accounts of the visual art classroom 15 dec · 2010-06-09 · teacher and student accounts ......
TRANSCRIPT
Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for Artistically Talented Students.
Fiona Joy Ballantyne Vicig
Masters of Education (Research) School of Learning and Professional Studies
Queensland University of Technology 2009
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Abstract Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students
to be met satisfactorily. The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in
Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown. This study addresses this
gap in research through an inquiry into the experiences of artistically talented
students and their teachers in visual art classrooms, by examining the accounts of a
group of students and teachers at one high school in South East Queensland.
This study is significant as it provides teachers, parents and others involved in the
education of artistically talented students with additional means to plan and cater for
the educational needs of artistically talented students. Teacher and student accounts
of the visual art classroom in this study indicated that identification processes for
artistically talented students are unclear and contradictory. Furthermore, teacher and
student accounts of their experiences presented a wide variety of conceptions of the
visual art classroom and point towards an individualised approach to learning for
artistically talented students. This study also discovered a mismatch between
assessment practices in the subject visual art and assessment of art in the ‘real
world’. Specifically, this study proposes a renewal of programs for artistically
talented students, and recommends a revision of current procedures for the
identification of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms.
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Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature
Date
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Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible. I would like
to thank Dr Felicity McArdle and Professor Suzanne Carrington for their
encouragement, advice, and support throughout this study. You have taught me a lot
and your input has been invaluable to the success of this thesis.
I am very grateful to the people who helped me conduct my fieldwork. Particular
thanks go to those staff and pupils who shared their experiences with me and gave
their time to participate in the study.
I wish to thank my family and friends for all the time spent listening to me talking
about the thesis, for the constant advice, encouragement and patience shown
throughout this process.
Lastly, I would like to thank my husband, David for supporting, loving and
encouraging me throughout the writing of this thesis. I am so grateful for the hours
you spent reading drafts, listening to me talk about the latest development and
encouraging me to continue when times got tough. I dedicate this thesis to you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 7
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................. 13
2.1 The arts .................................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Learning in the arts ............................................................................................................... 15
2.1.2 The arts in schools ................................................................................................................ 17
2.1.3 Visual art within the arts ....................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Gifted and talented education ................................................................................................ 22
2.2.1 Inclusive education ............................................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Intelligence ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.2.3 Gifted and talented education in Australia ............................................................................ 27
2.3 Talent and the arts .................................................................................................................. 28
2.3.1 Identification of artistic talent ............................................................................................... 29
2.3.2 Artistically talented students: Teaching and learning ........................................................... 31
2.4 Catering for artistically talented students ............................................................................. 35
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 37
3.1 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Research design ....................................................................................................................... 42
3.3 Fieldwork ................................................................................................................................. 43
3.3.1 The site ................................................................................................................................. 44
3.3.2 Stage one – Focus group interviews ..................................................................................... 44
3.3.3 Stage two: Semi-structured one-on-one interviews .............................................................. 46
3.4 Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 49
3.5 Limitations ............................................................................................................................... 51
3.7 Ethics ........................................................................................................................................ 51
3.8 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 4: TEACHER ACCOUNTS .......................................................... 54
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4.1 Identification ........................................................................................................................... 54
4.1.1 Identifying high achievers at Knightsbridge College ............................................................ 55
4.1.2 Characteristics of the artistically talented ............................................................................. 58
4.1.3 Defining artistic talent .......................................................................................................... 62
4.2 Teacher experiences ................................................................................................................ 66
4.2.1 Teaching artistically talented students .................................................................................. 66
4.2.2 Programming for artistically talented students ..................................................................... 69
4.2.3 Assessment ........................................................................................................................... 72
4.2.4 Freedom and flexibility ......................................................................................................... 75
4.3 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER 5: STUDENT ACCOUNTS ........................................................... 81
5.1 Identification ........................................................................................................................... 86
5.1.1 Being identified .................................................................................................................... 86
5.1.2 Artistic talent ........................................................................................................................ 92
5.2 Student experiences ................................................................................................................. 99
5.2.1 Making art ............................................................................................................................. 99
5.2.2 Influences ............................................................................................................................ 104
5.2.3 Future aspirations................................................................................................................ 108
5.2.4 The classroom environment ................................................................................................ 113
5.2.5 Freedom and flexibility ....................................................................................................... 117
5.3 Chapter summary ................................................................................................................. 122
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 125
6.1 Summary of research findings in relation to each research question ............................... 126
6.1.1 How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art classroom? .............. 126
6.1.2 What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically talented students in
the visual art classroom? ................................................................................................................. 128
6.1.3 What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the visual art
classroom? ....................................................................................................................................... 129
6.1.4 What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of artistically
talented students in visual art? ......................................................................................................... 131
6.2 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................... 135
6.3 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 135
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6.4 Final concluding comments .................................................................................................. 136
REFERENCE LIST ...................................................................................... 138
APPENDIX 1 ................................................................................................ 146
APPENDIX 2 ................................................................................................ 147
APPENDIX 3 ................................................................................................ 149
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Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for Artistically Talented Students
In 2007 students from Knightsbridge College were involved in a
community art exhibition called “Kaleidoscope”. A community art
representative and the curator of the exhibition chose student work from
the grade 12 cohort to represent the school in the exhibition. Student
artworks were professionally displayed and exhibited in a prominent
community area. The choice of works for this exhibition sparked interest
from teachers and students at Knightsbridge College. A number of
student artworks that were chosen by the curators of the exhibition were
not awarded high marks when they were assessed by teachers; however
they were chosen to represent the school in a public forum. Similarly,
some works that received high marks when assessed by the teachers were
not chosen for the exhibition. It seems that in this case what constituted
quality art in the school setting was different from what constituted
quality art in the “real world”.
This experience highlights a number of points of interest with regards to
the identification of excellence in student art and student artists and how
excellence in art is catered for in the school setting. This scenario
served as inspiration for this research and informed the design of this
study.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students
to be met satisfactorily. The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in
Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown. This study addresses this
gap in research through the exploration of teaching and learning experiences in one
8
visual art classroom. Students who are talented in visual art are often not catered for
in programs for high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000;
Zimmerman, 2004). Most schools identify high achieving students through the use
of IQ or standardised tests that are language and logic centric (Gardner, 1993;
Wright, 2003). These identification procedures often fail to identify students who
are talented in visual art (Crocker, 2000; Gardner, 1993).
Visual art is an important component of school curriculum that incorporates unique
and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning
experience (Emery, 1998). Visual art is distinguished from other disciplines through
its own pedagogical structure and knowledge base (Hurwitz & Day, 2001); it is a
visual language that helps students to perceive, express, communicate, interpret and
understand the world (Barrett, 1998).
The Queensland Government’s framework for gifted education states that students
who excel or have the potential to excel in one or more ability areas require specific
educational provisions to engage in learning and develop their abilities (Department
of Education and the Arts, 2004). While there is a considerable amount of literature
regarding gifted and talented students in general, there is a paucity of research into
the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in regular visual art
classrooms. Many schools conduct programs for students who are identified as high
achievers across a range of subject areas. Research has found that students who are
talented in visual art are commonly left unidentified and, therefore, are not catered
for in specialist programs (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman,
2004). Most research about artistically talented students has been conducted in
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America and has explored the characteristics of artistically talented students (Clark &
Zimmerman, 1984, 1988; Zimmerman, 2004), their specific educational needs
(Clark, 1987; Hurwitz & Day, 2001), identification processes (Bachtel-Nash, 1988;
Brown et al., 2005; Clark, 1989, 1995; Clark & Zimmerman, 1992, 2001, 2004) and
the notion of the child prodigy (Golomb, 1995; Winner, 1993; Winner & Martino,
2002).
The majority of literature about artistically talented students has researched students
and teachers from exclusive programs specifically designed for the artistically
talented. This study will investigate the accounts of artistically talented students and
their teachers in the regular visual art classroom setting. It is essential to investigate
the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers within the regular
visual art classroom, as this is the most common learning environment for visual art
students. Furthermore, there is a gap in research addressing artistically talented
students and their teachers in Australia in general. An investigation into the
experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers is necessary as it is
unknown how high school aged artistically talented students are catered for in visual
art classrooms in Australia.
Students are commonly identified as high achievers in core curriculum areas such as
mathematics and English and schools often provide these students with special
programs suited to their specific learning needs. In the same way, it is crucial that
students who are artistically talented are identified so that their specific educational
needs can be assessed and catered for specifically. One way to find out about
students’ experiences is to include them in an inquiry into the needs and experiences
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of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms. In addition, the
identification procedures used by teachers in Australian high school visual art
classrooms require further exploration to determine how artistically talented students
are being identified and provided for. An investigation into student and teacher
experiences will help to inform how best to plan and cater for the educational needs
of artistically talented students.
This research addresses a significant gap in the literature as the procedures used to
identify artistically talented students and the experiences of artistically talented
students and their teachers in the regular visual art classroom have not been
accounted for in the literature so far. Accordingly, the aim of this project is to
investigate procedures used to identify artistically talented students in visual art
classrooms and to explore the experiences of artistically talented students and their
teachers in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students
and teachers at one school in South East Queensland. The specific research
questions are:
1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art classroom?
2. What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically talented
students in the visual art classroom?
3. What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the
visual art classroom?
4. What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of
artistically talented students in visual art?
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This research endeavours to provide valuable information for schools as they plan
and design educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art. Findings may
be used to form new understandings about artistically talented students’ needs and
visual art experiences. These understandings hold the potential to provide teachers,
parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students with
additional means to plan and cater for the educational needs of these students.
Chapter 2 provides a background to the study through a review of the relevant
literature. This chapter places the education of artistically talented students firstly
within the larger context of arts education and secondly within the larger context of
gifted and talented education. Chapter 2 highlights the gaps in the literature and
concludes by making a case for research that investigates the experiences of
artistically talented students and their teachers in one regular visual art classroom in
Australia.
To conduct such an inquiry, it is necessary to design an appropriate methodology for
the study. Chapter 3 outlines the methodological foundation and framework for the
thesis and describes the design of the project. Chapter 3 outlines the procedure for
how the data were generated and analysed, and who the participants were; as well as
limitations and ethical considerations.
Chapter 4 displays the data and analyses teacher accounts of the process used for
identifying artistically talented students and teacher experiences with artistically
talented students within the visual art classroom. Chapter 4 presents a discussion
of teacher accounts and places them within the literature in this field.
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Chapter 5 displays the data and analyses student accounts of the process used for
identifying artistically talented students and student experiences within the visual art
classroom. Examples of student work are presented together with student responses.
Chapter 5 also presents a discussion of student accounts and places them within the
literature in this field.
Chapter 6 makes comparisons between teacher accounts and student accounts and
explores their implications for future practices regarding the education of artistically
talented students. The limitations of the research are also discussed.
This study explores the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers
in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students and
teachers at one high school in South East Queensland. Findings constitute new
knowledge in a currently under-researched area providing valuable information for
teachers, parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students
to assist in planning and providing for the educational needs of these students. This
research provides valuable information for schools as they plan and design
educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art.
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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In order to conduct an inquiry focussing on student and teacher accounts of their
experiences in the visual art classroom, it is necessary to review several related
bodies of literature within the arts and within the school curriculum. The first section
of this literature review explores issues around the nature of education within the arts
in general and visual art in particular. This is followed by an exploration of gifted
and talented education and its relationship with the arts generally and visual art
specifically. Finally, the literature review explores the teaching and learning issues
surrounding artistically talented students’ experiences in the visual art classroom is
discussed.
2.1 The arts
The value of the arts is well documented by many researchers. As humans we are
confronted with the arts on a day-by-day basis through real-life experiences and the
media. It is essential for school students to access the arts through the school
curriculum so that they can decipher meaning from the world around them (Aland,
1998). The arts are understood to provide unique opportunities for “aesthetic and
sensory learning, cognitive, physical and social learning” (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001, p. 12). The benefit of study in the arts extends, therefore
beyond the arts classroom.
Engagement in arts education has been found to benefit students as it has the
potential to facilitate enhanced learning and outcomes (1999; Gelineau, 2004; Hess,
1991; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000). In addition, a young person’s motivation to learn
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and their capacity to achieve at higher levels is increased through participation in the
arts (Catterall et al., 1999). Clark and Zimmerman (1994; 2004) recognise that the
arts have the power to engage students and develop superior creative thinking, self
concept, problem solving, self expression, risk taking and co-operation in students.
Due to the expressive nature of arts experiences, students can also be seen to benefit
emotionally, culturally and socially through involvement with the arts (Aland, 1998;
Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Emery, 1998).
Gelineau (2004) makes a strong argument that engagement in an arts-rich curriculum
leads to enhanced abilities in all subject and intelligence areas. At the same time,
Eisner (1998) warns that attempts to justify the arts on the basis of their non-art
outcomes may fail to recognise the real benefits and outcomes of arts experiences.
Aesthetic experiences provided through the arts distinguish them from other learning
experiences (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery, 1998). While the arts are often justified by
their potential to facilitate success in other subject areas, it is important to focus on
the significance of arts experiences for aesthetic reasons (Aland, 1998; Barrett,
1998).
While the arts can be seen to benefit students cognitively, socially and culturally, “it
is the aesthetic domain of the arts that makes them unique and vital to the human
experience” (Ballantyne, 2001, p. 1). Aesthetic experiences are intrinsic to arts
experiences where enjoyment and fulfilment is achieved (Emery, 1998). Music,
dance, drama, visual art and media each embody unique aesthetic experiences that
can’t be obtained in any other way (Emery, 1998). When describing the nature of
the arts, the syllabus highlights the aesthetic domain that students value in “the
enjoyment and satisfaction they get from their involvement in these expressions of
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the human spirit” (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001, p. 5). The
fulfilment of the aesthetic experiences provided through the arts is what
distinguishes them from other learning experiences.
2.1.1 Learning in the arts
Whilst there are many facets of teaching and learning that are generic to all subject
areas, each subject area requires teaching and learning expertise that is subject
specific. Due to the unique characteristics of arts experiences, teaching and learning
in the arts requires specific teacher training and expertise (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery,
1998). As a result, student and teacher experiences in the visual art classroom are
likely to be different from other subject areas.
The arts are also significant as they allow students to discover nonverbal modes of
communication (Smith, 1999). These significant functions that are achieved through
the arts are not accessible through any other means or subjects at school and
therefore it is imperative that the arts play an important and meaningful part in the
school curriculum (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Smith, 1999).
Abbs’ (1989) comments on arts education highlight the abstract nature of arts
pedagogy, while also emphasising some of the distinct characteristics of learning and
teaching that are unique to the arts:
The grammar of the arts therefore cannot be introduced through a
series of prescribed schematic exercises divorced from the
animating energies of feeling, sense, perception and imagination.
They must be introduced as a necessary part of expressive activity
seeking formal articulation…The art teacher’s task is to promote
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that reciprocal play between the repertoire of artistic conventions
inherited through the culture and that innate proclivity in the
individual and group for symbolic expression. (Abbs, 1989, p. 38-
39)
According to The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus document, published by Queensland
Schools Authority, arts pedagogy should be learner-centred (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001). In this approach the teacher adopts the role of the
facilitator who guides and scaffolds learning and students learn through the active
construction of meaning. It is recognised through this approach that knowledge is
viewed as continually changing and constructed on prior experiences. Students are
encouraged to practise critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making through the learner-centred approach to pedagogy (Queensland School
Curriculum Council, 2001). Similarly, Burton (2000) offers an approach to arts
pedagogy where students draw on their experiences to engage in the arts as makers
and appraisers. Burton emphasises the opportunities for complex and real-world
meaning making through engagement in the arts when a learner-centred approach to
arts pedagogy is used.
Teaching and learning in the arts emphasises the value of process as well as product.
While many subject areas focus on assessing the end product of a student’s work, it
is common for subjects in the arts to use authentic assessment, where the artistic
process, exploration of ideas and discovery are seen as integral components of
learning (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 2004). Authentic assessment in visual
art involves the active engagement of students in learning and instruction, where
students play an important part in determining their achievements (Clark &
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Zimmerman, 2004). Consequently, authentic assessment in visual art is worthwhile,
meaningful and significant for students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 1999).
In maths and science, student achievement is primarily assessed through tests,
assignments and exams that occur at the end of the learning period. Practical
assessments in visual art, for example, may require students to keep a visual diary
throughout the making experience that details their thoughts, reflections, decisions,
research, and artistic processes. While the end product (the artwork) is considered in
assessing arts outcomes, much of the learning can be seen through the artistic
processes (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). The unique value that the arts give to
processes as well as product place the arts in a precarious situation within the school
curriculum. This is particularly concerning in the current climate of educational
accountability through the justification of student outcomes.
2.1.2 The arts in schools
In the last 40 years visual art, drama, music, dance, and media have been commonly
grouped under the umbrella term The Arts. When exploring the experiences of
Queensland students and teachers in the art classroom, it is important to investigate
the context of the arts within the Queensland school curriculum. The arts are
identified as one of the eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs) by the Queensland Studies
Authority in the The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus. Visual art, dance, drama, media and
music are recognised as specific disciplines or strands within the arts KLA. The arts
are commonly taught by generalist teachers in primary schools across Queensland,
with the exception of music which is often taught by a specialist teacher. The arts
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are generally taught as elective studies in high schools by specialist teachers in each
discipline.
Education in visual art, dance, drama, media and music is usually termed arts
education. The individual arts disciplines are united by the common goal of
expression - whether emotions, stories, discourses or ideas (Emery, 1998). Many
researchers have identified expressive experiences in the arts as unique to the human
condition. Barnes (2002) acknowledges that ignoring the arts would be similar to
ignoring what makes us human. If artistic experiences are fundamental to being
human, it is essential that the arts are incorporated into every student’s experience at
school (Barnes, 2002). Emery makes the point that the arts “have become vehicles
of expression so intrinsic to our culture that it would be unthinkable to offer a school
program without them” (Emery, 1998, p. 1). Furthermore, Smith (1999) clearly
states that the arts provide insight into significant human ideas and values,
worthwhile qualities of experience.
There is a current trend in primary and middle schools in Australia towards
integration within the arts. Teachers are often responsible for teaching all of the arts
in the generalist primary or middle school classroom. Integration can be seen as a
superficial way for one teacher to achieve the goal of teaching five very unique and
challenging disciplines. A different understanding of integration is when the arts are
integrated across KLAs such as English and maths. Sometimes this integration is
seen as a solution to a crowded curriculum and heavy emphasis on literacy and
numeracy. Aland (1998), Barrett (1998), Boyd (1998) and Emery (1998) warn that
authentic integration in the arts is very difficult to achieve satisfactorily. Emery
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argues that inadequate integration has the potential for reducing the arts to
“meaningless, busying activities” (Emery, 1998, p. 8). Barrett (1998) emphasises the
importance of a discipline-specific arts curriculum in primary and middle education
settings, where each discipline is taught as a discrete and specialised subject area that
requires distinct experiences and knowledge.
