Winter 2006

Adult Learning Theories: ImpactingProfessional Development Programs

Yvonne D. Trotter

In education, change is inevitable. Teachers arc constantly learning, growing and adapting tonew techniques, new content standards and new curriculums. Adult development theories pro-vide a framework for understanding how adult learners are different from younger learners,while also providing insight into devising better professional development programs to meetthe needs of teachers at all phases of their careers. This article will provide an overview ofAge and Stage Theory, Cognitive Development Theory and Functional Theory, and ht)w thesetheories can impact professional development programs.

t a c h year, school districts are challengedto deliver worthwhile professional devel-opment opportunities. With the call forachievement for all students and for leav-ing no child behind, it is imperative thatdistricts offer programs that recognize theknowledge base of teachers. Being awareof adult learning theories will aid districtsin offering effective, sustainable profes-sional development activities.

Age and Stage TheoryOne theory of adult development focuses

on age. This theory proved that as peopleaged, they did not stop learning. It recog-nized first and foremost the contention oflifelong learning. Learning was somethingthat continued throughout the life cycle.The two branches of this study included the

stage and age theorists. Stage theoristsfocused on distinct, qualitative differencesin modes of thinking at various points indevelopment that were not necessarily agerelated.' Age theorists, on the other hand,were interested in determining if there wereconcerns, problems or tasks common tomost or all adults at various times in the lifecycle.^ Both of these theories will be dis-cussed.

Yvonne Devon TroUer, Ph.D., is curriculum directoral the hiasl Liverpool. Ohio, City Schools as well asassistant protcssur of special education al Genevii Col-lege in Beaver Falls. Pennsylvania. A member of Alphalota Chapter ol" IX'ita Kappa Gamma in Ohio, she alsoholds membership in the Christian Educator's Associa-tion Intematidnal, the Associalion ot" Supervision aniiCurriculum Development and the l.carninj; DisabilitiesAssociation,

The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin

Age TheoryThe age theorists reported age-related

periods of life and focused on the problemsand personal issues that affected adults atcertain ages. Age theorists contended thatthe issues adults faced changed with chron-ological age.

Shcchy-^ reported a mid-life transitionperiod ihat occurred in the late thirties andearly forties. This transition was referredto as the elbow joint of life where the adultreflected upon and evaluated life. Reflectioncaused the need for wholeness to replacethe ideal of perfection.'' Individuals duringthis stage were believed to think more abouttheir context and culture, which led ihcm tohave a greater sense of membership in thecommunity.

Levinson. et al."' believed that by the midforties and early fifties, adults moved outof what was termed the mid-life wildernessand began building new structures for therest of their lives. During this time, the udultgave "more lasting meaning to relation-ships, work, and spiritual committnents."*'These descriptions pointed to this time oflife as one that was crucial to decision mak-ing.

In effect we ,1,'fYnv through engag-ing in the world, changing and beingchanged b\ it. We become ever morediscrifuinating in our ability to seethe world on its own terms, or as oth-ers see it, and even more able to makesense of it despite its growing com-ple.xity—able to make sense of it inways that both retain our own sense ofmeaning and yet respect its diversity.'As individuals age. they become more

reflective of their lives and of their careers.They make more informed decisions abouttheir futures. Professional developmentprograms must take into consideration thepractical knowledge of the educators. Theyshould include teacher reflections duringdiscussions or through journaling. Thisenables teachers to express themselves, and

through the writing, make meaning of theact of teaching.

Stage TheoryPiaget is accorded the title of father-

hood for the stage theorists. His researchwas based on the belief that adults passedthrough distinct and different stages in theways they constructed childhood experi-ences. Piaget was less concerned with grow-ing older and was more concerned with theability to grow wiser. The stage theorists didnot see intelligence as a fixed condition, butas something that had the potential to evolveas adults tried to make sense of the world.^

The stage-theorists found that adultstnoved through various stages of dcvelop-tncnt. Daioz* grouped the research of thesetheorists into collective stages: the preeon-ventional stage focused on survival. Theconventional stage focused on fitting in,being accepted and conforming. The thirdand final post-conventional stage focusedon thinking things over rather than survivingor conforming; it looked at and evaluatedevents critically.

Loevinger'*' examined ego developmentand described how adults passed throughstages as they attempted to understand them-selves. She contended that adults moved fromconformity to emotional independence, andthen to a stage where the person reconciledtheir Inner conflicts, renounced the unattain-able and cherished their own identity.

