-2.06265866610.1243371301-2.12433713010.1840547265-2.18405472650.2408696749-2.24086967490.293885971-2.2938859710.3422675176-2.34226751760.3852513101-2.38525131010.4221594696-2.42215946960.4524099333-2.45240993330.4755256341-2.47552563410.4911420242-2.49114202420.4990128243-2.49901282430.4990139073-2.49901390730.4911452562-2.49114525620.4755309641-2.47553096410.4524172772-2.45241727720.4221687117-2.42216871170.3852623046-2.38526230460.3422800911-2.34228009110.2938999252-2.29389992520.2408847897-2.24088478970.1840707636-2.18407076360.1243538365-2.12435383650.0626757784-2.06267577840.0000092876-2.0000092876-0.0626573498-1.9373426502-0.124335845-1.875664155-0.1840534929-1.8159465071-0.2408685122-1.7591314878-0.2938848976-1.7061151024-0.3422665504-1.6577334496-0.3852504644-1.6147495356-0.4221587586-1.5778412414-0.4524093683-1.5475906317-0.475525224-1.524474776-0.4911417756-1.5088582244-0.499012741-1.500987259-0.4990139906-1.5009860094-0.4911455048-1.5088544952-0.4755313741-1.5244686259

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Sheet2lmeasured fround-trip distance estimate10 m101o2.806 m100 m190o52.81 m1000 m91o252.8 mLowHighAccuracy5mm + 10ppm1mm + 1ppmRange1 km5 kmCost$10,000$40,000Data Storagenone7500 pts.Magnification10X30XRun-time3 hrs.6 hrs.

Sheet3