One factor impacting on the position of the arts within schools, and reflected in
Australian education systems, is the notion that the arts are not as important as other
subject areas. Despite the arts recognition as a KLA in the Queensland education
curriculum, more weight (as measured by time) is commonly given to subjects such
as English and mathematics. Barnes (2002) argues that this lack of value in arts
education is due in some regards to the immeasurable qualities that are unique to arts
experiences. While traditional mathematical/linguistic subjects produce clear results
that are easily quantifiable and justifiable, arts subjects rely a great deal on
interpretation, reflection and creative expression (Gardner, 1993).
Boyd (1998) highlights some of the community attitudes towards the notion of the
artist:
From the point of view of the community the word 'artist' conjures a
vision of a temperamental romantic leading a carefree life- a
bohemian unencumbered by the mundane constraints that beset the
ordinary wage-earner. (Boyd, 1998, p. 2)
Wright (2003) suggests that the community frequently misunderstands what the arts
are and what value they have. Boyd (1998) agrees that communities often fail to
recognise the worthwhile outcomes that the arts produce and the benefit of the arts to
society. This ambivalent community attitude towards the arts often flows through to
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schools, affecting the way the arts are taught and placed within the school curriculum
(Boyd, 1998; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000; Wright, 2003). In an attempt to dispel
community attitudes towards the arts, secondary arts departments find themselves
continuously defending the value and position of their subjects within the school
curriculum. Currently, according to Saatchi and Saatchi (2000) the lack of value
placed on arts education by parents, students, and administrators impedes students’
subject choices and participation in the arts in Australia.
The arts are often appreciated by parents, students and administrators for their
entertainment value and put on show regularly to promote the school in the public
eye (Boyd, 1998). However, frequently they are marginalised through allocation of
time and resources (Boyd, 1998; McArdle & Piscitelli, 2002). In particular, visual
art is often sidelined in primary schools, used as a busying activity and called on for
decoration in public forums such as fetes or festivals (Boyd, 1998; McArdle &
Piscitelli, 2002).
It appears that the under-representation of students talented in visual art in programs
for high achievers may be due in some respects to the lack of value placed on arts
education in schools (Clark & Zimmerman, 2002; Crocker, 2000; Saatchi & Saatchi,
2000). This issue requires further investigation to determine whether the needs of
artistically talented students are being met in Australian schools.
2.1.3 Visual art within the arts
While the arts strands are grouped together and positioned equally within The Arts:
Years 1-10 syllabus in Queensland, it is important to recognise the distinctive nature
21
of each arts discipline. In order to explore the experiences of artistically talented
students and visual art teachers, it is necessary to recognise the nature of visual art
within the arts.
Visual art has its own special pedagogical structure and knowledge base which
distinguishes it from the other arts disciplines (Barrett, 1998; Emery, 1998). The
justification for including visual art in the school curriculum should be based on the
essential contributions that come from studying visual art (Hurwitz & Day, 2001).
Visual art provides students with “a fundamental lens of understanding through
which they can view and interpret the world in which they live” (Hurwitz & Day,
2001, p. 26). Walker (2007) affirms that visual art provides opportunities for unique
and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning
experience. Art is often described as a visual language, a way of perceiving,
expressing, communicating, interpreting and understanding our world (Emery, 1998;
Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001). Visual art provides opportunities for
students to become visually literate in past, present and future cultures and societies
(Aland, 1998; Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001). Students make and
display images and objects in visual art that give them satisfaction and enjoyment
that cannot be achieved through other means (Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Queensland
School Curriculum Council, 2001).
Through the above review of the literature, a case has been made for the arts and
visual art within the school curriculum and society in general. Arts education offers
unique and valuable learning experiences that are essential for all human beings and
therefore should play a significant and essential role in the school curriculum (Boyd,
22
1998; Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Wright, 2003). Yet the arts are often
marginalised and viewed as optional extras in the school curriculum (Saatchi &
Saatchi, 2000). The marginalisation of the arts in school programs and curriculum is
a current and concerning issue and requires further attention in educational research
and practice (Barnes, 2002; Wright, 2003). This marginalisation of the arts extends
to gifted and talented education, where the arts are often not considered in programs
for gifted and talented students in schools. In particular, those students talented in
visual art are often left unidentified and therefore are not catered for in programs for
high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). Consequently, the failure of many
school programs for high achievers to recognise talents in visual arts requires further
investigation (Winner & Martino, 2002; Zimmerman, 2004).
2.2 Gifted and talented education
In order to explore the views of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms
it is necessary to investigate the current literature surrounding gifted and talented
education. Scholars offer various definitions, identification processes and teaching
philosophies concerning the education of high achieving and exceptional students.
An exploration of the literature in this area exposes a variety of differing approaches
to and conceptions of gifted and talented education.
There are numerous terms that are used today and have been used in the past to label
very high achieving students. The term gifted and talented is currently the most
commonly used in most literature, policy and practice when describing very high
achieving students. Recently, the term best and brightest has been used in some
23
Education Queensland schools with programs aimed at high achieving students
(Department of Education and the Arts, 2006). The debate over the terms used to
label high achieving students is particularly relevant when considering the labelling
of high achievers in the arts. For the purpose of this study, it is necessary for a
common understanding of terms and concepts in gifted and talented education to be
established so that students can be identified and catered for appropriately.
Gagne (2002) proposes a differentiated model of giftedness and talent in an attempt
to clarify the use of the terms gifted and talented. Gagne argues that a gift is a
student’s innate potential whereas talents are skills that can be learnt. Winner and
Martino (2002) suggest that this distinction leads to those who have a high IQ or are
exceptional academically being labelled as gifted, whilst those who demonstrate
exceptional ability in the arts are labelled as talented. This distinction between talent
and giftedness is disputed by Winner and Martino who argue that students who are
talented in art can also be defined as gifted. This study will use the terms artistically
talented or students talented in visual art to describe students who are capable of
excelling in the visual art discipline. When discussing students who are very high
achievers in general, this study will use the term gifted and talented as this is the
most commonly used term in the literature.
2.2.1 Inclusive education
Inclusive practices are particularly relevant when considering the education of gifted
and talented students. Inclusive practices in schools aim to provide experiences
where diversity and success for all are valued and celebrated (Department of
Education and the Arts, 2005). It is important that gifted and talented students are
24
identified so that the barriers to their learning can be reduced and their educational
and social outcomes can be maximised (Department of Education and the Arts,
2005). It is also necessary that all students understand and value diversity “so that
they have the knowledge and skills for positive participation in a just, equitable and
democratic global society” (Department of Education and the Arts, 2005, p. 1).
Gifted and talented education has developed out of the need to provide for all
students in diverse student populations. Gifted and talented students require specific
educational provisions to enable them to engage in learning and develop their
abilities (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004). Class tasks and goals are
often geared towards the average student, with teachers spending the majority of
their time helping those students who struggle (Gross, 2004). Often it is the high
achievers who are left to their own devices or asked to instruct and help other
students. Many people expect that gifted and talented students will achieve on their
own regardless of their experiences in the classroom (Gross, 2004). As a result, it is
common for gifted and talented students to become disengaged at school, even
adopting behaviour problems to account for their boredom (Csikszentmihalyi,
Rathunde, & Whalen, 1996). This disengagement becomes particularly evident in
the middle years of schooling (ages 10-15) (Chaffey, 2005; Csikszentmihalyi et al.,
1996).
Schools play a vital role in the promotion of inclusive practices when it comes to the
education of gifted and talented students. It is important that schools actively
nurture individual students’ gifts and talents, providing a supportive environment
25
where their needs can be met (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004).
Schools are required to develop a curriculum that is inclusive and appropriate and
caters for the needs of gifted and talented students. In order for schools to provide
an appropriate curriculum, understanding, acceptance and recognition of gifted and
talented students are required by the school community (Department of Education
and the Arts, 2004).
Notions of equity and excellence in art underlie the provision of an art education that
is inclusive of all students with varied abilities and needs (Clark & Zimmerman,
2004; Smith, 1999; Stewart, 1995). It is necessary for art education to provide for
the needs of all students, including those who excel in visual art. This is particularly
relevant when considering artistically talented students, as they are often not
recognised in programs for high achievers (Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman, 2004).
High achievement at school is often linked with conceptions of intelligence. In order
to further understand the concepts surrounding gifted and talented education an
exploration of human notions of intelligence is required.
2.2.2 Intelligence
Human intelligence is a social and cultural construct. What is viewed as intelligence
changes through time and from culture to culture. Many scholars have argued that
these identification procedures “violate educational equity by consistently excluding
large populations of poor and culturally diverse gifted students” (Richert, 2002, p.
148). Programs for high achievers in schools predominantly cater only to
26
intellectually and academically talented students, focussing mainly on students who
are identified through standardised and IQ tests (Crocker, 2000; Gardner, 1993,
1999).
Many notions of intelligence in Australia are essentially constructed from a Western
view of intelligence. Over time human intelligence has been tested and researched
by many scholars. In 1869, Galton observed a hereditary basis for above average
intelligence according to his tests of visual and auditory acuity, tactile sensitivity and
reaction time (Colangelo & Davis, 2002). At the beginning of the 19th century, many
scholars, including Binet, Goddard, Simon and Terman, searched for ways to
measure intelligence through tests. These investigations lead to Terman’s production
of the Stanford-Binet intelligence test and scale (Colangelo & Davis, 2002).
Although there have been many studies contesting the aptness of this test, it is still
used widely today to identify and evaluate intelligence levels. Other significant
studies in history investigated the emotional needs of highly intelligent children
(Hollingworth, 1926) and the instigation of acceleration practices for gifted and
talented students in America (Colangelo & Davis, 2002).
The arts are identified as a unique area of expertise in many notions of intelligence,
giftedness and talent. Although most research has explored gifted and talented
education in a generic way, researchers such as Gardner (1993), have made a case
for viewing talent and giftedness in the arts as a discrete set of intelligences.
Gardner’s argument is premised on the idea that all people possess multiple
intelligences – knowledge and skills in different areas. The arts embody knowledge
and skills that are evident across many of Gardner’s intelligence areas. The arts are
recognised specifically in three of the eight multiple intelligences; musical
27
intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and spatial intelligence (Gardner, 1993,
1999). Gardner states that while society and schools focus mostly on linguistic and
logical-mathematical intelligence, equal importance should be placed on individuals
who excel in other intelligence areas. Gardner argues that many students who show
gifts in musical intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and spatial intelligence
may be labelled as underachievers when their unique ways of thinking and learning
are not recognised (Gardner, 1993, 1999).
Students talented in visual art are also among those excluded from programs for high
achievers through the use of IQ and standardised tests which are language and logic
centric (Gardner, 1993, 1999). Wright (2003) highlights the biases in IQ tests
towards language and logic, suggesting that the arts are marginalised through the use
of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence. Gardner (1993, 1999) criticised the unequal
weight given to language and logic in IQ tests and proposed eight equally significant
multiple intelligences. While the arts are evident in many of Gardner’s (1993)
multiple intelligences, Wright recognises that musical intelligence, spatial
intelligence and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence are most evident in the arts. IQ
tests do not measure musical, spatial and body-kinaesthetic intelligence sufficiently,
and therefore cannot adequately identify students who show ability in these areas
(Gardner, 1993).
2.2.3 Gifted and talented education in Australia
There is very little research available regarding the education of artistically talented
students in Australia. The majority of research into artistically talented students’
28
education has been undertaken in North America by Zimmerman (1984-2006), Clark
(1984-2006) and Winner (1989-2002). Although research has been conducted in
Australia, this research has concentrated on the education of academically gifted
students, without focussing on those who are artistically gifted.
One longitudinal study into gifted and talented education in Australia was conducted
by Gross (2004). This research followed 15 exceptionally gifted students over 10
years (1993-2003), focussing on their experiences in secondary schools in Australia.
Her study reported the identification procedures, pedagogy and models used in the
education programs for these students. Gross’s research supported the academic and
social benefits of acceleration and ability grouping in Australia and highlighted the
lack of research and educational support for gifted and talented students in Australia.
Egalitarian Australian values were identified as one of the reasons for this general
lack of support and research in the education of the gifted and talented in Australia.
In addition, Gross’s study presented a case for further Australian based research in
the area of gifted and talented education.
2.3 Talent and the arts
In 2004, the Queensland framework for gifted education included talent in visual arts
as a distinct ability within the broader definition of gifted and talented students:
Students who are gifted and talented excel, or are capable of
excelling, in one or more areas such as general intelligence, specific
academic studies, visual and performing arts, physical ability,
creative thinking, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills.
(Department of Education and the Arts, 2004, p. 1)
29
This definition places gifts and talents in visual arts as distinct from other areas,
suggesting students who are talented in visual art should receive special educational
services to cater for their unique capabilities (Department of Education and the Arts,
2004). While it is heartening to see giftedness in the arts recognised, this definition
separates giftedness in the arts from all other forms of giftedness. While many of the
other areas of giftedness listed run across subject areas and focus on general skills or
abilities, visual and performing arts are isolated. This definition could be seen to
suggest that gifts in the arts are not common across subject or intelligence areas.
This does not sit well with Wright’s assertion that the arts encompass a much broader
and essential part of human existence which extends beyond the boundaries of a
subject area into real life experiences (Wright, 2003).
2.3.1 Identification of artistic talent
Artistic talent is easy to identify when considering the notion of the child prodigy.
The child prodigy is defined as “a child who, before the age of ten, performs at the
level of a highly trained adult in some cognitively demanding domain” (Morelock &
Feldman, 2000, p. 227). Picasso and Mozart are both well known prodigies of their
art forms. The notion of the child prodigy invites a debate of nature versus nurture
(Evans, Bickel, & Pendarvis, 2000). It is often argued that child prodigies inherit or
are born with innate talents that allow them to master skills in their field at an early
age (Evans et al., 2000). Conversely, it can also be argued that talents can be
mastered by any child who has been encouraged, practices regularly and is
surrounded by a nurturing environment (Shanks, 1999).
30
A case in point is the development of children’s drawings seen to vary across
cultures. Winner and Martino (2002) consider the example of young Chinese
students who are taught skills and techniques to draw realistic and adult-like images
from an early age. The term artistically talented may include those who are
exceptionally gifted or prodigies of visual arts, however it also includes those who
have the potential to achieve very high standards in visual art through hard work,
dedication and being taught. This presents a dilemma when identification of
artistically talented students is required, and arts education is irregular, or in some
cases, non-existent.
2.3.1.1 Creativity
Creativity is often featured in literature surrounding the identification of artistic
talent and ability. Kaufman and Sternberg (2007) suggest that creativity an
important and significant aspect of education. Creativity can be defined as an idea
that is “new, good and relevant” (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2007, p. 55) and can be
used to describe people, processes, products and environments. Clark and
Zimmerman (2004) establish that the concept of creativity is often poorly defined
and misunderstood. Consequently, the validity of procedures that focus on the
identification or assessment of creativity in students as a tool for identifying
artistically talented students has been questioned (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004).
While talents in other areas have been successfully assessed through the use of tests,
there is no widely used test for assessing talent in visual art. Creativity and drawing
tests have been developed to assess students’ abilities in visual art with some success
(Clark, 1995; Torrance & Ball, 1984). However, Crocker (2000) identifies three
reasons why these tests for assessing talent in visual arts have so far not been widely
31
implemented. First, the lack of agreed definitions for talent and creativity in visual
art (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Cooney & J, 2004) has led to criticism of the
existing tests. Second, as far as is known, no comprehensive test has yet been able to
effectively assess talent across the range of studio areas in visual art. Third, there is
no evidence that these tests can predict future accomplishments in visual art. As a
result, combinations of informal approaches such as teacher, parent and peer
nominations have been adopted to identify talented students in visual art (Crocker,
2000; Hurwitz & Day, 2001). It is necessary for identification procedures to be
investigated further so that we can fully understand how artistically talented students
are being identified within Australian visual art classrooms.
2.3.2 Artistically talented students: Teaching and learning
The similarities and differences between academically and artistically talented
students have been researched by a number of scholars. Winner and Martino (2002)
argue that artistically talented students are similar to academically talented students
in three ways: (i) they learn at a faster pace than others at their age; (ii) they are
intensely motivated to create large volumes of work and master their skills; and (iii)
they learn and solve problems in a different way, requiring very little adult input.
Research has found that artistically talented students are not necessarily identified
through the use of standardised and IQ tests, whereas these tests often accurately
identify academically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000;
Hurwitz & Day, 2001; Zimmerman, 2004). Clark and Zimmerman found that
students who are talented in the arts also excelled in other subject areas (Clark &
Zimmerman, 1988), whereas Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi (1976) and Hurwitz and
32
Day (2001) suggest that students talented in art may not be as successful in other
subjects at school. These contradictory findings highlight some of the
inconsistencies in the literature about artistically talented students. There is a need
for further research in this area in order to investigate some of the inconsistencies
and expand existing knowledge, building a strong foundation for future research
about artistically talented students.
Artistically talented students have unique characteristics that set them apart from
other students in the way they produce artwork. Hurwitz and Day (2001) construct a
profile of children talented in visual art:
A child gifted in art observes acutely and has a vivid memory, is
adept at handling problems requiring imagination, and, although
open to new experiences, prefers to delve deeply into a limited area.
The child takes art seriously and derives great personal satisfaction
from the work, is persistent, and spends much time making and
learning about art. Indeed, the gifted child may sometimes be
obsessive or compulsive about artwork, neglecting other areas of
study for it. (p. 92)
Another characteristic of artistically talented students is that their artworks differ
from average students’ artworks. Millbrath’s (1998) longitudinal and cross-sectional
study of talented young artists found that these students’ drawings were not only
more advanced but qualitatively different from other students’ drawings at the same
developmental stage. While Hurwitz and Day (2001) described various
developmental stages of drawing in detail, Winner (2002) highlighted that
developmental stages are not necessarily universal and that they may be determined
differently across cultures. Millbrath (1998) found that artistically talented western
students draw realistically and use figurative processes to represent forms at a much
33
younger age than typical children. Hurwitz and Day (2001) identified visual fluency,
complexity and elaboration, sensitivity to art media, random improvisation and
verisimilitude as distinctive abilities that are observable in artistically talented
students’ artwork. These special abilities could be fostered and enhanced through
quality education of artistically talented students.
Visual art teachers play an important role in fostering and catering for the special
needs of artistically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). Cooney (2004)
suggests three roles for teachers of artistically talented students. Each role is aimed
at catering for student needs at different stages in the development of artistically
talented students. First, according to Cooney, teachers should aim to instil a love of
art through enjoyment and play. Second, teachers should provide students with
special instruction and guidance. Third, teachers should take on the role of a
mentor. Clark and Zimmerman (2004) also highlight the importance of quality
teaching in programs for artistically talented students. This literature does not take
into account the experiences of visual art teachers of artistically talented students in
the regular classroom. Visual art teachers play a significant role in identifying
artistically talented students and providing for their needs within the regular visual
art classroom (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Cooney & J, 2004). The experiences of
visual art teachers of artistically talented students in the art classroom setting in
Australia are currently unknown, and therefore are worthy of investigation.