Kohlberg" studied moral development inadults. He believed that orientations towardauthority, others and self changed with dif-ferent stages in the life cycle. Kegan'- alsofound that individuals evolved throughstages of development. The beginning stageswere self-centered and impulsive. This thenevolved into a more "other" centered stagethat involved interpersonal relationships. Thefinal stage was evolutionary and involveda birth of a new self that was separate witha clear sense of self and merging with oth-ers, individuals at the final stage were able

10 Winter 2006

to build bridges and make connections withothers.

All of these theories could have an impacton teacher professional dcvcli)pmcnt. per-haps to improve teacher training through-out the career. Through the understandingsof these various stages of development.and the recognition that teachers can, withappropriate professional developmeiit activi-ties, move to a higher stage of development.activities for teachers could be structuredand presented to increase stage growth,allowing teachers to broaden their tech-niques and methods to meet more adequatelythe demands of both students and standards.

Cognitive i)evelopnient TheoryAnother area of adult development focused

on cognitive/intellectual development. Hunt'-described cognitive development as concep-tual levels with degrees in abstractness andinterpersonal maturity. Hunt's developmen-tal stages had four levels. The low coneeptuallevel was one of concrete negativism, overgeneralization, and foeused on personal need.The second level was that of categorical judg-ments, acceptance of a single rule, and reli-ance on external standards. The third levelwas one of awareness of alternatives and sen-sitivity to personal feelings. The fourth andfinal level showed a reliance on internal ratherthan external standards, working with others,and seeing events from multiple view points.

Perry"s'"* research consisted of a progres-sion that also included four levels. LevelOne, which was titled dualism, was wherea person saw the world in polar terms suchas right and wrong. Level Two of his theorywas termed multiplicity. It accepted diver-sity and uncertainty. Level Three, relativ-ism, saw knowledge as contextual and rela-tivistic. Level Four, the final level, commit-ment to relativism, involved a coEiimitmentto affirm self and the process of ongoingcycles.

These research models proved that thecognitive/intellectual development of adults

moved from concrete to abstract. Theadult moved through stages with the mostadvanced stage operating from internalrather than external standards. Veteran teach-ers were more likely than beginning andmid-career teachers to have a commitmentto self affirmation rather than to externallygenerated successes. They had survivedchanges and reforms and still remained inteaching, perhaps beeause of the intrinsicsatisfaction, despite the negativism of stan-dards and prollciency mandates. Programsof protessional development should realizethe differing needs of targeted audiences tomake the development more meaningful andtransferable into the classroom.

Functional PheoryEduard C. Lindeman in Ihe Meaning of

Ailuli Educatiou'^ eontendcd that teach-ers and textbooks should play a second-ary role with the learner being the primaryfocus in adult education. Lindeman viewedthe learner's experience as paramtiunt. Hebelieved that if education was life, then lifewas also education. He viewed experienceas the adult learner's textbook.

Authoritative teuchini^, examina-tions which preclude (>rii>inal ihink-//;,!,', rif^id pedagogical fornnilac—allthese have no place in adult educa-tion....Small groups of aspiring adultswho desire to keep their minds freshand vigorous: who hegiu to learn hyconfronting pertinent situations; whodig down into the reservoirs of theirexperience before resorting to te.xtsand secondary facts: who are led inthe discussion hy teachers who arealso searchers after wisdom and notoracles: this constitutes the setting foradult education, the modern quest forlife's meaning.'^''In the last twenty-five years, theorists have

attempted to identify characteristics of adultlearners in order to aid practice.'^ Histori-cally, John Dewey"^ advocated that educa-

The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin

tion should be measured by whether or notil created a desire for the learner to continueto grow. Simpson''' noted two distinguishingtrails in adult learners: the autonomy of direc-tion of learning and the use of experience asa resource. Self-directedness was a generalfocus of adult leartiers. According to the func-tional theory, adults preferred to plan their owneducational paths, and most generally choseeducational topics and subjects that they coulddirectly apply in their own classrooms.

Gibb-" developed what has been referredto as a functional theory of adult learning.He stated that learning should be problemand experience centered and meaning-ful to the learner. Similarly. Knox- ' madebroad observations about adult learning. Hebelieved that adults learned continually andinformally as they adjusted and adapted tochanging roles and other conditions in life.Brundage and Mackeracker-- agreed, stalingthat adults learned throughout their lifetimesand that it was through experience that learn-ers were able to gain meanings and to createframeworks. These theorists contended thatthe teachers of adult learners should respectadult experiences and apply them to cur-rent situations to produce good educationalresults. They also believed that adult learn-ers were motivated to learn if the subjectmatter was relevant to their current role andtransition period. Finally, they found that forthe most effective learning to occur, partici-pation in learning should be voluntary.