Clark and Zimmerman (1988) collected data through interviews to provide a
description of the perceptions and characteristics of twenty artistically talented
students. The research focussed on artistically talented student views of self, family
background and school. They compared their findings with findings in other relevant
34
research in an attempt to disperse some of the misconceptions surrounding the
characteristics and education of artistically talented students. Clark and Zimmerman
(1988) found that most students in their study were aware of their talents and were
interested in improving their abilities. The research also found that most students
were generally supported and encouraged to maintain their interest in art by parents
and family members, however they were not influenced by their parents’ or friends’
artistic abilities. Clark and Zimmerman found that students talented in visual art
considered ability grouping to be a positive experience both socially and
educationally. Clark and Zimmerman use the comparison of their data with the
findings of other relevant research to expand existing knowledge about artistically
talented students and build a foundation for future research in the area. This study
endeavours to add to the research in this field, with the aim of further clarifying some
of the misconceptions about artistically talented students.
It is important to seek stakeholders’ perspectives when conducting research in any
field. Stakeholders are generally the beneficiaries of any ethical research
undertaking. The benefits of listening to student voice for education reform are well
documented. Carrington (2007) highlights the positive outcomes of engaging
students as active citizens and encouraging an active student voice in schools. In this
study, the students along with teachers are the participants, as it is their accounts of
educational experiences in the art classroom that inform the research. This study
will give students the opportunity to have a say about their education, and play some
part in research that aims to inform, review and reform.
35
2.4 Catering for artistically talented students
This review of the literature has established the arts and visual art as integral and
important parts of the school curriculum. Evidence suggests that engagement in
meaningful arts education programs is beneficial to all students. In addition to the
value of the arts being included in the curriculum, the arts provide students with
unique opportunities for learning and knowing that cannot be provided through any
other means. While the value of arts education is well documented, the arts still hold
a relatively precarious position within many schools, as measured by time and space
accorded to them in timetables, reporting mechanisms, and awards.
A review of the literature has also examined previous research into the nature of
gifted and talented education and its relationship with the arts. Through an
investigation into terms, practices and identification procedures in the gifted and
talented literature, it has been established that the current practices in gifted and
talented education in many cases fail to recognise or cater for artistically talented
students in programs for high achievers. This is due in some respects to the bias
towards linguistic and mathematical intelligences and the use of IQ tests to identify
gifted and talented students.
The research in the field of artistically talented students in this area is relatively
scarce when compared with research about students who are talented in areas such as
maths and English. There are significant gaps and misconceptions in the literature
about artistically talented students. This chapter has argued that findings in the
current literature are often inconsistent or contradictory. There is an urgent need for
36
further research in this area to expand knowledge and disperse current contradictions
and inconsistencies in the literature.
Little is known about the processes for identification of artistically talented students.
There is also little research into artistically talented students’ and their teachers’
experiences in the regular visual art classroom. More specifically, there is a paucity
of research about the processes used for identifying artistically talented students and
the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in Australia. This
research undertaking explores the processes used for identifying artistically talented
students and investigates the experiences of artistically talented students and their
teachers in regular visual art classrooms in Australia.
37
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY In order to address the gaps in the literature established in Chapter 2, there is a need
to design a study that captures artistically talented students’ and their teachers’
accounts of the visual art classroom.
The broad aim of this research project is to examine the accounts of four artistically
talented students and five of their teachers in one high school’s visual art classrooms.
More specifically, this study investigates procedures used to identify artistically
talented students in visual art classrooms and explores experiences of artistically
talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms. This study aims to
provide new understandings about artistically talented students’ needs and visual art
experiences. This study will do this by generating the accounts of a group of
students and teachers at one school and subjecting them to analysis. The research
questions that frame the study are:
1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art
classroom?
2. What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically
talented students in the visual art classroom?
3. What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the
visual art classroom?
4. What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of
artistically talented students in visual art?
38
3.1 Conceptual framework
This study explores the experiences of teachers and artistically talented students in
the art classroom. This study is couched within a constructivist epistemology. In
accordance with this overarching framework, there is an assumption in this study that
knowledge is
…contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and
out of interaction between human beings and their world, and
developed and transmitted within an essentially social context.
(Crotty, 1998, p. 42)
The accounts that students and teachers provide of their experiences in the arts
classroom are filtered through their historical, cultural and social contexts (see Figure
1).
This study also takes into account the understanding that learning is constructed
through experience, drawing on the original work of John Dewey (1934) and later
writers, such as Greene (1996). Dewey (1934) and Greene (1996) suggest that one
role for education is to assist in the construction of knowledge. Within this
understanding of learning, the school curriculum can enable the construction of new
knowledge through experiences in a range of subject areas. In the same way,
learning in the arts can facilitate the construction of new knowledge through arts
experiences.
This research design draws on an interpretivist approach to inquiry (Crotty, 1998),
seeking student and teacher accounts of their experiences within a broad cultural,
social and historical context. Schwandt (2001) defines the interpretivist approach to
39
inquiry as ‘a method of the human sciences, that assume the meaning of human
action is inherent in that action’ (p. 134). As such, the task of the researcher in an
interpretivist inquiry is to expose the meaning inherent in human actions (Schwandt,
2001). Using the interpretivist approach, it is understood that teachers and students
in this study may interpret the same knowledge in different ways according to the
inherent cultural, historical or social context of their experiences.
The interpretivist approach is reflected in theories of Vygotsky’s social
constructivism, where knowledge and learning is seen to be constructed through the
interaction between the learner and society (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s
perspective on education is based on a number of core beliefs. Firstly, education
plays a vital role in the development of students’ personality and creative potential.
Secondly, students should be actively involved in learning in order to learn
effectively. Thirdly, learning and teaching are most effective where there is a
collaborative relationship between teachers and students; where teachers scaffold and
direct learning without forcing their own will on students. Fourthly, effective
methods for teaching and learning cannot be uniform due to the individual nature of
each student’s character and development. Lastly, schools should provide the tools
that enable students to participate in the cultural world around them (McInerney &
McInerney, 1998; Vygotsky, 1978).
Notions of intelligence also frame this inquiry. In Chapter 2 (see 2.3.4), the literature
shows that understandings of intelligence have been constructed in many ways.
Current researchers claim that visual intelligence and/or spatial intelligence are both
quantitatively and qualitatively distinct and therefore can be measured and explored
40
independently from other intelligences (Gardner, 1993; Winner, 1993; Winner &
Martino, 2002). Consequently, a case has been made for education that provides
students with specific opportunities and experiences that facilitate the construction of
new visual and/or spatial understandings.
A popular contemporary approach to arts pedagogy is understood to be learner-
centred, where students are seen to actively construct their own learning through arts
experiences (Greene, 1995). Dewey (1934) argues that students should be given
responsibility for directing and influencing their learning through student voice and a
learner-centred approach to pedagogy. Through this approach, students are given
more autonomy over their learning and are provided with increased opportunities for
real-world meaning making (Burton, 2000; Queensland School Curriculum Council,
2001). The learner-centred approach is common in literature surrounding learning in
the arts and is, indeed, central to the arts curriculum framework in Queensland.
The following figure is a visual representation of the conceptual framework for this
study.
41
Learning and Teaching Experiences
Figure 1: Visual representation of the conceptual framework.
Interviews and focus groups were used in this study to gain an understanding of
individual and group experiences within the context of the art classroom. Content
analysis of findings closely examined the accounts of learning as explained by
students and teachers. These findings will constitute new knowledge in a currently
under-researched area, feeding back into future practice and impacting on future
learning and teaching experiences.
HISTORICAL SOCIAL CULTURAL
FOCUS OF STUDY
Teachers’ and artistically talented
students’ understandings of learning in the art
classroom
How does this inform
future practice for
the education of
artistically talented
students?
FILT
ER
Student and Teacher understandings of knowledge, learning, education, the arts,
intelligence, inclusive education, gifted and talented education, and artistic talent.
Quality educational outcomes
42
3.2 Research design
This study explores teachers’ and artistically talented students’ accounts of their
experiences in visual art at one urban state high school. Studies that explore the
descriptions and interpretations of individuals inside a bounded and integrated
system are commonly identified as case studies (Creswell, 2005; Stake, 1995). A
bounded system is where “the case is separated out for research in terms of time,
place, or some physical boundaries” (Creswell, 2005, p. 439). In this case study the
bounded system is identified as a group of purposefully selected students and their
teachers within the art department of one school. Stake (2005) indicates that a case
study is not necessarily a choice of method, but a choice of what is to be studied.
This case study researches a group of visual art teachers and artistically talented
students at one urban state high school. This study fits Stake’s (1995) description of
an instrumental case study as it uses a specific case to illuminate a particular
phenomenon. In this study, information from one urban state high school is used to
provide insight into the education of artistically talented students more widely.
Case study research can use a quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods design
(Stake, 2005). Creswell (2005) suggests that studies that seek to understand the
participants’ perspectives and require exploration of the phenomenon are best suited
to qualitative research. Patton (2002) discusses the advantages of using qualitative
research methods:
…qualitative methods typically produce a wealth of detailed
information about a much smaller number of people and
cases. This increases understanding of the cases and
situations studied. (Patton, 2002, p. 14)
43
As this study requires a deep understanding of information from a small group of
teachers and students in one school, qualitative methods were chosen. Focus groups
and interviews were used as methodological strategies to generate in-depth
descriptions and interpretations from participants (Stake, 1995). Interpretations and
descriptions of focus groups and interviews were shared with participants through the
member checking process to clarify and to ensure authentic representations of
participants’ voices.
3.3 Fieldwork
Data collection occurred over a two month period at Knightsbridge College.
Data collection was divided into two stages:
1. Focus groups with teachers
2. Interviews with individual students
In the first stage, a group of five visual art teachers from Knightsbridge College were
asked to identify the four most artistically talented art students at the school. Two
focus group interviews with teachers then explored these identification procedures
and teacher accounts of their experiences with talented art students. In the second
stage, the identified students’ accounts of their art experiences were explored through
one-on-one semi-structured interviews. Content analysis of the data was used to
identify themes, concepts and meaning in the interview and focus group data. The
analysis of the data was informed by and underpinned by the constructivist and
interpretive theoretical framework of the study. Analysis was carried out with the
intention of discovering new knowledge leading to better understandings about how
to plan and cater for the education of artistically talented students.
44
3.3.1 The site
Knightsbridge College was chosen as the site for the study for three reasons. Firstly,
Knightsbridge College is a very large metropolitan state school, with a large number
of visual art students as potential participants for the study. Secondly, the visual art
department at Knightsbridge College has an established reputation for excellence and
quality in art teaching and learning. Thirdly, the researcher had a working
relationship with art teachers at Knightsbridge College, making access more easily
negotiated. All focus group interviews and one-on-one interviews took place in the
visual art classrooms at Knightsbridge College.
3.3.2 Stage one – Focus group interviews
Five teachers in this study were asked to provide accounts of their experiences with
artistically talented students both in the context of the visual art department and as
individuals. Focus group interviews were conducted in two stages. The first
interview explored identification procedures. The second interview generated
teacher accounts of their experiences in the visual art classroom with students who
were artistically talented. Questions were designed based on the research questions
and themes in the literature (See Appendix 1).
Focus group interviews are useful in research that aims to explore shared
understandings as well as individual views of people interacting in a small group
(MacNaughten & Myers, 2004). Focus group interviews are most beneficial when
used to collect data from interviewees who are similar to each other and cooperative
45
with one another (Creswell, 2005; Patton, 2002). The teachers in this study
cooperated with each other on a day-to-day basis and were required to nominate their
four most artistically talented students as a group. Teachers were purposefully given
minimal guidelines for nominating students so that teacher processes used for
identifying artistically talented student could be explored. Collecting data through
focus group interviews allowed insight into interactions among the teachers as well
as providing collective understandings and individual views with regard to teachers
experiences with artistically talented students (Krueger, 2000).
Focus group participants were first contacted in person, then by means of an
invitation letter, and were reminded of the session by a personal reminder. Non-
threatening, open ended questions were used to avoid any potential problems during
the introduction and warm-up stages of the interview to establish a climate of trust.
Every person was assured that his or her opinions would be valued in the research.
The length of each focus group interview was half an hour. Focus group interview
data were audio-recorded and then transcribed with participants’ consent. Teachers’
responses were coded and analysed with the aide of Nvivo7, a computer program
that assists in the handling of qualitative text-based information by classifying,
sorting and arranging information and helping to discover trends within the data.
Patton (2002) and Krueger (2000) highlight some of the inherent challenges
associated with focus groups, which were taken into account when conducting and
analysing data from the focus group:
46
• The number of questions was limited due to the amount of response time;
therefore questions were carefully thought out so that time was spent efficiently;
• The researcher had less control over the discussions than in one-on-one
interviews
• Data was complex to analyse;
• Diversions, conflicts and power struggles were more likely to occur since
participants knew one another. However, participants in the focus groups had
collaborative working relationships; therefore problems arising from group
composition were minimal;
• The environment was conducive to conversation.
3.3.2.1 Teacher participants
Purposeful sampling was used to select five teacher participants for the focus group.
All five teacher participants were senior teachers at Knightsbridge College who had
been teaching visual art for ten years or more in the Queensland education system.
The group consisted of two males and three females. One of the male teachers was
the Head of Department for visual art at Knightsbridge College.
3.3.3 Stage two: Semi-structured one-on-one interviews
Students in this study were asked to participate in semi-structured one-on-one
interviews to provide accounts of their experiences in the visual art classroom. One-
on-one interviews were used in this case study to enable the exploration of individual
participants’ perceptions of the visual art classroom in depth (Patton, 2002; Yin,
2003). Open-ended questions of a semi-structured nature were used in the interviews
47
to enable participants to share their understandings and experiences in the visual art
classroom (Stake, 1995) (see Appendix 2).
Due to the artistic, practical and visual nature of art, interviews with students
incorporated the use of student artwork as a visual stimulus for data generation
(image-based inquiry). Photo elicitation, image-based research and visual
ethnography are well documented research methods (Harper, 1998; Prosser, 1998).
Harper (2005) and Prosser (1998) discuss visual research methods and the use of
visual artefacts such as photographs, digital media and drawings in social research.
These methods are mostly concerned with participants collecting or creating images
or photographs which are then used as data (Harper, 1998, 2005; Prosser, 1998).
The artworks in this study were not created for the purpose of the study as they were
part of already existing art folios. Artworks in image-based research are often
viewed as the data (Prosser, 1998). In this study the data constituted conversation
data generated through the use of student artworks for image-based inquiry, rather
than the artwork itself. The purpose of this process was to understand the
significance of practical and theoretical experiences involved in the creation of
student artworks.
Interviews allow in depth exploration of participants’ accounts of experiences.
Semi-structured interviewing in this case study was based on a combination of
Patton’s interview guide approach, and his standardised open-ended interview,
which are both recognised as styles of interviewing to be used in case studies (Patton,
2002; Stake, 1995). Items were formulated to respond to the research questions. All
48
interviewees were asked the same questions with the same wording. Additional
questions were used to elaborate, probe and expand on particular topics where
needed. This flexibility ensured that important topics could emerge and were not
excluded from the interview, and also provided enough structure to ensure
comparability of responses.
Interview respondents were first selected by a group of teachers as the four most
artistically talented students in the school. Second, participants were invited to
participate in the interviews and sign consent forms. Once selected, students were
asked to consent to their participation in the research. Parents/guardians of
participants were also asked to give permission for students to take part in the
interviews. Interviews took place at the school in a comfortable, familiar setting,
before school, at lunch times, or after school in the art classrooms. A process of
image-based inquiry was used to help encourage students’ responses during
interviews. Students were asked to bring a folio of artwork along to the interview
and this artwork was used to generate discussion surrounding participant’s
experiences in art more broadly. All interviews were audio recorded and then
transcribed with participants’ consent.
Interviews with students were undertaken with the knowledge that one-on-one
interviews can be time consuming and are labour intensive (Creswell, 2005). Using
semi-structured and open-ended interview questions provided structure and focus to
the interview, simplifying the procedure for data analysis.
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3.3.3.1 Student participants
Identifying student participants for this study involved consultation with the teachers.
Teachers independently identified a list of 15 students across the school as
artistically talented. Teachers then worked together at a staff meeting to decide on a
list of six students for the study. While the teachers were not provided with specific
requirements for the students, they were conscious of choosing students from a range
of years to provide a variety of experiences at different stages of education. One
year eight student, one year nine student and four year eleven students were
approached to participate in the study. Two students decided not to participate in the
study due to time constraints. Three females and one male agreed to participate in
the research. Three students were in year eleven and one student was in year eight.
Year eight and year eleven represent significant stages in the education journey of
visual art students in Queensland. Year eight is the first year of high school for many
students and often this is the first time students experience specialist visual art
classes in an education setting. Year eleven is the second last year of school in
which students are encouraged to choose specialist subjects such as visual art to
provide them with a platform for their future career and experiences.
Students’ responses were audio taped and transcribed. Each student was treated as a
separate case and their responses were managed, coded and analysed using Nvivo7.
3.4 Analysis
The analysis of interview and focus group data was shaped by the research questions.
Content analysis of focus group and interview data was used to “identify themes,
concepts and meaning” (Burns, 2000, p. 432). Analysis was assisted by computer
50
the software program QSR NVivo 7. This program assisted in organising, recording
and managing the data. A summary of the process used in the management of data
and content analysis in this study is outlined below.
1. Data was transcribed and initially organised under the focus group interview
date or the interviewee’s name (one document per interviewee/focus group).
These electronic files were entered into Nvivo7.
2. All original transcript tapes and both electronic and paper copies of the
transcripts were stored safely in a lockable filing cabinet or on a password
protected network drive.
3. The transcripts were read, and as themes emerged, they were noted and
coded. The research questions were used as organizers during this stage of
analysis. This was accomplished through the use of Nvivo7. Each theme
was allocated a “node” under which relevant data was coded (see Appendix
3).
4. As the transcripts were re-read, “causes and consequences, conditions and
interactions, strategies and processes” (Cavana, Delahaye, & Sekaran, 2001,
p. 174) were investigated in order to see how categories interrelated and
grouped together. Sub themes and new themes emerged at this stage and
were coded as sub nodes in Nvivo7, using the tree node system for organizing
data (see Appendix 3).
5. Categories were re-read to double-check that each category included similar
content, as well as excluding content that was not important (checking again
for internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity). Names of nodes and
sub nodes were adjusted to ensure that they clearly described their themes.
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6. Relationships across and between nodes were examined and mapped in order
to create a greater understanding of the research area.
7. Themes, nodes and raw data were frequently revisited during the writing of
the document to check, question or support various arguments in the report.
Member-checking of interview data was used to ensure accuracy, authenticity and
trustworthiness of the researcher’s interpretation of the interview.
3.5 Limitations
The sample size in this study is small, allowing rich qualitative data to be collected.
It is recognised, however, that due to the small sample size, results from this study
cannot be broadly generalised, although implications can be drawn. This is a single
snapshot of the issue and it is recognised that the results could be different at another
time, or with different participants. Therefore, the study makes no claims to
typicality or universal findings. Nevertheless, this study provides a valuable insight
into teacher and student accounts of the visual art classroom and results could have
wider applications, generating questions and areas that need to be investigated
further within the education of artistically talented students.
3.7 Ethics
This research was undertaken according to the standards and conditions set out in
The Department of Education and the Arts Guidelines for Conducting Research in
Education Queensland School Sites and Other Education-Related Units. The QUT
Human Research Ethics Committee approved the conduct of this study. The
Principal of the Knightsbridge College also provided permission to conduct this
research at the school before contact was made with participants. All research aims
52
were made clear to participants before they assisted in the research, and the
protection of privacy was highlighted. Students and teachers were asked to consent
to their participation in the research. In addition, as this research involved students
under the age of 18, parents/guardians of students were required to give permission
for students to participate.
Although participants were asked to disclose personal details for demographic
information and for the interviews, when reporting findings, pseudonyms are used to
protect privacy, and no details that result in the identification of participants or the
school are included in the thesis.
3.8 Chapter summary
This study is designed to investigate the accounts of the visual art classroom by
teachers and artistically talented students. This study is underpinned by a
constructivist epistemology and an interpretivist theoretical framework. A
qualitative case study design was used to generate five teachers’ and four students’
accounts of the visual art classroom at Knightsbridge College in 2007. Data was
collected using one-on-one interviews and focus groups which were recorded and
transcribed. Data was subjected to content analysis and Nvivo7 was used to assist in
the organisation of data.
While the sample size for this study was small, rich qualitative data was collected
from interview and focus groups to gain a deep understanding of participants’
experiences. The following chapters provide an in-depth qualitative exploration of
53
the procedures used for identifying artistically talented students and the experiences
of artistically talented students and their teachers in the visual art classroom.
54
CHAPTER 4: TEACHER ACCOUNTS
In this chapter, the teachers’ accounts are analysed and discussed, with particular
attention to research questions 1 and 2.
1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art
classroom?
2. What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically
talented students in the visual art classroom?
Five visual art teachers participated in the focus group interviews that took place in
the art classrooms at Knightsbridge College. Prior to the focus group interviews
teachers were asked to nominate artistically talented students to partake in the study.
During the focus group interviews teachers were asked to respond to questions in two
categories relating to the research questions. First, teachers responded to questions
regarding the identification of artistically talented students for the study. Second,
teachers responded to questions regarding their experiences with artistically talented
students in the classroom. This data provided new insights and raised new questions
regarding the education of artistically talented students.
4.1 Identification
In response to questions regarding the identification of artistically talented students,
three themes emerged: identifying high achievers at Knightsbridge College;
characteristics of the artistically talented; and defining artistic talent. These three
themes are now explored in turn.
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4.1.1 Identifying high achievers at Knightsbridge College
At the time of the study there was no formal process or policy in place for identifying
artistically talented students at Knightsbridge College. However, there was a formal
procedure in place for identifying gifted and talented students at the school. Like
many other schools, Knightsbridge College identified high achieving or gifted and
talented students through the use of standardised tests. Knightsbridge College
streamed middle school (years 7-9) classes according to student results on nation-
wide standardised testing instruments such as Australian Council for Education
Research (ACER) tests. The school offered a specialised program for students who
performed well on these tests through the academic achievers classes (streaming).
While this system seemed to work relatively well for identifying students who were
gifted and talented in literacy and numeracy, teachers from Knightsbridge College
expressed the view that students who were streamed as ‘academic achievers’ using
the current testing procedure were not necessarily talented in visual art as Lachlan,
the head of the art department at Knightsbridge College pointed out.
Lachlan I don’t think there’s necessarily a correlation between... very high
things that they’re going to measure on the maths scales or the
English scales, won’t necessarily translate to gifted in visual art or
performance areas.
Lachlan’s comments fit with Hurwitz and Day (2001) and Zimmerman’s (2004)
suggestion that standardised tests do not necessarily measure students’ talents in
visual art and therefore are not considered a useful tool for identifying artistically
talented students.
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While teachers did not believe that students who perform well in standardised tests
automatically perform well in visual art, they did find that many students in the
‘academic achiever’ classes also performed well in visual art classes. Samantha
described her experience with teaching visual art to an ‘academic achievers’
streamed class.
Samantha: It has been quite beneficial for me this year, having taught for my first
time in the top half of the timetable. Not only the high ability kids in
that year 9 class, but quite a lot of gifted art students which have
created a really strong positive help environment, which has
contributed to me being able to optimise activities and see results that
I thought weren’t really there for some of them.
At another point in the discussion, Samantha returned to this point.
Samantha: I’ve noticed it in my year 9s, giving the top kids the access, you can
see that they can do better than some in year 12
The teacher comments confirm Clark and Zimmerman’s (1988) findings, that
students who excelled in other areas were often found to excel in art. Samantha
found that grouping the high achieving students together created a positive learning
environment and optimised learning opportunities and outcomes for those students.
Samantha’s use of the term ‘positive help environment’ suggests that talented
students in her class may help or assist other students to learn. These findings concur
with Clark and Zimmerman’s (1988) conclusions which suggest that artistically
talented students benefit from ability grouping.
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It should be noted that the high achieving students in Samantha’s class were not
officially identified as artistically talented students, however she describes some of
them as ‘gifted art students’. This informal classification of students as gifted, or
artistically talented is representative of teacher practice in this study.
Lachlan: I think probably what’s happened in a way has probably not been a
formal process.
Students for this study were categorised as artistically talented; however there were
no formal processes in place to substantiate this classification. This informal
identification of students becomes problematic when special education services are
provided only to those students who are formally identified as gifted and talented
according to results on traditional standardised tests.
Teachers’ comments regarding the identification of artistically talented students at
Knightsbridge College affirmed previous research that has found that artistically
talented students are often not identified through tests aimed at identifying high
achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Hurwitz & Day, 2001;
Zimmerman, 2004). Teachers found that the ACER tests used to identify high
achievers at Knightsbridge College were mostly ineffective for identifying
artistically talented students. If artistically talented students do not meet the criteria
for gifted and talented students in the school system, then it becomes difficult to
provide them with special education services in the current education system. While
art teachers are informally assessing and identifying artistically talented students,
these students are still not officially recognised as gifted and talented and therefore it
is difficult to assess whether they are being appropriately catered for and to track
them through the education system.
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Due to the informal nature of identification processes for artistically talented students
at Knightsbridge College, focus group questions were aimed at finding out about the
informal practices and procedures that teachers use to identify artistically talented
students and how they cater for the needs of artistically talented students specifically.
4.1.2 Characteristics of the artistically talented
Focus group discussion between teachers highlighted significant ideas surrounding
teachers’ concepts of artistically talented students in response to the question: What
characteristics or criteria do you look for when identifying talented art students?
While some teachers could easily identify characteristics they perceived as common
to most artistically talented students, other teachers found it difficult to identify any
characteristics that could easily be used to identify artistically talented students.
Samantha recognised advanced technical skills as one characteristic which was
useful in identifying artistically talented students.
Samantha: You’ve looked at those traditional skills – the good painter, the good
drawer, the creative above and beyond what their peers are on about.
Technical skills such as realistic representation in drawing and painting are
observable and measureable to a degree and therefore can be used as benchmarks for
assessing students’ talents in art (Clark, 1995). The term creativity is difficult to
define in a meaningful way in educational contexts (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004),
therefore it is interesting to note Samantha’s use of the word creative here in regards
to student characteristics. Samantha’s use of the word creative does not clearly
59
describe what Samantha is looking for in artistically talented students. Such a term is
inherently difficult to capture, however, this is problematic because technical skills
are not the only signifier for artistically talented students.
Lachlan highlights that for some artistically talented students, technical skills are less
important than the thinking process.
Lachlan: It’s about the thinking process, rather than visual arts skills, or
engagement with materials.
Hence, there are cases where technical skills are not the best indicator of student
talent. According to Winner and Martino (2002) it is important to note that
benchmarks used to measure technical skills in drawing are often culturally based
and therefore are not applicable to all students. This presents a problem for teachers
who might be using technical skills as their sole factor for identification of
artistically talented students.
Samantha responded to Lachlan by noting that while advanced technical skills were
one way of gauging artistic talent, the level of student motivation and passion was a
more useful indicator of artistic talent.
Samantha: I think the key when I was looking at the very top end, that passion
that motivates them to keep pushing themselves in an area.
Sarah agreed with Samantha.
Sarah: They’re impassioned, inspired, pretty quickly. Whereas you have to
work hard to inspire some of the other kids.”
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Passion and motivation are both qualities that are often highlighted in the literature as
descriptors of artistically talented students (Winner & Martino, 2002). While these
characteristics are observable to teachers, they are not as easily measured as technical
skills. It is therefore difficult for teachers to reliably measure the level of passion
and motivation when considering the identification of artistically talented students.
Adam and Lachlan nominated student intuition as a characteristic that artistically
talented students demonstrated.
Adam: For me a gifted student is an intuitive person who can be taught a
little bit but generally has it, has got it. And is able to explore with
that intuitive mind the little bit we can’t touch. It just has that…
something like that, that’s naturally gifted.
Lachlan: Some of them are really intuitive kids who just kind of, you know,
following their own little obsessions or bents, and some of them are
just divergent thinkers.
Lachlan mentioned that talented art students think divergently, often acting
instinctively and taking the initiative to guide their own learning, while Adam stated
that some artistically talented students are “naturally gifted”. It is unclear what
Adam and Lachlan meant when they used the word “intuition”. Intuition was often
coupled with notions of instinctive abilities, natural gifts or innate talents in the
teacher conversation. The argument of nature versus nurture is common in literature
surrounding talented students. According to Evans, et al. (2000) artistically talented
students are born with innate talents that allow them to excel in their particular area.
Conversely, Shanks (1999) argues that skills and talents can be mastered by any
61
student who has been encouraged, practices and is surrounded by a nurturing
environment. It is questionable to rely on student intuition as the main indicator of
student talent, as it is difficult to measure and can call into question the purpose of
education. If artistic talent is seen as something that comes naturally to students and
they guide their own learning, as discussed by Adam and Lachlan in the above
quotes, then what role does the school play in educating them?
Teachers described some general characteristics that they looked for when assessing
artistically talented students. The characteristics discussed by teachers fell into two
categories that have been previously explored in the literature: superior technical
abilities (Hurwitz & Day, 2001; Milbrath, 1998), and motivation and passion
(Winner & Martino, 2002). While the literature has not explicitly explored student
intuition as an identifier of artistically talented students, teachers in this study found
that student intuition was a prevalent characteristic of artistically talented students at
Knightsbridge College. It is unclear what specific qualities teachers perceive to be
intuitive or creative in regards to student artwork. Furthermore, it is not clear how
teachers identified or measured the level of student intuition or creativity in this
study.
In the focus group conversations, teachers from Knightsbridge College did not
nominate some well-documented characteristics of artistically talented students as
defined in the literature. For instance, problem solving and personal satisfaction
(Hurwitz & Day, 2001) and family support, students’ awareness of their talents and
their interest in improving (Clark & Zimmerman, 1998) were not identified by
teachers in this study as indicators of artistic talent. Furthermore, it is interesting to
62
note that the teachers made no reference to student grades on visual art assessment
tasks when asked to discuss characteristics of artistically talented students in this
study.
4.1.3 Defining artistic talent
Teachers in this study found that choosing artistically talented students for this study
was a relatively easy task. However, defining artistic talent and articulating the
processes used for identifying talented students in visual art presented a number of
problems for teachers in the focus groups. While teachers identified some of the
tangible characteristics of students who they identified as artistically talented, they
also highlighted the difficulty of trying to capture a list of characteristics that was
appropriate for the majority of students. Some of the issues discussed by the teachers
were applicable to identifying talented students in general, while some problems
were specific to identifying students talented in visual art.
Unlike talent in other subject areas such as maths or English where a student’s talent
is possibly more tangible, measurable and definable, Lachlan implies that what
constitutes talent in visual art is intangible and indefinable.
Lachlan: There is no one definition that this is going to make you successful in
visual arts, therefore what you can apply is as wide as you can
possibly imagine.
At another point in the discussion, Lachlan returned to this point.
Lachlan: I would say that I have come to believe that it’s so diverse. And there
should be fewer defined limitations of what it might be.
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Lachlan’s comments suggest that it is not possible to define what artistic talent is due
to the vague and wide boundaries applied to what constitutes talent in visual art.
Likewise, Cooney (2004) found that indicative characteristics of artistically talented
students are difficult to pinpoint and are often unclear. Lachlan suggested that there
should be fewer limitations on what is considered artistic talent and yet the more
intangible and undefinable artistic talent is, the more difficult it becomes for teachers
to articulate who is artistically talented.
The notion of the talented underachiever is prevalent in literature surrounding gifted
and talented students. Lachlan acknowledged student motivation as one of the
characteristics common to artistically talented students.
Lachlan: They would typically be well motivated and very committed students.
At the same time, he acknowledged that many artistically talented students lack
motivation and do not fit the mould of the high achiever in the school system.
Lachlan: They weren’t necessarily the highest level kids in the way we are
looking at them, but we could see that they were all those kids who
had some strong heart and skill, but they may not necessarily be the
most successful in the system in general.
At another point in the discussion, Lachlan returned to this point.
Lachlan: It doesn’t have to fit the school context, though, could be totally off
the rails too.
Adam agreed with Lachlan, adding that talented art students often struggle with
relationships and lack direction.
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Adam: It’s hard because often gifted kids are often unmotivated. They can be
unmotivated, or lacking in direction, and they’re troubled in their
personal relationships.
Here Adam and Lachlan propose that artistically talented students may display
characteristics that are the antithesis of what is usually observed in talented students’
characteristics. This contradiction creates problems for the identification of
artistically talented students, as students who sit outside the majority often slip under
the radar and are therefore often not catered for in the school system.
Csikszentmihalyi, et al. (1996) found that it was common for gifted and talented
students to become disengaged when they were not identified and adequately catered
for in the classroom. The accurate and consistent identification of artistically
talented students becomes complicated when the boundaries of what constitutes
talent in visual art might be contrary to what constitutes success in the school system.
Sarah discussed the qualitative nature of visual art and the problems that this poses
for the identification of artistically talented students. Sarah notes that visual art
teachers hold the key to identifying artistically talented students.
Sarah: All the things we’re going to look for are not going to be able to be
quantified. We’re not going to be able to write a list to give to
someone that’s not a visual arts teacher, to know what to look for
really. It’s all qualitative. It’s all intuitive on our part. So, you know,
based on our experience and what we know.
Sarah suggested that based on their experience, visual art teachers have the intuitive
ability to be able to decipher what artistic talent is and therefore who is artistically
65
talented. It seems that while teachers have the ability to determine who is artistically
talented, they are not able to make their process explicit. It is interesting that in this
instance the word qualitative is used to express a characteristic that is indescribable
and subjective.
Sarah proposed that there are criteria that teachers use to identify artistically talented
students:
Sarah: It would be very difficult to write them down to give to someone.
There’s not a checklist, just because our criteria are so broad and
ambiguous and we interpret them in our own way.
According to Sarah, the assessment of talent in visual art relies on teachers’ intuition
and judgement. While Sarah stated that there are criteria used to identify students
who are artistically talented, she did not list them. Sarah suggested that what
constitutes artistic talent was vague and not able to be described and therefore
teachers were acting purely on individual interpretations to make decisions regarding
the artistically talented. The process used for identifying talented students appears to
be so ambiguous that it is difficult for teachers to define or share. It is possible that
visual art teachers intentionally make the criteria used to assess talent diverse and
vague to allow for abnormalities as Lachlan and Adam spoke about earlier.
However, Sarah’s statement highlights one part of a bigger problem.
It is difficult to put processes and policies in place to provide for the needs of
artistically talented students if they cannot be defined. The education system in
Queensland provides special education services to those students who are identified
66
as gifted and talented (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004). The process
involved in identifying artistically talented students appears to be so vague that it is
difficult for teachers to explain how they go about identifying artistically talented
students. If artistically talented students are not able to be defined, as teachers in this
study found, then it becomes difficult to identify them. The ambiguous definition of
what constitutes artistic talent has a direct impact on the reliable identification and
provision of educational services for artistically talented students.
4.2 Teacher experiences
Focus group discussion highlighted a diverse range of teacher experiences with
artistically talented students and the strategies they used to cater for the needs of
artistically talented students. While Knightsbridge College did not have a formal
program in place for artistically talented students at the time of the study, visual art
teachers discussed many opportunities that were made available to students to extend
their abilities and experiences in visual art. Students were most often dealt with on
an individual basis and teachers worked with parents and students to cater for their
needs. Four main themes emerged from the data relating to teacher experiences with
artistically talented students: teaching artistically talented students; programming for
artistically talented students, assessment; and freedom and flexibility.
4.2.1 Teaching artistically talented students
During the focus group, teachers responded to questions surrounding the needs of
artistically talented students and how artistically talented students are catered for
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within the art classroom. Teachers described their interactions with artistically
talented students. It is interesting to note that during the focus group, there was only
one instance where teachers used the word ‘teach’ to describe their interactions with
students.
Lachlan: We all teach a subject called senior art.
Apart from this one instance, where Lachlan makes the point that they teach a
subject, teachers in the focus group appeared reluctant to use the word ‘teach’ when
describing their interactions with students. Instead they spoke about managing
students, providing access or providing opportunities for students to learn.
Teachers discussed providing students with access to resources, people,
communities, and experiences and presenting students with opportunities to learn. In
response to being asked what students’ needs were, Samantha lists:
Samantha: Good resourcing, good mentoring, access to extended programs
above and beyond what they are being offered in class, access to
artists in the community or artists in residence I think is important,
not just us.
Then Sarah added:
Sarah: We invite artists into the school, we allow them access to a wide
variety of different media and techniques.
Later in the conversation, Adam returned to this point:
Adam: You are giving opportunities to some of those kids in that classroom.
Lachlan often used the word manage instead of teach to describe his interactions
with students.
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Lachlan: You try and mentor and individually manage their learning so you can
(partly through discussion with them) set them up with some
opportunities for them to do what they really like doing and then get
that fed back into the art program. So it is a way of freedom,
flexibility in the way you approach the program.
Lachlan: We have the responsibility to manage them.
These statements are in line with interpretations of constructivist views of learning,
where teachers provide students with the tools for learning and students gain
knowledge and understanding through engagement with their environment and others
(McInerney & McInerney, 1998; Vygotsky, 1978). In one interpretation of the
constructivist view of learning, the teacher is seen as a facilitator who manages and
scaffolds student learning, providing students with opportunities to direct their own
learning (McInerney & McInerney, 1998).
Teachers also highlighted the learning environment as contributing to students with
opportunities for learning, and access to resources that extend their experience,
knowledge and understanding of visual art.
Lachlan: You are offering them a studio too, they are managing their own
studio time, with just you occasionally steering them in the right
direction.