Smith"'- wrote of six observations of adultlearning:• it was lifelong.• it is personal.• it involved change.• it was part of human development.• it involved experience, and• it was partly intuitive.Smith further contended that the develop-mental stages of the students generated dif-ferent conditions for learning, and that whatwas learned should be related to the stu-dents* developmental changes and life roles.

11He added that the climate of learning shouldbe non-thrcatcning. recognizing variousstyles of learning. Other researchers havestudied the adult learner, each in an attemptto improve the education of these learners.

Adult Development and ProfessionalDevelopment

Knowles "* referred to the adult learner asa "neglected species." When viewing adultdevelopment and professional development,he listed live key assumptions about adultlearners:• adults wore motivated to learn as they

experienced needs and interests that thelearning would satisfy.

' learning for adults was lifelong,• experience was the main resource for

adult learning,• adults had a need to be self-directed in

their learning, and• individual differences among people

increased with age.Gessner. in The Democratic Man:

Selected Writing's of Edna rd C. Liiideman,quoted Lindeman as he addressed the needfor self-directed learning and how it wasplayed out in the classroom:

None but the humble become f^oodteachers of adults. In an adult classthe student's experience counts formuch of the teacher's knowledt^e...shared authority. In conventional edu-cation, ihe pupils adapt themselves tothe curriculum offered, but in adulteducation the pupils aid in formulat-ing the curricula...under democraticconditions authority is of the group.^^Teachers should be given latitude to form

their own professional development. Whatinterests them'.* What would they like todelve into more deeply? What do they feelthey need to learn? Allowing the teachers todetermine what direetion their professionaldevelopment will take will greatly increasethe success of the teachers in their journeyto be lifelong learners.

12 Winter 2006Researeh in the area of adult devel-

opment included the work of anotherresearcher. Oja,^^ who studied adult learn-ing as it applied to teacher inservice educa-tion by identifying four key ingredients torsuccessful adult learning:• use of concrete experiences,• continuously available supervision andadvising.• encouragement of adults to take on newand complex roles, and• the use of support and feedback whenimplementing new techniques.

Teachers wanted learning experiencesthat they eould immediately practice in theirclassrooms. They liked to discuss practiceswith others and problem-solve elassroomsituations. Through these interactive situa-tions, adults were able to reflect, grow andadapt throughout their teaching careers.

Daioz stated thatThe proper aim of education is

to promote significant learning. Sig-nificant learning entails development.Development tneans successively ask-ing broader and deeper cpiestions ofthe relationship between oneself andthe world...Education should pro-mote development. A good educationought to help people to become bothmore receptive and more discritninat-ing about the world: seeing, feeling,and understanding more, yet .sortingthe pertinent from the irrelevant withever finer touch, increasingly able tointegrate what they see and to makemeaning of it in ways that enhancetheir ability to go on growing....wedevelop by progressively taking apartand putting together the structuresthat give our lives meaning.'^

Through the review of adult developmentresearch, and the research of effective tech-niques of instruetion with adult learners,there were several key themes:

• adults used experience as a resource andit cannot be ignored.

• adults needed to plan their own educa-tional paths based on their interests and theirclassrooms, and• the aim of adult education should be topromote individual development by encour-aging reflection and inquiry.

The data found in adult developmentreseareh ean be used when planning profes-sional development activities for teachers.Research also demonstrated that teaehers,too, go through developmental stages duringtheir teaching careers. Professional develop-ment programs need to consider these stageswhen planning aetivities. A

ReferencesI. [iurdcn. P;iiil R. Teacher Development. In W.R.

HoiLsloii. M. Hiibennan, & J. Sikiila (Eds.). Hiiiul-hook of Research on Teacher Eduealion: A Projectofthi' Associalion of Teacher Educalor\. New York:MacMillanPublishiiig.lWO: 311-328.

1. Beiils. KicliarcJ H. & Hnwey. Kcnnelh R. SiaffDevolopnicni; Change in ihc Individual. In B. Dil-lon-Peterson (Ed.). Staff Developnieiit/Organiza-lional Developmcnl. Alexandria. VA: Associationtor Supervision and Ciirrienlum Development.I9SI.

3. Sheehy. Gail. Passai^cs: Frediclahlc Crises tif AdultLife. New York: Diitton. 1976.

4. Sheehy.3. Levinson. Daniel J.. Darrow. Charlotte N.. Klien.

Edward B. 'The Season's of a Man's Life. New York:Alfred A. Knopf. 1474.