Comments like these are echoed by many teachers and artists who believe that their
role in the classroom is to guide student learning. These teachers believe that
artwork comes from the students themselves through their expression, exploration
and experimentation with art media (McArdle & McWilliam, 2005). Cooney (2004)
suggests that teachers should adopt the role of mentors in the latter years of
69
schooling artistically talented students. Zimmerman and Clark (2004) disagree and
warn against teachers merely providing artistically talented students with art
materials without directive instruction. Instead, Zimmerman and Clark (2004)
recommend focussing on the individual needs of each student and providing
opportunities for students to explore a variety of means for self-expression.
Comments in this study do not negate the role of the teaching or directive instruction
in visual art, but rather advocate the view that it is the teacher’s role to facilitate and
guide student learning in the classroom by providing students with access and
opportunities to various techniques and resources. The preference of art teachers to
use words such as manage, provide and mentor instead of the word teach to describe
what they do in the art classroom has been described by McArdle and McWilliam as
an ironic imperative to ‘teach without teaching’ (2005, p. 329).
4.2.2 Programming for artistically talented students
In response to the question: How do you cater for the specific needs of artistically
talented students in your classroom? teachers discussed a range of extension and
extra-curricular activities that the art department at Knightsbridge College organises
for students. Sarah described some of the activities that the art department provide to
cater for the needs of the artistically talented.
Sarah: Well we run workshops and invite outside people into the school that
allow these kids to access these artists from outside. We take them to
exhibitions and things like that, which is a really important activity
that these kids need to be made aware of what is going on in art
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communities outside the school. We invite artists into the school; we
allow them access to a wide variety of different media and techniques.
Access to professional artists, exhibitions, workshops, communities outside the
school and art techniques and media are all recommended in quality programs for
artistically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Hurwitz & Day, 2001;
Winner & Martino, 2002). Each of these experiences provides students with
opportunities to develop and extend their abilities (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004;
Hurwitz & Day, 2001). Clark and Zimmerman (2004) argue that curricula for art
talent development needs to go further than providing access to extracurricular
activities, artists, art media and techniques.
It is interesting to note that the opportunities listed by Sarah are not specifically made
available to artistically talented students but more generally to students who show
interest in visual art and want additional art experiences outside of the classroom.
While all students can, and do, benefit from these extension and extra-curricular
experiences, Clark and Zimmerman (1988) suggest that artistically talented students
benefit greatly from exclusive programs where they are immersed with similar
students. This idea is in conflict with the democratic view that education should be
egalitarian and provide equal access to all students. Democratic and egalitarian
views are hailed in the Australian culture, but often their interpretation is
accompanied by ‘tall poppy syndrome’, where excellence is penalized. Sarah’s
comments imply that there is very little that the art department does specifically to
cater for the needs of artistically talented students in particular.
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For those students who exhibited artistic talent above and beyond other students,
Lachlan discussed individualised program variation as one way that the
Knightsbridge College art department worked towards catering to students’ needs:
Lachlan: We would, as individual teachers, or collectively discuss those
students and we frequently come up with variations on the program,
or projects and we try to link them up with things that they can do
very well.
Varying the program for students on an individual basis allows the program to be
focussed on students’ areas of interest and gives students an opportunity for
extension This is in line with Clark and Zimmerman’s (2004) recommendations for
teaching artistically talented students, where teachers develop strategies to meet the
individual needs of students through variations to the general art program.
Lachlan’s comments emphasised the need to provide extension programs for
artistically talented students.
Lachlan: For instance, competitions, awards, extension opportunities, rather
than getting them to jump through the hoops that everyone else is
jumping through, which is kind of a very tedious way, just for the sake
of doing the program. We try make opportunities for them to come
and shine and extension activities and things like that.
Lachlan equated satisfying the program requirements with jumping through hoops
and observed that artistically talented students find mainstream art programs tedious
or unfulfilling. Gross (2004) recommends that talented students require extension
beyond the usual program in order to develop further. Knightsbridge College
provides students with additional opportunities and extension activities so that they
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can reach their full potential or ‘shine’. Lachlan highlights a number of ways
(extension activities, competitions, awards and individualised program variation) in
which Knightsbridge College provides for the needs of those students who have the
potential to achieve above and beyond the limitations of the program.
Teacher comments in this study highlight a conflict between the concept of
democracy in education and striving for excellence. Smith (1999) discusses the
balance between making art accessible to all students while catering for those who
excel in art. Teachers in this study made extension and extra-curricular programs for
artistically talented students available to all students who were interested.
Furthermore, teachers are hesitant to notify students who they acknowledge to be
artistically talented (this point is further explored in Chapter 5, see 5.1.1). While
programs and activities are aimed at providing for the majority of students, it is
important that the individual needs of students who sit outside the majority are
catered for (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). This concept is often more readily
accepted when it comes to catering for the needs of students who are struggling to
fulfil the requirements of the program than it is for students who have the potential to
excel beyond the limitations of the program (Gross, 2004).
4.2.3 Assessment
One of the extracurricular opportunities mentioned by teachers was the Kaleidoscope
exhibition described at the beginning of this thesis. An interesting discussion arose
around the needs of artistically talented students in response to the exhibition.
Students at Knightsbridge College were involved in an exhibition run by community
art representatives in 2007. Students’ artwork was chosen by an outside body,
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manipulated (mostly digitally enlarged) and exhibited around a prominent
community area. When this came up in the focus group discussion, it provoked
some discussion on the differences between school art and ‘real’ art or art for the
outside world. This discussion also indicated some of the constraints that are placed
on teachers and students when it comes to teaching and studying art at school.
The student artworks chosen by the community art representative were not
necessarily given good marks when assessed to government mandated syllabus
requirements, and yet they were chosen to represent Knightsbridge College in a
public art exhibition. Likewise, some of the artworks awarded very high marks at
school were not chosen for the exhibition. This experience generated a lively
discussion between teachers about school art versus ‘real’ art. While teachers were
responsible for teaching and assessing student artwork according to a mandated
syllabus, in this instance, an outside art body assessed student artwork for an
exhibition in a community space.
Sarah: The whole Kaleidoscope exhibition thing was quite interesting
because as you were saying, somebody from outside came in
and looked at our kids’ work, with a completely new view of the
works that we’ve seen all year. And they selected groups that
we didn’t necessarily go to first, to say look at this kid and this
kid.
Teachers found the selection of artworks from an outside body intriguing as the
criteria were different to the criteria used for assessing student art at school.
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Sarah: Yes it was different criteria, but it was somebody else looking at
these works that we’d looked at very closely, and selecting for
different reasons. But it was interesting to see what they
selected.
Teachers discussed the constraints that being a visual art teacher places on their
appraisal of students’ work as opposed to the freedom that organisers from the
exhibition had in their appraisal of students’ work.
Lachlan: Which is what I was saying about the subject effect, because
they didn’t have the responsibility of managing those kids over
two years, getting them to jump through hoops at different
stages.
What Lachlan is saying is that school art is a subject, something different from other
constructions of art. Along with art being a subject, comes the requirement that it is
assessed. However, while school marks in other subject areas generally suggest
future success in those discipline fields, teachers agreed that success in the subject
visual art does not necessarily equate to success as an arts practitioner in the real
world. Lachlan suggests that a student who achieves average results in art may have
the potential to be an interesting arts practitioner.
Lachlan: So we’ll probably all agree that, label that kid as a sound in art.
Not necessarily a great predictor of whether they’re going to
become an interesting arts practitioner.
Furthermore, Lachlan stressed that school marks are only an indicator of student
achievement at a certain point in time.
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Lachlan: It’s pretty much just a standard of where they are at a
particular place and time. They can change, and they can still
achieve all sorts of different things.
Lachlan’s statements regarding assessment reveal a view of student ability as
dynamic and changing. He suggests that assessment can only record student ability
at a static point in time, and therefore is inadequate for indicating future success.
Lachlan also suggests that while teachers have the responsibility to manage and
support students through the school system, an outside body can appreciate student
work on a different level.
This discussion directs attention to the assessment of art at school and the role of the
visual art teacher in assessing student art. This would seem to indicate that the
assessment criteria used in school visual art do not account for the success of
artworks outside of the school setting. The mismatch between success in visual art in
school and success in visual art in real world make it difficult for teachers to
articulate indicators for artistic talent.
4.2.4 Freedom and flexibility
When teachers were discussing the needs of the students, freedom and flexibility
were recurring themes. Teachers used these words when discussing the types of
programs and assessment opportunities for artistically talented students at
Knightsbridge College.
Lachlan: It is a way of freedom, flexibility in the way you approach the
program, so it is not a one size fits all for the assessment and so on.
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Later in the conversation, Lachlan returned to this point.
Lachlan: They (students) are coming over to visual art where they tend to have
a bit more freedom to choose their own direction.
Teachers referred frequently to freedom and flexibility as important positives in
programs for students, and as the means for assessment and learning experiences that
catered for the individual needs of each student.
The freedom and flexibility that teachers discuss with regards to program variation
for talented students is contrasted with teachers’ comments about senior art as a
subject. The rules and regulations of the subject are perceived as restrictions on
teachers’ abilities to provide the program that talented art students need.
Lachlan: And plus we’re also a bit conflicted in the sense that we all teach a
subject called senior art, for example, to have those kids at that level,
senior art has its own sort of internal rules about what the kids will do
and what they will be good at and how you balance all those things
out.
The teachers considered the QSA syllabus assessment requirements in senior art as
particularly constraining. The QSA visual art syllabus stipulates two criteria for
assessment in visual art: making and appraising. Two-thirds of student assessment is
based on the making criteria, while the remaining third is based on the appraising
criteria. Lachlan explained that artistically talented students often display
outstanding results in one area and not in another.
Lachlan: Your typical high level kid here is pretty much gifted in making side of
things, they don’t necessarily want to spend all their time here
reading all the art history component of the course.
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Later in the conversation, Lachlan returned to this point.
Lachlan: I can think of Walter in year 11 at the moment, who’s pretty much...
It’s about the thinking process, rather than visual arts skills, or
engagement with materials. Whereas some kids are really just
engaged with materials, who just get in there and do all the tactile
things... so probably a range of different models.
Lachlan expressed the need for more flexibility and freedom within the QSA
guidelines so that students can have more variety in their course of study.
Lachlan: I’m starting to think that maybe, there should be more license for kids
to do, either exclusive making, or choose between making and theory
and history or another strand of thought.
Lachlan argues that increased student options within the senior art syllabus allows
for more individualised programs for students and this may help teachers to cater for
the needs of artistically talented students. With more freedom and flexibility in the
subject, students could have increased possibilities for directing their own learning.
Lachlan: Because you do have kids that probably if you take them off the leash
they would have greater information and they could pretty much, you
are offering them a studio too, they are managing their own studio
time, with just you occasionally steering them in the right direction.
So maybe the … (missing)… you really have a very really strong
underlying structure, but not too many normal constraints.
Lachlan suggests that students would be capable of accomplishing or learning more
if the constraints of the program were minimised and students were given greater
opportunities to guide their own learning. This view is in line with Vygotsky’s
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(1978), Dewey’s (1934) and Greene’s (1996) concepts of learning where students
learn more effectively if they are actively involved in guiding their learning.
Whilst teachers in this study often referred to freedom and flexibility as important
features of visual arts programs in school, they also found some aspects of the visual
art program at Knightsbridge College required more freedom and flexibility.
Teacher responses in this study fit with Cooney’s (2004) findings that artistically
talented students benefit from an atmosphere that allows for freedom and provides
students with opportunities to explore their ideas and possibilities. Furthermore,
visual art teachers in this study felt that there are constraints placed on them by the
education system and syllabus requirements which they perceive as preventing them
from providing students with the flexibility and freedom that they require in visual
art.
4.3 Chapter summary
From the data and analysis presented in this chapter, a number of significant
implications can be drawn from teacher accounts:
• Teachers in this study found the current testing procedures used to identify
high achievers at Knightsbridge College to be ineffective for identifying
artistically talented students.
• Teacher accounts indicated a number of characteristics that are common to
artistically talented students and can therefore be used to identify artistically
talented students. Teachers in this study compiled the following list of
student characteristics helpful in identifying artistically talented students:
superior technical ability; creativity; intuition; motivation; passion; and
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thinking skills. Teachers did not clearly explain the meaning of intuition or
creativity in relation to the characteristics of artistically talented students in
this study.
• Teachers found it difficult to articulate ways of defining artistic talent or the
processes for identifying artistically talented students.
• The accounts of teachers in this study indicated a particular interpretation of
the constructivist theory of learning. They saw their role as teachers as
facilitators of student learning in the classroom. They did not use the word
“teach” when describing their work.
• Teachers in this study felt that they were adequately catering to the needs of
artistically talented students at Knightsbridge College by individually varying
the art program and providing students with access to extra-curricular and
extension programs.
• Whilst the role of assessment at school is presumed to link with gauging
students’ future success, teachers in this study did not presume that school
assessment in visual art was an indicator of student talent or future success in
visual art.
• Accounts of teachers in this study indicated a desire for more freedom and
flexibility in the syllabus requirements, which would allow for catering
sufficiently for the individual needs of artistically talented students.
This chapter has presented, analysed and discussed teacher accounts of the visual art
classroom and their experiences with artistically talented students. Having reflected
on teacher accounts, the next chapter presents four artistically talented students’
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accounts of the visual art classroom. Student accounts will be discussed and
compared with the accounts of teachers in this chapter to provide a comprehensive
account of the visual art classroom.
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CHAPTER 5: STUDENT ACCOUNTS In this chapter, the students’ accounts are discussed and analysed. This data was
generated through one-on-one interviews with four students who were identified as
artistically talented by the visual art teachers at Knightsbridge College. Interview
questions addressed research questions 1 and 3:
1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art
classroom?
3. What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the
visual art classroom?
Interviews with students aimed to explore the research questions from the students’
standpoint. The interview questions were designed to encourage interviewees to
reflect on their experiences in the visual art classroom.
Each of the student cases are described below. Reproductions of each student’s self
portrait is accompanied by representative student statements extracted from the
student data to help paint a picture of each student case in this study.
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Grace
Grace is a student in Year 8 (13 years old) who is in her first year at Knightsbridge
College. Art is a compulsory subject in the Year 8 curriculum with all students
completing 1.75 hours of art each week.
Cubist Self Portrait,
2007, watercolour and
acrylic paint.
Last term we did an assignment and it was really quite boring because they told us exactly what to do and it was too structured. I prefer it if it is more like improvisation.
They kind of just notice it and say that its really good and stuff like that, but I don’t necessarily like too much attention.
I don’t know what kind of job I could get doing art.
I know what I’m going to draw first. I kind of have it in my head. I trust that I’m going to draw it right. Not like just think I’ll just draw this line here. I trust that it will go the right way. I usually draw something and then work on it till I think that its enough. I don’t really like rubbing out things and starting again.
Frill neck Lizard, 2007,
40 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm,
Aluminium cans
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Evelyn
Evelyn is a student in Year 11 (16 years old) who has been at Knightsbridge
College since Year 8. Evelyn has chosen to study visual art in Year 11 and 12. She
has also chosen to study design and media through Year 11 and 12 and has been
accepted into a University to study a drawing course while completing Year 12.
Self Portrait
2007 Acrylic paint on canvas
I don’t just draw anything I feel like. Each to me means something, and through that by my definition I am a good artist.
The reason why I went into KC was because my sister went too, and I was told that the art was one of the best.
I don’t know, it’s good to get compliments from people, but - and there are people who say oh my god you’re so talented. Stuff like that gets on my nerves because I put a lot of work into things, but I do appreciate the encouragement.
The best thing about art rooms now is the people you work with.
It’s not necessarily
the work you do.
Untitled 2007, Pencil
Drawing
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Jake
Jake is a student in Year 11 (16 years old) who has chosen to study visual art in
Year 11 and 12.
Sometimes I have it, sometimes I
don’t. That’s sort of how I see it.
And I can’t really be definite all the
time about making my
choices. So I don’t really know
if it’s good or not.
I’ve always
seemed to be good at drawing and stuff. And I like
doing technical stuff like
that.
Visual Diary work 2007, pastel
drawing
I sort of like let go. I’m not
thinking about it. So for me that’s what makes it
good. When you sort of let go, and
you’re just making intuitive choices and stuff.
Self Portrait
2007 Acrylic paint on canvas
I guess I’ve been exposed to
some more artistic stuff outside of
school and stuff like art classes, exhibitions and
galleries.
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Gemma
Gemma is a student in Year 11 (16 years old) who has chosen to study visual art in
Year 11 and 12.
Self Portrait 2007, Acrylic paint on
canvas
This is who I am, this is what I can do. Like just because I look this way doesn’t mean I can’t do
well.
Other students do their art to do good marks, sort of,
please their teachers. Whereas I don’t... So I feel
very proud.
Like if you want to do the last one, the paintings, they ended up pretty
portraits, and I jumped into the dark ugly one. Not because that’s how I see myself, but because nobody else went
there. I dare to go where others won’t, I guess.
Untitled, 2007 photomontage
My mum probably. Because she’s an artist and she often
points things out that I don’t see. And because she has opposing views to me quite often, that make me think about what I can do.
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5.1 Identification
Students responded to questions regarding the processes used to identify them as
artistically talented students. Students responded to interview questions regarding
four themes: being identified; what makes a ‘good artist’; perception of self as a
‘good artist’; and perceptions of self as ‘artistically talented’.
5.1.1 Being identified
Students responded positively to being identified by their teachers as artistically
talented. Grace felt excited to find out that her teacher thought that she was
artistically talented.
Grace: Proud. Excited.
Jake’s and Evelyn’s responses indicated that they were not sure what to make of
their teachers identifying them as artistically talented. Evelyn was particularly
surprised to discover that she had been identified as artistically talented.
Evelyn: Shocked. [Laughter]. I don’t know, it’s good to get compliments from
people, but - and there are people who say, oh my god you’re so
talented. Stuff like that gets on my nerves because I put a lot of work
into things, but I do appreciate the encouragement.
Jake: I don’t know. It’s kind of funny... but it’s good I guess. Happy.
These comments imply that both Evelyn and Jake had not previously considered
themselves to be artistically talented, or that they did not think that their teachers
thought of them as artistically talented prior to this study. While Evelyn received
compliments on her artwork from other people, she did not expect her teacher to
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identify her as artistically talented. Nevertheless both students felt happy and
encouraged by being identified as artistically talented.
Research indicates that identification is a vital stepping stone in the procedure for
catering for the special education needs of artistically talented students (Clark &
Zimmerman, 2001). Student comments from this study suggest that identification
was a positive experience for them as it boosted their confidence. While the
identification process made students feel good about themselves, none of the
students was previously aware that their teachers classified them as artistically
talented. These findings fit with Clark and Zimmerman’s findings that many
artistically talented students are not acknowledged to be artistically talented and are
often left unidentified (Clark & Zimmerman, 1984, 1988; Zimmerman, 2004).
Gemma felt complimented and proud, particularly because she felt that even though
she studied art at school, her art making was quite separate from school, teacher
influences or judgements.
Gemma: I don’t know, just proud, kind of, that someone else enjoys my
artwork as much as I do. Like, because I don’t actually do my art
with my teachers, which makes it even more of a kind of a step. Other
students do their art to do good marks, sort of, please their teachers.