6. Dalo/. Laurent A. ( mSft). Effective Teaching amiMentoring. San Francisco: Josscy-Bass, Inc.

7. Dalo/ (a)5. Hakv. Laurent A. (l9'-)9). Mentor: Giiidinf- the

Journey of Adntt Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

y. Dalo/.(b)10. Loevinger. Jane (1976). E\'o Devetopnieni: Coneep-

lions and Thi-orie.s. San Francisco: Josscy-Bass, Inc.11. Kohlberg. t..awrence. "Stage and Sequence: The

Cojinitive Developmental Approach to Sociali/.a-tion." In D.A. Cioslin (Fd.). Hamthook of .Socializa-tion Theory and Research. Chic.igo: Riind-McNally.l%9:347-380.

12. Kegan, Roherl. The Evolving Self: Problem andProcess in Human Developnieni. Cambridge. MA:Harvard University Press. 1982.

13. tiunt. Diivid E. Person-environment Inleraction: "AChallenge Found Wanting Before tl Was Tried."Review of Educaiioiud Researeh. 45. (I y75):20y-230.

The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin 1314. Perry. William G. Forms of liiiclU'iniiil tiiid Ethi-

cal Dcvclopmcm in ihe Coll('i;c Yfar.s. New York:Hull. Rincharl and Winston. 1970,

15. Lindeman, Hdiiard C. The Mcanuii< iif Ailult Eiiii-catiou. New York: Now RL-puhlic. Inf.. l')26.

16. [.indeman.17. Braoktield. STephcn D. (JndiT.sUiiiilini' antl Facili-

itiiinii Aihih Letiruiiii;. San Francisco: Jusscy-Bass,Inc.. 198(1.

IS. Devvey. John. Di'inocrtuy in hUliicdlion. McMillanCompany. 1916.

19. Simpson. IZduin L. "'Adult Learning Theory:A Stale o! the Art." In H. Lasker. J. Moore andE.L. Simpson (Eds.). Adull Dcvelopmenl amiApproaches lo Ledriiiiii-. Washinglon, D.C:National Instiiulc nf Education. 1980: 28-32.

20. Gibb. Jack R. (i960). Learning Theory in AduliEtliicalion. In M.S. Knowlcs (Ed.), Hiimihook ofAchih Ediicdiioii in the Uniicil StaWs. Washington.D.C, Adult Education Association uf the USA.

21. Kno\. Alan B. Athdt Developmeni and l^etirnini;: AHandbook tin Individual Gntwih and Competencein ihe Adult Year.s. San Francisco: Jos.scy-Bass. Inc.1977.

22. BrundagL', Diinahl H, & Mackcracker, DorothyAdiill Learning Principles and Their .Applicalion loProf-rani Flanninf". Toronio: Ministry of Education.Ontario. 1980.

23. Smilh. Robert M. Learning How to Learn: AppliedLearning Theory for Adidi\. New York: CambridgeB(K>ks. 1982

24. Knowlcs, Malcolm. The Adult Learner: A Ne<ilectedSpecies. 4th Hd. Houston: Gulf Publishing Com-pany. 1990.

25. Gessner. Robert (Ed.), The Democratic Man:Selected Writings oj Ediiard C. Lindeman. Boston:Beacon. 1956.

26. Oji, Sharon Nodie, "Adull Dc\cl()pmcnl Is Implicitin Staff Developmeni." Journal of Staff Develop-ment. I (2), 1980:7-56.

27. Daloz(a)

Adventures in Learning (Continued from 7.)

References1. Williiiius. Florence, "A Brief History of Adven-

tures in Learning in Murfreesboro, Tennessee."Paper, 2(H)5. In owner's personal lilcs.

2. Shepherd's Centers of America. "Living. Caring,Growing." Retrieved AugusI 19. 2(K)5 from http://www.shepherdcenters.Drg/

3. Melson, Charlotte. "Programs: .Adventures inLearning." Shepherd's Centers of America.Retrieved August 21. 200.S from http://www.shepentr.org/programs.hlni

4. Williams. Florence.

MaUhcws. Sam. "About Us: The Shepherd's Centerof Greater Winst()n-Salem." Shepherd's Center ofGreater Winston-Salem. Retrieved August 20. 2(X)5from hllp://www.shepherdsL-enter,org/aboutus.htm!Adult Education. "Eit'leen Years of Adventures inLearning," (Pamphlet). 2(M).'i.Murphy. Peter. "Benefits ol' Lifelong Learning."Aditll Learners' Week. Retrieved August 22, 2005from http://www.adulllearnert^wcek.org/learners/hcnefiis.htmlWilliams. Florence.Adult F.ducaiion.