Whereas I don’t... So I feel very proud.
Gemma’s comments showed a lack of respect for the school assessment system.
While she enjoyed other people appreciating her work, she claimed to be
uninterested in getting good marks or pleasing her teachers. Furthermore, she
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discounted the role of the teacher in the classroom by suggesting that she does not
require teacher input or influence. Gemma’s comments suggest she sees herself as
an outsider, a non-conformist who likes to push the boundaries. Part of Gemma’s
pride in being recognised as artistically talented is reflected in her sense of
achievement without teacher or school influence. Gemma’s description of her
reaction to being identified as artistically talented fits with societal constructions of
artists as carefree, non-conformists (Boyd, 1998).
All four students in the study identified with being artistically talented to different
degrees. Jake, Grace and Gemma were unsure about being identified as artistically
talented. Grace did not express a view of self as an artistically talented student, but
rather identified with other people’s views of her artwork and talent.
Grace: They kind of just notice it and say that it is really good and stuff like
that, but I don’t necessarily like too much attention.
Jake felt that his performance in art was inconsistent and that he did not really
identify with being artistically talented:
Jake: Sometimes I have it, sometimes I don’t. That’s sort of how I see it.
And I can’t really be definite all the time about making my choices.
So I don’t really know if it’s good or not.
Both Grace and Jake’s identification with the label of artistically talented were
framed by their concerns with whether their artwork was viewed as successful.
Grace was most concerned with whether other people thought her artwork was
successful, whereas Jake was unsure of his own and others’ opinions of his artwork.
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While Gemma did not specifically identify with being an artistically talented
student, she strongly identified with being different and unique from other students.
Gemma: I guess I don’t like fitting into a mould. I don’t like fitting into that
square that everyone else follows.
At another point in the discussion, Gemma returned to this point.
Gemma: I like to be completely diverse. I like being that odd person who sits
in the class... I prefer that to being someone like everyone else.
The above comments suggest that Gemma sees herself as an outsider and this is a
positive for her. Furthermore, she enjoys being unique and actively seeks to be
different from other students in the classroom.
Gemma: (In response to exhibiting her work) This is who I am, this is what I
can do. Like just because I look this way doesn’t mean I can’t do
well... There are different levels and stuff, but showing it just kind of
lets you go... It expresses it, and people can see who you are with
that, knowing who you are in that way.
Gemma sees her artwork as a very important part of who she is, how she expresses
herself and how other people see her. Furthermore, making and exhibiting her work
provides Gemma with an opportunity to express who she is as an individual.
Gemma’s art is an important part of her identity and she uses it to express herself
and communicate with other people. This view fits with theories of art as self
expression (Emery, 1998) and art as a tool for communication (Smith, 1999).
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Evelyn sees her talent as something that has resulted from a combination of her life
experiences and her hard work and dedication. Her talents in art are central to her
perception of who she is and how other people see her.
Evelyn: This is one of the few things that I’m good at, that I’ve had to work
very hard just to try and get on top.
At another point in the discussion, Evelyn returned to this point.
Evelyn: Through experience it is one of the only things that I’m good at. And
I might as well stick with that.
Clark and Zimmerman (2004) found that students who were talented in art were
often talented in other subject areas. Conversely, Evelyn’s comments suggest that
she is more successful in art than she is in other subject areas.
Evelyn states that her unique personal history and experience has contributed to her
distinctive personality and plays a significant role in her classification as an
artistically talented student.
Evelyn: Dad’s got this funny story where I would have been about three
years old, and I found a packet of textas, and they couldn’t find me in
the house. And after about two hours they found me in the bedroom
asleep, and I had texta all over me, and all these different colours.
That’s the earliest story that I know of me drawing.
At another point in the discussion, Evelyn returned to this point.
Evelyn: Because the environment that a person grows up in affects their
personality. And if someone has a really weird, whacked out,
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childhood, then they may be freaky, but they have a really elaborate
mind. And that’s why they have artistic talent.
Evelyn has an awareness that her childhood experiences have played an important
role in the development of her artistic talent. The argument of nature versus nurture
is common literature surrounding talented children. While it can be argued that
talented children inherit or are born with innate talents that allow them to master
skills in their field at an early age (Evans et al., 2000), Evelyn believes that a
person’s personality and artistic talent are developed as a result of particular types
of childhood experiences. Evelyn’s comments fit with Gagne’s (2002) view of
talent, where talent is developed and can be learnt. Similarly, Shanks (1999) argues
that skills and talents can be mastered by any child who has been encouraged,
practices and is surrounded by a nurturing environment. In Evelyn’s case, she
believes that her artistic talent is a result of her childhood, coupled with parents who
encouraged, supported and nurtured her talent.
Crocker (2000) and Hurwitz and Day (2001) found that parent, peer and self
nomination were useful for identifying artistically talented students. Teachers in
this study discussed the provision of extension and extra curricular activities in the
art program as one way that the art department at Knightsbridge College cater to the
needs of artistically talented students. However, egalitarian principles seem to drive
the policy and practice of offering extension and extra-curricular activities to all
students and participation relies on students nominating themselves for the
programs. Three of the four students who were identified by their teachers as
artistically talented in this study did not perceive themselves to be artistically
talented. If students are not aware of their talent, or do not perceive themselves to
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be artistically talented, then it is not ideal to rely on self nomination for programs
for artistically talented students. These findings contradict Clark and Zimmerman’s
(1998) findings, where artistically talented students in their study were aware of
their talents and actively sought to improve their area of art expertise. This presents
a problem for identification programs that suggest the use of self-nomination to
identify artistically talented students.
5.1.2 Artistic talent
An investigation into student conceptions of ‘good artists’ and reflections on
themselves as ‘good artists’ provides an insight into what students perceive to be
good indicators of artistic talent. Students’ responses to the question: What do you
think makes a good artist? indicated a variety of understandings of artistic talent.
Grace thought that a good artist could be defined by their imagination.
Grace: A good imagination. Someone who can change something ordinary
into something extraordinary.
At another point in the discussion, Grace discussed the ability to visualise an image.
Grace: Someone who can easily picture in their mind what they are going to
draw first instead of seeing something and thinking they can draw it.
If you have it in your mind first, then it is easier to see.
This description of artistic talent fits with Hurwitz and Day’s (2001) profile of
children talented in visual art, where students demonstrated outstanding visual
memory and vivid imagination in their artwork.
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Evelyn also mentioned imagination and the ability to communicate a story or
message through artwork.
Evelyn: Imagination. And probably having a whole entire story behind, and
reason behind each artwork... Once you have that, it makes you a
better artist than most.
Evelyn’s comments fit with Smith’s (1999) theory of art, where storytelling and
nonverbal modes of communication are central and significant aspects of the arts
experience for students.
Jake and Gemma thought that good artists were distinguished by their passion,
motivation and need for visual expression.
Jake: Someone who is passionate, and they’re making art for the right
reasons. Like because it’s about them, like they’re expressing
themselves.
Gemma: Someone who loves art, I guess. Who is really into art. They don’t
just do it because their teacher tells them to do it, because they have
a project they want to do, they do it because they have to, or they feel
like they just have to write or they have to paint because they feel it.
Students variously defined ‘good artists’ to possess qualities such as passion,
motivation, imagination, the means to convey a message, the compulsion to express
themselves through artistic ways, and the ability to visualise an image. These
findings add to previous research that has studied the characteristics of artistically
talented students and successful artists. While some of the research in this area
focuses on student creativity and advanced technical ability (Clark, 1995; Clark &
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Zimmerman, 2004; Hurwitz & Day, 2001; Milbrath, 1998; Torrance & Ball, 1984),
students in this study did not find that good artists displayed these characteristics.
None of the qualities nominated by students are easily assessable, measurable or
definable qualities of ‘good artists’. Evelyn commented on assessing visual art and
visual artists and suggested that there are layers of complexity involved in
determining who or what is ‘good’ in visual art.
Evelyn: Talent isn’t really a major thing. So anything is good... There’s
always sort of people who think that some art is better than most, but
it’s rather detailed or just what they perceive so I don’t think there’s
really any specific thing.
Evelyn discounts artistic talent as an indicator of success. Her comments suggest
that the viewer or assessor of artwork or artist plays a vital role in determining
whether an artwork or artist is successful. Evelyn implies that what is deemed
successful in visual art is relative to the person assessing the work. If anything is
good, as Evelyn suggests, then it makes it difficult for students to know what to
strive for – and for educators to know what to look for – in an artwork or artist. The
mandated syllabus for visual art provides a system for assessment, criteria, and
moderation for student work, however both teacher and student accounts in this
study propose that assessment of talent in visual art is reliant on subjective
judgments.
Gemma also commented on the subjective nature of assessment in art. Gemma
believed that no one could mark or assess her artwork.
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Gemma: They can’t mark it, as in they can’t tell you that it’s wrong or right.
It’s your own opinion, and they can’t take that away.
Gemma mentioned that there were no clear right or wrong answers in visual art and
as a result, the assessment process is subjective, or reliant on personal opinions.
Assessment plays an important part in determining student progress and
achievements in visual art education. Gardner (1993) also found that arts subjects
rely a great deal on qualities that are difficult to measure such as interpretation,
reflection and creative expression, while traditional mathematical/linguistic subjects
tend to produce clear results that are easily quantifiable and justifiable. Barnes
(2002) argues that immeasurable qualities that are unique to arts experiences may
contribute to a lack of value in arts in schools. Gemma and Evelyn perceived
assessment in visual art to be subjective and therefore they discounted the role of
assessment at school as a determinant of progress, success or achievement in visual
art.
The discussions with students led on to what they thought made them good artists.
Student responses give an indication of what students see as good art, and what they
are aiming for in their own art practice. Grace’s and Evelyn’s conceptions of
themselves as artists were similar to their conceptions of ‘good artists’. Grace
thought that her ability to visualise, imagine and confidently realise an artwork or
image before drawing it made her a good artist.
Grace: I know what I’m going to draw first. I kind of have it in my head. I
trust that I’m going to draw it right.
Grace’s comments about herself as an artist are similar to her answer to the
question: What makes a good artist? In both cases Grace highlights visualisation
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and imagination as important aspects evident in her own and other talented artists’
work.
Evelyn highlighted the communication of a story or message in her work as an
important factor in her success as an artist. Furthermore, she mentioned that hard
work and dedication contributed towards her identifying as a good artist.
Evelyn: The fact that I try to work really hard at it. There’s a whole lot of
reasoning behind the things that I draw. There’s story, there’s
influence... And I don’t just draw anything I feel like. Each to me
means something, and through that by my definition I am a good
artist.
Evelyn’s response is also similar to her previous comments about good artists where
she discussed the importance of communicating a message in the production of
what she considers good art. A feeling of personal satisfaction is evident in
Evelyn’s responses. She is hard working and her art satisfies her need for aesthetic
experiences. Evelyn’s comments fit with research that emphasises the role of the
arts in schools for providing students with unique aesthetic experiences where
enjoyment and fulfilment are achieved (Aland, 1998; Barrett, 1998; Emery, 1998).
Jake and Gemma’s responses to this question were incongruent with their responses
to the first question: What makes a good artist? Jake highlights a combination of
technical skills and intuition as characteristics that make him a good artist.
Jake: Maybe like I’ve always seemed to be good at drawing and stuff. And
I like doing technical stuff like that. And yeah, sometimes I guess in
some pieces, some things that I’m doing, I sort of like let go. I’m not
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thinking about it. So for me that’s what makes it good. When you sort
of let go, and you’re just making intuitive choices and stuff.
Most students disregarded technical aptitude as a quality of a good artist; however,
Jake’s response did support the view that his superior technical skills were one
characteristic that made him a good artist. This comment adds other qualities to
Jake’s earlier remarks that emphasise motivation, need for artistic expression and
passion as qualities of talented artists.
None of the students in this study highlighted qualities that Winner and Martino
(2002) found to be common among academically and artistically talented students
such as learning faster than their peers, creating large volumes of work, being more
skilful than other students, solving problems, or requiring little adult input. It is
interesting that none of the students nominated qualities that are easily measurable
or definable as qualities of good artists. Alternatively, students described qualities
that are difficult to measure or define such as passion, motivation, imagination, the
means to convey a message, the compulsion to express themselves through artistic
ways, and the ability to visualise an image. The immeasurable nature of these
characteristics carries implications for the identification of artistically talented
students.
Gemma discusses her artistic processes and desire to be different from other
students as the characteristics that make her a good artist.
Gemma: Probably the thought, or the process. Because I go through a
massive process whenever I’m doing artwork. That and also, with
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our school work, we’re given an outline, and I take that outline and
jump as far as I can, and do the things that most students won’t do.
The artistic process, exploration of ideas and discovery as are seen as integral
components of learning in visual art (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 2004).
Gemma identifies her process as part of what makes her a good artist. It is common
for the process in visual art to be given as much weight as the end product (Clark &
Zimmerman, 2004).
Gemma stated that her artwork was different to other students’ artwork; however
she did not state that it was superior to other students’ work. Winner and Martino
(2002) found that artistically talented students learnt faster than their peers, while
Clark (1995) found that artistically talented students demonstrate superior drawing
ability to their peers. Gemma is the only student in this study who mentions her
ability in relation to other students in her class as being an important determinant of
her capability as an artist. Alternatively, rather than focus on her grades on
assessment tasks, Gemma sees her desire to be distinctive and unique in her art
practice as a quality that separates her from the rest of the class, therefore making
her an outsider and, in her opinion, a good artist. Whilst student performances in
assessment tasks are used by teachers to compare student abilities, it is interesting to
note that none of the students mention their marks on assessment pieces or their
relative ability in comparison with other students as qualifiers for their ability in art.
While the findings from student accounts in this study contradicted many findings
in the literature, similarities were also discovered. Imagination was a quality
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highlighted by student descriptions of good artists in this study and in Hurwitz and
Day’s (2001) description of gifted artists. Winner and Martino (2002) found that
artistically talented students were highly motivated and passionate about art and
student accounts highlighted motivation and passion as characteristics of good
artists. In line with Cooney’s (2004) research, the student accounts from this study
signify that indicative characteristics of artistically talented students are difficult to
define. Therefore, further research is required to alleviate some of the
misconceptions and contradictory findings in this and previous research.
5.2 Student experiences
Interviews with students highlighted a diverse range of student experiences in the
visual art classroom. These experiences brought to light a number of student needs
and concerns with regard to their art experiences at school. Five themes emerged
from student data in relation to student experiences in visual art at school: making
art; influences; future aspirations; the classroom environment; and freedom and
flexibility. Student responses in these themes provide insight into the experiences of
artistically talented students at school.
5.2.1 Making art
Students described the making processes they use to create their artwork. Through
their descriptions of the making process, all four students highlighted similar
aspects in their making processes as they discussed in their view of themselves as a
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good artist. These descriptions of making art provide insight into the art processes
used by artistically talented students.
Grace discussed techniques as a starting point for her artwork.
Grace: If I haven’t got a technique right then I just work on it till I do, then it
eventually just gets better and better.
Later, when describing the subjects for her artwork, Grace described her emotional
state as being something that influenced her art making.
Grace: Well I’m pretty happy with my life and stuff, and I really love life so I
draw a lot of bright colours because it shows that happiness that I
have, rather than something sad that has happened to me. Rather than
show something bad.
Grace’s comments are in line with Clark and Zimmerman’s (1988) findings that
artistically talented students often used emotional starting points for their art making.
Clark and Zimmerman (1988) also found that girls were less motivated by technical
processes than boys. However, Grace’s comments suggest that she is motivated by
the desire to improve her work technically.
Jake discussed the skills that he used in the production of his artwork.
Jake: Well I do contour drawings. Like a couple of years ago, or when I
was little, my art teacher was showing us this thing. It’s a contour,
using contour lines, going around the form and stuff. And it’s just
sort of like a warm up exercise, but I use it a lot. And yeah, I use
contour a lot. Not just sort of as an exercise, as an actual artwork.
Sort of, to abstract it.
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Here Jake explains how he creates art, while also providing evidence of his extra-
curricular art teacher’s influence on his art making. Jake attended outside of school
art classes from an early age. During his interview he often spoke of his
experiences in these classes and this teacher’s influence on his work (see Section
5.2.2). Jake’s description of art making fits with descriptions in the literature of
artistically talented students exploring and exploiting art techniques, materials and
processes in their artwork (Hurwitz & Day, 2001; Milbrath, 1998; Winner &
Martino, 2002). Jake’s comments provide evidence of him taking a simple art
exercise and manipulating it over and over, until it becomes crucial to his artwork.
Jake emphasises twice that he uses contour drawing a lot. Jake’s use of contour
drawing seems to fit with the obsessive characteristics outlined in Hurwitz and
Day’s (2001) description of artistically talented students.
Evelyn and Grace indicate a different starting point for their processes. They both
start an artwork with an image in their mind and then go about trying to create that
image in their artwork. They both considered imagination and visualisation to be an
important part of their making process.
Grace: I just - if I draw a line that I don’t like I just keep colouring it in,
moving it in a bit and stuff like that then it just looks like just the line
I wanted it to, then I can move on to the next line.
Evelyn: Well the first thing I do is I always have an image in my mind. And I
do a lot of character works, so it’s always working through that,
working from a story. And I try and represent their personality and
what they do... And the process of refining work, pencils are the best
for me. It does everything that I want it to do, and so apart from that
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just copying from my mind, experimenting with pencil and whatnot to
make good costumes or mechanics - all that sort of thing.
The visualisation of the initial image and the subsequent exploration of the resultant
image are described by Evelyn and Grace as important parts of their making
process. Both students also discussed the technical process of refining an image,
which was found by Hurwitz and Day (2001) to be characteristic of artistically
talented students’ artwork. Evelyn’s and Grace’s responses express a sense of
personal satisfaction through the art making process. Hurwitz and Day (2001) also
found the search for personal satisfaction to be a quality of artistically talented
students’ art making processes.
Whilst Clark and Zimmerman (2004) found that boys had more of a concern for
developing technical skills and girls began their work with an emotional need, the
findings from this study are more balanced. Grace, Evelyn and Jake all focussed on
the technical skills they used in their work, while Gemma’s work began
conceptually and Grace discussed emotional starting points.
The idea of being different or unique was a common idea expressed throughout
Gemma’s interview and she saw this as an important aspect of her art making
process.
Gemma: You go to the weirdest extreme. And then slowly come back until you
find something you like.
Gemma: Well for schoolwork I look at my outline, of what is needed. And then
from there, basically just jump to the opposite ends.
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Gemma: So you take the littlest thing, and explode it as much as you can. And
hopefully you’ll find something that you’ll like. And that’s what I
stick with. And quite often, once I’ve found it, it changes as I go on
down the right path.
Gemma’s description of her making process provides further evidence of her
depiction of herself as a carefree, non-conformist outsider (section 5.1.1). The
making processes used by Gemma affirm Milbrath’s (1998) findings that artistically
talented students’ work is different from other students’ work. While most students
aim to remain within the boundaries of class tasks, Gemma’s comments
demonstrate her actively and purposefully pushing the boundaries of class tasks to
create unique artistic responses, therefore making her artwork distinctive.
Evelyn also suggests that part of her aim when creating artwork is to make it unique
or different from other artworks.
Evelyn: They’re just an alternate story and reality on a - but they do relate to
real events. That’s what appeals to someone, because it’s different.
People do it because it’s different. And yeah it’s because I don’t
think there’s anything like that... I want that, because I want them to
be individual, but I also want them to represent something familiar.
Evelyn’s descriptions of the making process also fit with Milbrath’s (1998) findings
that artistically talented students’ artwork is distinct from other students’ work.
Evelyn’s objective to be unique is framed by her desire to make her artwork appeal
to others. Alternatively, Gemma’s desire to create unique and different artwork is
framed by her conception of herself as a person. Gemma consciously chooses to
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make her artwork different and unique by moving as far away as possible from
conventional outcomes, whereas Evelyn starts with something familiar and then
works towards making it unique.
The above student descriptions showed a variety of approaches to the making
process. It is interesting that student descriptions of how they made art illustrate
similar aspects as to their perceptions of themselves as good artists. This suggests
that students are intentionally making art using processes and practices that they
believe to be indicative of good art practices. In line with Clark and Zimmerman’s
(2004) findings, it can therefore be surmised that artistically talented students in this
study were actively working towards improving their art practice by following
processes that they perceived to create good art.
5.2.2 Influences
Students were asked what their main influences were when they were creating their
artworks. Their responses give an insight into what influenced and inspired the
artistically talented students in this study to create their artwork.
Jake’s main influence was his extra curricular art teacher; however his family also
played a role in influencing his artwork.
Jake: He is [outside of school teacher] sort of my main influence and stuff.
But I guess more so now my family.
Jake’s attendance at extracurricular art classes from an early age suggest that he
showed an interest in art, or showed talent in art from an early age. During the
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interview, Jake often spoke about the influence his extracurricular art teacher had on
his work. Jake’s outside of school art teacher’s role as a mentor fits with Cooney’s
(2004) guidelines for teachers of artistically talented students. Teachers in Chapter
4 indicated that they often purposely mentor artistically talented students; however,
in this instance, Jake views his outside of school teacher to be his main influence.
This may be due to the length of time spent with his extra-curricular art teacher as
opposed to the year-by-year relationships that are developed in school art.
Jake acknowledged the influence of extra-curricular experiences in art education;
however, Gemma was the only student to recognise aspects of her current school
experience as influential to her art practice.
Gemma: Having the outline does really help in some aspects. Like with
painting I know if I want to sit down and do a painting I find it really
hard. If I have an outline where it’s got to be a person, or it’s got to
have some emotion, I find that a lot easier for some things.
Gemma found some aspects of school tasks and requirements helpful to her art
practice. Task outlines provided Gemma with a starting point that made it easier for
her to come up with ideas for her artwork. It is interesting that Gemma finds it
easier to create artwork when she is given guidelines considering the method she
uses to create artwork. In her comments on making art, Gemma discusses trying to
get as far as possible away from the task requirements (see 5.2.2). These conflicting
comments suggest that the task outline provides Gemma with a starting point with
which to rebel against, therefore providing her with a direction for her artwork.
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Gemma was also influenced and challenged by her mother, who is an artist.
Gemma: My mum probably. Because she’s an artist and she often points
things out that I don’t see. And because she has opposing views to
me quite often, that make me think about what I can do.
Later in the discussion, Gemma returned to this point.
Gemma: I’d say having an artistic mum does benefit me compared to other
students quite often. Because she also thinks outside the square,
which kind of helps with what I do. But yeah, I’ve just had a lot of
creative - like in the last few years my mum has been really creative,
and that kind of helps.
Gemma’s mother’s influence can be seen through her comments in response to what
makes a good artist?, her view of herself as artistically talented and her process for
making art. Gemma’s constant desire to be unique, different, and non-conformist in
her artwork can be seen to be linked with her mother’s challenging views and ability
to think outside the square. These findings contradict Clark and Zimmerman’s
(1988) findings that artistically talented students in their study were not influenced
by their family, as Grace’s mother clearly played an influential role in her art
making.
Evelyn’s family also played a role in influencing her artistic talent.
Evelyn: My Dad has a massive clay sculpture of a head. When he was in
grade 12, it was supposed to be a self portrait, but then he changed it
into an Aboriginal head. So, that’s his achievement. He’s just put
that on the side - he named it Boong. So, and then, but he never took
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it up. My Mum used to do landscaping drawings and stuff. My sister,
she draws a fair bit.
Evelyn’s comments suggest that she grew up in an artistic household, which
influenced her desire to draw. These findings contradict Clark and Zimmerman’s
(2004) findings that families of artistically talented students were supportive, but
did not play an influential role for students in their study. Gemma, Jake and Evelyn
clearly acknowledge a family influence in their art practice. Some literature points
towards talented artists inheriting their ability from their parents, or being born with
superior abilities (Colangelo & Davis, 2002). In this study, students did not
suggest that their talents were inherited from their parents, but rather that their
families played an influential role in challenging them, guiding, developing and
encouraging their art practice.
Evelyn expressed her compulsion to draw, rather than identifying specific
influences:
Evelyn: That’s the thing. I don’t really pay attention to what influences me. I
just draw.
However some of her later comments suggest that she is influenced by specific
artists and her sister.
Evelyn: I look at a lot of artworks that I think are awesome. And again how
we were talking about Brian [Frow], his artworks are very good.
And my sister liked him a lot. She bought The Dark Crystal, and so I
got into him. And there are a lot of artworks I notice that are done by
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good artists, but I know what I like. I print them out and put them on
my wall.
While all four students in this study were influenced by family and life experiences,
it is interesting that Evelyn is the only student who acknowledges being influenced
by a specific artwork or artist, which is a common understanding of influences in
visual art. Evelyn’s comments are in line with research findings that indicate
artistically talented students find inspiration in other artists’ works and techniques
(Winner & Martino, 2002; Zimmerman, 2004).
5.2.3 Future aspirations
Students in the study were asked to reflect on their future career aspirations. They
were asked specifically whether they thought that their future career would involve
some form of visual art practice. The following discussion highlights some
concerning attitudes towards careers and opportunities in visual art careers for
students who are identified as artistically talented.
Gemma’s passion for art is evident through her responses. She is clearly
enthusiastic and motivated to use art in her future.
Gemma: Life without art for me is just not worth it.
Gemma: I would love to teach other students what I know.
While Gemma’s comments throughout the interview demonstrate her passion for art
making and expression through her own art practice, it is interesting that she views
her future in art as a teacher, rather than a visual art practitioner. Society commonly
views the career path for teachers as more structured and viable than the career path
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for visual art practitioners (Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000). The career path for an artist is
often highly competitive, reliant on self-promotion and trends in art culture, making
it more difficult to secure a solid income. This may have contributed to Gemma’s
choice to pursue a career in teaching, rather than a career as a visual artist.
Grace also expressed a love of art and a willingness to follow a career that utilises
art, however she was not sure what sorts of future career opportunities were
available to her or whether it would be possible for her to follow a career that
involved visual art.
Grace: I’m not entirely sure. I love doing it and I’ve been to places like
shops in Paddington where people open their own galleries and sell
their own art and stuff and get a lot of money from it. So that’s what
I was like kind of hoping for. I’m not sure if I could. I don’t know
what kind of job I could get doing art.
While talented sports people, musicians or dancers are often aware of careers in
their fields from an early age, Grace’s view of possible art careers is quite narrow
and idealistic which suggests a lack of previous discussion about her future career
involving visual art. Teachers in this study can be seen to play an important role in
advocating and promoting visual art in their community through exhibitions,
excursions and community involvement (see Section 4.2.2); however, student
comments show a lack of direction or serious discussion about prospects for
successful visual art careers for artistically talented students. Clark and Zimmerman
(2004) and Smith (1999) recommend that visual art teachers take an active role in
mentoring and directing talented art students towards careers in visual arts. Gross’s
(2004) study of gifted and talented students found that students who were supported
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and guided towards careers in their area of expertise were able to secure meaningful
and successful careers in their field.
Interestingly, Jake was also the only student in this study who was not too
concerned with pursuing a career in visual arts in particular.
Jake: I don’t know. Probably. If not... Well almost definitely some sort of
art. If not like visual art and that kind of stuff. Like music and just
any way of expressing yourself. But I enjoy painting and things like
that, so yeah.
Jake’s comments fit with theories of art as a vehicle for expression (Barrett, 1998;
Emery, 1998; Wright, 2003). While he is not sure whether his future will include
visual art specifically, Jake emphasises the importance of expressing himself
through the arts in his future.
Evelyn’s response reflects a good knowledge of a variety of career choices in visual
art that would suit her talents.
Evelyn: I could do illustration or concept art for games, media, film or
television, things like that. Because that’s a riveting industry that’s
never going to die. And they’re always looking for new, fresh people.
Evelyn’s comments show a positive and optimistic view of career choices available
to her in visual art industries. Evelyn’s comments do not reflect family pressures on
her to get married and raise children, as was reported for artistically talented girls in
Clark and Zimmerman’s (1988) study.
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Later on, Evelyn’s comments suggest that while she is actively working towards a
future in visual art, she is apprehensive about securing a viable career in this field.
Evelyn: How the hell do I do this once I’ve finished school?
While Evelyn is aware of and interested in potential careers in visual art, she
expresses a romanticised, yet ultimately pessimistic view towards actually being
able to undertake her chosen career.
Evelyn: I was hoping that, you know, eventually if I had the time and money
they could make a movie based on my stories. But that’s probably a
dream that’s never going to happen.
Facilitator: Don’t say never. It could happen.
Evelyn: It’s highly unlikely, and improbable, but never impossible.
The unattainable perception of visual art careers was common among Evelyn and
Gemma’s comments. Gemma states the practical impossibility of her goal of being
an artist becoming a reality.
Gemma: Hopefully I can earn a living off it, but being an artist doesn’t really
work.
At a stage in their lives where these students are making career choices, Gemma and
Evelyn’s views both suggest that careers in visual art are impractical and
unattainable. The view that visual art should be seen as a hobby rather than a
serious career are common in Australian society and reflect the lack of value that
society places on the visual arts and the arts in general (Boyd, 1998; Saatchi &
Saatchi, 2000; Wright, 2003). Visual arts education and industry are placed in a
problematic position when students who are excelling in visual art feel it is
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impossible to secure, or are not working towards viable and attainable careers in
visual art.
Evelyn’s comments touch on some of the views that students hold regarding the
value of art in school and as a viable career option.
Evelyn: At the beginning of the year there were a lot of students that were in
art just because it was art. You know, they had no reason to be in art.
You know, either they didn’t plan it in their future, or they had
something completely nothing to do with art and is was just there to
fill in the gap in the timetable, or it was supposedly a slider subject.
Later in the discussion, Evelyn returned to this point.
Evelyn: You just do it for the sake of doing it, you don’t really need it. It’s
easy to do. And a lot of people think that the art at this school, you
can pass with high marks just by bulling your way into it. But there
are a lot of people that are serious about it. And they work really hard
on whatever projects.
Evelyn’s accounts of common student views towards visual art fit with Saatchi and
Saatchi’s (2000) findings, where a lack of value towards the arts contributed to the
perception of art as a ‘fun’ subject. Student views of visual art as a ‘slider subject’
reflect the value placed on the arts in the Australian society (Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000;
Wright, 2003). Boyd (1998) also found that a lack of value placed on the arts in
society contributed negatively to students’ future career choices. Clark and
Zimmerman (2004) recommend that visual art teachers play an active role in
promoting, advocating and empowering the arts in their school and community in
order to combat the commonly negative views of visual art in society.
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While students in this study expressed a passion for art and a keen interest in
pursuing careers in visual art, their comments reflected a naivety about careers in
visual art and a pessimistic view of the probability of securing a successful career in
their field of expertise. These comments reflect society’s view of the arts as
relatively unimportant when compared to other fields (Boyd, 1998; Saatchi &
Saatchi, 2000; Wright, 2003). The future careers of students talented in visual art
rely on guidance and support from mentors such as visual art teachers.
5.2.4 The classroom environment
Students were asked to reflect on the classroom environment. This discussion helps
to provide an understanding of the environmental circumstances that assist and
promote student learning and excellence in art. While some students found that the
school environment was beneficial for the creating artwork, other students preferred
to work at home.
Grace discussed the importance of being around other people while creating her
artwork.
Grace: Probably at school because having people around me. At home mum
and dad are usually doing something else and Rory as well. I’m just
– I like to be around people when I do that.
Grace’s preferred working environment is the school environment, as she likes to be
surrounded by other art students while she works. Grace’s comments fit with Clark
and Zimmerman’s (1988) study that found artistically talented students work more
effectively when surrounded by like-minded students. While Grace is not
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surrounded by artistically talented students at school, she still finds the classroom
environment more attuned to her needs as she is in the company of other students.
Alternatively, Evelyn and Gemma described quiet, uninterrupted spaces.
Evelyn: Comfortable, you know, no interruptions, for actual - if you’re in a
room, I don’t have to think about anything else I have to do. I
haven’t been drawing for the past few days because of school, the
whole year. It’s certainly small sketches, but my best work is when
I’ve got every part of my mind focused on it.
Gemma: Music is my place. Generally it’s just sitting on my bed, drawing. Or
lying somewhere and thinking about, dreaming at night, thinking
about it. Quiet spaces tend to work, or music helps.
The environments described by Evelyn and Gemma are difficult to achieve in a
classroom or school setting. Time limits, other students and classroom noise are
difficult to avoid and can act as distractions in the school environment. These
comments fit with Clark and Zimmerman’s (1988) study of preferred working
environments, where artistically talented students preferred to work in quiet,
focussed environments.
Jake discussed some of the benefits and disadvantages of working in school and
home environments.
Jake: Well actually I do like working at school as well. Because I don’t
know it feels more like an art studio sort of thing, because there’s
like paints there and stuff. But at home you have to clean up and
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everything. But yeah, I guess also when you think about home you
get as long as you want, and it’s your own place. So you can make it
however you want. So you can choose to be around...interesting
things and in a calm environment - no distractions etc. That you can
make the work space your own - that is important.
Jake sees the school environment as an art studio space with the availability of
resources and materials making it an attractive space in which to work.
Alternatively, his descriptions of the home environment highlight his desire for
ownership within his work space. Jake discusses the lack of time restrictions and
the ability to customise the environment to inspire his work and suit his individual
needs in the home environment. Jake also values a calm and distraction free
environment which is also a theme common to Gemma’s and Evelyn’s descriptions.
Students acknowledged access to resources, being surrounded by people and
learning new techniques to be the major benefits of learning art at school. Grace
considered the opportunity to learn new techniques to improve her artwork as a
benefit of school art.
Grace: You learn new techniques and different things about how to improve
your art and stuff. Gives you more ideas and other artworks and
things.
Alternatively, Evelyn valued the people at school and the resources she has access
to.
Evelyn: The best thing about art rooms now is the people you work with. It’s
not necessarily the work you do. The best part? The fact they have
things that I can work with that I don’t have at home.
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This statement is inconsistent with Evelyn’s earlier descriptions of her preferred
working environment, where she describes an uninterrupted environment, rather
than availability of resources or working with people.
Jake also values the resources available to him in the school classroom and being
around his teacher and other people who like art.
Jake: I guess, lots of resources, I have a funny teacher. You get to be
around other people, most of whom sort of like art.
It is interesting that both Evelyn and Jake mention working with other people in the
art room as a benefit of school art, as these comments conflict with earlier
comments that describe their most productive work spaces. These inconsistent
statements make it difficult to establish which environments students in this study
find most beneficial to work in.
There is a paucity of research into artistically talented students’ experiences within
the school visual art classroom. Findings from this study suggest that the visual art
classroom caters for artistically talented students’ needs by providing students with
art resources, materials and a useable art studio space. While some students found it
beneficial to be surrounded by their peers while they work, others preferred to work
in a quiet, uninterrupted environment which is difficult to achieve in the classroom.
It is interesting that none of the students in this study mentioned the role of the
teacher within the classroom environment. Students focussed more on the physical
environment in the classroom rather than the instruction, teaching or educational
activities that take place in the classroom environment.
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5.2.5 Freedom and flexibility
In this study, freedom and flexibility were themes that emerged in the student
interview data. Students highlighted these qualities when reflecting on their
experiences, approaches to assessment and opportunities in visual art at
Knightsbridge College.
The freedom and choice that Grace’s previous school allowed in the art room
encouraged her enjoyment of art.
Grace: Last year in my old school it was a really carefree school…It was
really free so and when it came to art you could if you wanted to you
could do your own kind of thing and that’s what I chose to do a lot of
the time. Other people might not like art as much because they have
not had that experience.
Grace makes the point that other people might not enjoy art as much as she does if
they have not been exposed to experiences in art that allow freedom and choice.
Grace’s comments fit with a learner-centred approach to education that emphasise
the importance of developing programs that allow students to direct their learning
(Dewey, 1934; Greene, 1995). However, Clark and Zimmerman (2004) also stress
the importance of implementing curriculum that is carefully planned and structured
to ensure educational rigor, where students are guided towards improving their
skills and abilities in visual art. Programs that allow students to do whatever they
want, as Grace has experienced, may not provide adequate guidance for all students
to improve their skills and abilities in art.
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Gemma found that her experiences in the visual art classroom provided her with a
creative outlet, where she was able to push boundaries and express herself freely.
Gemma: I guess, because at school like you have to wear a uniform, you have
to do maths, you have to do English, you have certain things that are
required by laws. Being creative means that you can push those
boundaries.
Later in the discussion, Gemma returned to this point.
Gemma: You can be as colourful as you want, you’re allowed to do whatever
you want as long as you don’t swear and things like that. But you
have a very good range of what you can do, and you’re allowed to
express any emotion you want.
Gemma values her visual art experiences as they allow her to be herself, to have the
freedom to explore and push the boundaries in a safe environment. Similarly, Grace
described her experiences in visual art as free and relaxing.
Grace: I find it relaxed to just feel free to do whatever and instead of “I have
to get this right” you know it just comes and its good and I don’t
realise that I’m doing that because I’m so relaxed.
Jake found that visual art tasks that allowed flexibility and freedom for student input
and direction were most beneficial to his learning in visual art.
Jake: Sometimes when there’s an opportunity to do art, like they don’t give
you a subject, [you] find it yourself - then yeah. And when they give
you opportunities to make things relevant to your own life.
Jake found that when he was able to guide and direct his own learning, he could
make tasks relevant to his life. These comments fit with a constructivist view of
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learning, where students learn more effectively when they are given opportunities to
guide their own learning (Dewey, 1934; Greene, 1995). The constructivist approach
to learning and teaching is common in many subjects at school. Gemma’s, Grace’s
and Jake’s comments point toward art providing more freedom relative to subjects
such as maths and English. The freedom perceived by these students as a positive
aspect of visual art at school may also contribute to school community and societal
views of art as fun and non-essential to the school curriculum (Boyd, 1998; Saatchi
& Saatchi, 2000).
Evelyn was the only student who expressed a need for less freedom and further
direction and instruction in the art classroom.
Evelyn: I want to know how they actually paint. Probably just the ability to
find and acquire certain tutorials or instructions of how to paint
more. Because [at] school, you usually come to school and you just,
here’s some paint, paint a picture. Is that just blocking with a whole
heap of character? How do we do detail effectively, sort of thing?
Because no one has actually told you that, so if I can find a way to
do that, you know... But usually a lot of people can’t do those sorts of
things by themselves. They need a little help.
However, later in the conversation, Evelyn reflected on her difficulties with
accepting teacher feedback and criticism.
Evelyn: Probably the fact that when I do something that I think follows the
criteria, that’s all I want to do because I like it and anything I can
think of to change it, I don’t like. But then I’ve got all these people
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going, what if you do this? I’m just like, why can’t we just leave it as
it is?
While Evelyn longed for more technical instruction with her work, she was hesitant
to accept teacher feedback or criticism. These findings are dissimilar to Clark and
Zimmerman’s (1988) research findings that suggested artistically talented students
readily accepted criticism. Evelyn’s comments provide evidence that students who
are identified as artistically talented may not easily accept criticism.
Whilst Gemma, Jake and Grace found some aspects of visual art allowed for
freedom and flexibility they also found some aspects of the art course lacking in
freedom and flexibility. Gemma found that time restrictions impinged on the
quality of her art outcomes.
Gemma: Probably the lack of time. Because with - I work to a process, but I
run out of time towards the end. And quite often it stops me from
doing the best I could do, like it’s completed but not the way I
wanted it to be.
Studio approaches to senior visual art and the school timetable place restrictions on
what students can accomplish within the time allocation for art lessons. Visual art
is one of six subjects that Gemma is completing for her last two years of school.
She expresses the need for more time to complete practical assignments and
artworks. Gemma’s comments align with literature that point towards artistically
talented students working on art projects over extensive periods of time (Clark &
Zimmerman, 2004; Hurwitz & Day, 2007).
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Jake discussed the lack of freedom and flexibility when it comes to set tasks and
assignments.
Jake: I think the ideas are interesting. Although I think the ideas are sort of
pre-formed, and they impose them on students.
Later in the discussion, Jake returned to this point.
Jake: Some of the assignments are sort of... I don’t know, I just think they
don’t allow for too much creative input. But when there’s something
that allows you to make your own sort of choices and input, then it’s
cool.
Jake suggests that teachers impose pre-formed ideas onto students and this does not
allow him to come up with individual responses to tasks. For some students visual
art is their only form of creative visual expression; however, Jake suggests that there
are few opportunities for creative input in visual art at school. Jake emphasises that
in order for him to enjoy his art (or think it is ‘cool’) he requires some form of self-
direction and individual input into task requirements. These findings are in line
with Greene (1995) and Dewey’s (1934) constructivist notions of learning, where
students learn more effectively when they are given opportunities to direct their own
learning in art.
Grace also felt restricted by over-structured tasks and assignments. She expressed a
need for more freedom, flexibility and creative input into tasks and assignments.
Grace: Last term we did an assignment and it was really quite boring
because they told us exactly what to do and it was too structured. I
prefer it if it is more like improvisation.
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While Evelyn found structure and direction necessary to achieve results in visual
art, Grace and Jake found these aspects of art restricting. Grace describes her
desired approach to tasks as improvisation, where she can freely explore alternatives
to arrive at a resolution. Gross (2004) also found that gifted and talented students in
her study responded positively to experiences where they were given opportunities
to explore their area of interest freely to arrive at solutions.
Contradictory views of the visual art classroom emerged during discussions with
students in this study. Students found that learning in visual art provided them with
unique opportunities to freely express themselves artistically and presented them
with opportunities to direct their own learning. However, students also described
aspects of visual art that they found constricting or limiting. Students felt that
assessment tasks did not challenge them or did not allow enough student direction.
Students also felt time limits for assessment tasks restricted their outcomes.
Teachers’ accounts also reflected the need for more flexibility and freedom in visual
art as a subject, as they felt that the requirements of the course impinged on their
ability to provide a differentiated course for artistically talented students.
5.3 Chapter summary
The accounts from students in this study are significant due to the lack of research
that has taken into account the experiences of artistically talented students within
standard visual art classrooms in Australia. A number of significant findings
emerged from student accounts in this chapter:
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• Students in this study reacted positively to being identified as artistically
talented students. However, students were not aware that their teachers
considered them to be artistically talented prior to this study. In addition,
students in this study identified with the term artistically talented to varying
degrees.
• Student descriptions of ‘good art’ and reflections of themselves as ‘good
artists’, presented a list of characteristics that students view as good
indicators of artistic talent. Passion, motivation, imagination and intuition
were nominated by students as qualities of ‘good artists’. Interestingly, in
accordance with teacher responses in Chapter Four, students did not
consider assessment at school to be a good indicator of artistic talent.
• Students in this study worked at improving their art practice and made art to
explore techniques, materials, processes and concepts in visual art. Art was
also used by students as a form of communication and self-expression
• Students in this study felt that their families played an influential role in the
development of their artistic talent. These findings contradicted Clark and
Zimmerman’s (1988) findings where the families of artistically talented
students did not influence student artwork.
• While the four students in this study expressed a desire to use visual art in
their future career, their conceptions of visual art careers were naïve and
they expressed a pessimistic view of securing a successful artistic career.
These views are indicative of the lack of value placed on the arts in society
(Boyd, 1998; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000)
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• Students in this study valued the classroom environment for its social
benefits and its physical attributes such as the availability of materials and
studio space. Surprisingly, students did not mention the teacher as an
important aspect of the visual art classroom environment.
• Student views of the freedom and flexibility in the visual art classroom were
contradictory. Whilst students in this study viewed visual art as a relatively
free and flexible subject when compared to subjects such as maths and
English, they expressed a need for more freedom and flexibility within the
art course to allow for more self-directed learning.
This chapter has presented, analysed and discussed student accounts of the visual art
classroom. The following chapter presents the conclusions for this study. The
research questions for this study will be addressed and the implications and
recommendations for further study will be discussed in Chapter 6.
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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION The aim of this study was to investigate procedures used to identify artistically
talented students in visual art classrooms and explore experiences of artistically
talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms. The research questions
were:
1. How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art
classroom?
2. What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically
talented students in the visual art classroom?
3. What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the
visual art classroom?
4. What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of
artistically talented students in visual art?
In this chapter, the research findings are summarised under each of the research
questions. The implications of the findings and the contributions this study makes to
the advancement of theory and research in the area are discussed. The limitations of
the study are outlined. Finally, some final concluding comments and
recommendations for further research are offered at the end of the chapter.
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6.1 Summary of research findings in relation to each research question
6.1.1 How are artistically talented students identified within the visual
art classroom?
Teacher and student accounts of the identification process for artistically talented
students in this study are contradictory. According to teacher accounts of the
identification process, teachers intentionally identified and provided for the needs of
artistically talented students in the classroom. Teachers found that tests used by
Knightsbridge College to identify high achievers and organise students into
streamed classes were not effective for identifying artistically talented students.
Visual art teachers therefore relied on informal, intuitive and individualised
assessments of students to identify artistically talented students in the art classroom.
Student accounts indicated that students in this study were unaware that they had
been identified as artistically talented students prior to this study. It seems that
teachers had not explicitly communicated with students regarding their
identification as artistically talented students. Students then are challenged to enrich
skills that they are not necessarily aware that they have. If students are aware of a
high regard for their work and talents, they might become more motivated and
perform to a greater potential. The validity of processes used to identify artistically
talented students in the classroom is called into question by these findings.
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Within student accounts and teacher accounts in this study, varying and
contradictory descriptions of artistically talented students or ‘good artists’ are
presented. Even so, student descriptions of ‘good artists’ and reflections of
themselves as ‘good artists’ were generally similar to teacher descriptions of the
characteristics or criteria that they looked for in artistically talented students.
Teachers and students in this study mostly described qualities that are difficult to
measure such as motivation, passion and intuition as indicators of artistic talent.
While teachers had no problem identifying students as artistically talented for this
study, they had great difficulty describing what criteria they look for in artistically
talented students. They struggled with articulating how they define artistic talent
and what processes they went through to identify artistically talented students in this
study. Literature in this field has reported on external assessors’ identification of
artistically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004). The findings from this
study are significant as the literature in this area has not presented the views of
visual art classroom teachers in the identification process.
Another significant finding that emerged from teachers’ and students’ accounts was
that both teachers and students in this study discounted assessment in visual art at
school as an indicator of success as a visual artist. Teachers stated that students’
results on assessment tasks in visual art are not necessarily a good gauge of their
success as visual arts practitioners. Similarly, students did not regard their marks in
visual art as a quality that distinguished them as successful artists. Unlike other
areas of the curriculum, school assessment in visual art it seems, is not connected
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with ‘real world’ assessment. This goes some way toward explaining the disparities
and contingencies around identifying and teaching artistically talented students.
6.1.2 What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with
artistically talented students in the visual art classroom?
This study presented important findings regarding the views of teachers in the
education of artistically talented students. Teachers in this study viewed their role in
the art classroom as facilitators or managers of student learning. This aligned with
teachers’ perceptions of artistically talented students’ needs. The teachers saw their
role as providing students with opportunities to learn, access to resources and
extending their experience, knowledge and understanding of visual art. Teachers in
this study described how they catered for artistically talented students in two ways:
through program variation and extra-curricular or extension programs.
Findings in this study highlighted how democratic principles in education may work
against providing specifically for artistically talented students. While extracurricular
and extension programs were implemented to cater to the needs of artistically
talented students, such activities were offered to all students who were interested to
participate. Prior to this study, teachers had not made students aware of their
classification as artistically talented students. Teachers left it to students to self-
nominate for extension and extra-curricular programs. It is risky to rely on self
nomination if students are not aware of their classification as artistically talented
students. These findings are significant as they reflect the effect of egalitarian and
democratic values that are particularly common in Australian society, and how, with
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the best of intentions, such practices can actually work against the pursuit of
excellence.
Teachers in this study named freedom and flexibility as significant elements of
teaching visual art at school. Teacher accounts indicated their desire for more
freedom and flexibility in visual art as a subject. Teachers in this study felt that the
mandated curriculum requirements limited their ability to provide a flexible and
varied program for artistically talented students. Further research could investigate
the constraints being placed on visual art teachers as they impinge on teachers’
abilities to cater to the individual and specific needs of artistically talented students
in the visual art classroom.
6.1.3 What accounts do artistically talented students give of their
experiences in the visual art classroom?
Findings from this study make a significant contribution to research into the
experiences of artistically talented students in the art classroom. Students in this
study valued the art classroom for its studio space, art materials and resources.
Students did not overtly mention the role of the art teacher within the visual art
classroom environment. Some students in this study mentioned the benefits of
being surrounded by their peers while they work. Other students preferred to work
in a quiet, uninterrupted environment, which is difficult to achieve in the classroom
at school.
130
Students’ accounts in this study showed a variety of student approaches to making
art and most students worked at improving their art practice by implementing
practices that they had observed in good artists’ work. This significant finding adds
to Clark and Zimmerman’s (2004) research findings, where artistically talented
students were found to intentionally work at improving their abilities in art.
Most students in this study considered that their families played an influential role
in the development of students’ artistic talent and ability. This is a significant
finding as it seems to contradict the findings of Clark and Zimmerman’s (2004)
study where families played a supportive role, but did not influence the artistic
practice of artistically talented students.
All four students in this study expressed a desire to follow a career in visual art,
even though some students perceived that a successful career as a visual artist was
not unattainable. These findings point towards a lack of career guidance for
artistically talented students in this study and a lack of value placed on visual art
careers in society in general (Boyd,1998; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000).
Students considered visual art to be a subject that allowed for freedom and
flexibility when compared with other subjects at school. At the same time, all
students expressed the desire for further freedom and flexibility within the visual art
curriculum to allow for more self-directed learning. This matched with the teacher
accounts of the visual art classroom, where they provided similar contradictions
regarding freedom and flexibility in the art classroom.
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6.1.4 What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and
learning of artistically talented students in visual art?
Two significant implications can be drawn from this study into student and teacher
accounts of the visual art classroom. First, visual art teachers would benefit from the
development of guidelines for identifying artistically talented students in the art
classroom. Second, professional development would enable teachers to cater more
effectively to the specific needs of artistically talented students within the art
classroom. The following section expands on these two implications.
6.1.4.1 The development of guidelines for identifying artistically talented
students in the art classroom.
In this study varied and conflicting methods and criteria were used by teachers to
identify artistically talented students. A number of recommendations emerge for the
development of reliable and widely recognised procedures and guidelines for
identifying artistically talented students.
1. Visual art needs to be included as part of gifted and talented programs at
school. In order for the needs of artistically talented students to be met, it is
important that schools cater for the needs of all students, providing for both
equity and excellence. Visual art, along with the arts more broadly should be
included in programs that provide for excellence in school. Identification
procedures, planning, curriculum and programming for gifted and talented
students should include catering for excellence in visual art.
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2. Art talent should be conceived as multidimensional. According to the
findings of this research and other studies (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004;
Cooney & J, 2004) there is not one commonly accepted depiction of talent in
art and therefore art talent should be treated as multifaceted. Consequently
the identification of artistically talented students should take into
consideration multiple strategies for identifying artistically talented students.
This should include multiple criteria systems, where a number of different
identification instruments and procedures are used such as self, peer, parent,
teacher nomination, folio assessment and interviews (Clark & Zimmerman,
2004; Cooney & J, 2004; Hurwitz & Day, 2001).
3. Due to the multidimensional nature of art talent, it is recommended that
teachers take into account a range of student characteristics when identifying
artistically talented students. Findings from this study fit with Hurwitz and
Day’s (2001), Winner and Martino’s (2002) and Clark and Zimmerman’s
(2004) findings to present a list of characteristics or criteria that should be
taken into consideration when identifying artistically talented students.
Artistically talented students may demonstrate one or more of the following
characteristics: technical skills; cognitive skills; motivation and passion for
art; however this list is not exhaustive. In this study, student creativity and
student intuition were discounted as suitable characteristics for the accurate
identification of artistically talented students as both of these characteristics
are not able to be defined explicitly.
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4. Multiple forms of student artwork should be taken into account when
identifying artistically talented students. Findings from this study suggest
that students may be restricted by the curriculum and requirements of the
school classroom. Visual art teachers would do better to take into account
multiple forms of student work, including work that is not part of the school
visual art curriculum when identifying artistically talented students. Some
forms of artwork that could be considered for the identification of artistically
talented students may include visual art diaries, observations of the making
process, unfinished or process work, folios of work or finished products.
It is recommended that school systems in Australia actively carry out further research
in this area in order to devise reliable and widely accepted procedures and guidelines
for the identification of artistically talented students.
6.1.4.2 Professional development would enable teachers to cater more effectively
to the specific needs of artistically talented students within the art classroom.
The findings from this study are significant as they take into account the experiences
of artistically talented students and their teachers in the regular visual art classroom.
These findings present a number of implications for future practice and research into
the needs and experiences of artistically talented students.
1. Artistically talented students in this study displayed diverse characteristics
and their needs vary considerably. In order for the needs of artistically
talented students to be catered for within the art classroom, teachers need to
consider the individual needs of students, so that they can go about offering
students a differentiated program in visual art.
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2. Artistically talented students desire more flexibility and individual autonomy
in the visual art classroom. Teachers could increase student autonomy in the
classroom by providing students with opportunities to direct their own
learning. Teachers are able to provide a flexible learning environment in the
art classroom by offering structure for those students who thrive on it and
freedom for those students who value it. This individual approach could
provide students with the support they require to reach their goals and satisfy
their needs in visual art.
3. The current assessment procedures in visual art are not effectively reflecting
student ability in visual art. Authentic assessment in visual art needs to be
considered, where assessment is worthwhile, meaningful and significant for
students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 1999). Clark and Zimmerman
(2004) outline a number of goals and recommendations for authentic
assessment in visual art which should be considered and adopted by teachers
of artistically talented students. It is recommended that further research into
assessment in visual art is required to develop more effective and authentic
processes.
It is suggested that there is a need for further research in this area to enable the needs
of artistically talented students to be catered for, leading to high quality and high
equity education in the arts.
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6.2 Significance of the study
Although this study was conducted with artistically talented students and their
teachers at one school in Queensland, the findings provide useful insights into the
education of artistically talented students in a broader context. It is evident that the
processes used in the visual art classroom in this setting for identifying artistically
talented students are varied and vague. It is also apparent that the diverse needs of
artistically talented students are not always being met in the regular art classroom in
the setting.
This study is significant as it provides valuable information for schools as they plan
and design educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art. The findings
of this study constitute new knowledge in a currently under-researched area, as the
experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in the visual art
classroom in Australia have not been explored previously. Specifically, this study
makes important recommendations for the future education of artistically talented
students in the visual art classroom by proposing a renewal of programs for
artistically talented students and a revision of current identification procedures for
artistically talented students.
6.3 Limitations
This study was limited to an examination of the experiences of four artistically
talented students and five of their teachers at one school in south east Queensland.
This means that the reported perceptions are specifically relevant to the experiences
136
of these teachers and cannot necessarily be generalised to other contexts or time
periods. This is a one-off snapshot of the issues and it is recognised that the results
could be different at another time, or with different participants. Nevertheless, this
study provides rich and valuable insights into teacher and student accounts of the
visual art classroom and results have generated questions that might be applicable
more widely, suggesting areas that need to be investigated further with regard to the
education of artistically talented students.
6.4 Final concluding comments
Visual art is an important component of the school curriculum that incorporates
unique and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other
learning experience (Emery, 1998). The provision of a quality education for
artistically talented students in visual art classrooms is a current and concerning issue
as it impacts on the satisfactory inclusion of students who excel in visual art in a
differentiated art curriculum (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Cooney & J, 2004; Winner
& Martino, 2002).
Teacher and student accounts of the visual art classroom in this study indicated that
identification processes for artistically talented students are unclear and
contradictory. Furthermore, teacher and student accounts of their experiences
presented a wide variety of conceptions of the visual art classroom and point towards
an individualised approach to learning for artistically talented students. This study
also discovered a mismatch between assessment practices in the subject visual art
and assessment of art in the ‘real world’.
137
This study is significant as it provides teachers, parents and others involved in the
education of artistically talented students with additional means to plan and cater for
the educational needs of artistically talented students. Specifically, this study
proposes a renewal of programs for artistically talented students, and recommends a
revision of current procedures for the identification of artistically talented students in
the visual art classroom.
138
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Appendix 1
Below are some questions that guided discussions in the focus groups, although the
discussion was not limited to these:
a. You have been asked to identify the four most talented artists in the
school. How did you go about identifying these students?
b. What characteristics or criteria do you look for when identifying
talented art students?
c. How would you define artistic talent?
d. How do you recognise artistic talent in your classroom?
e. What are the specific needs of artistically talented students?
f. How do you cater for these needs in your classroom?
g. How does the school in general cater for the needs of artistically
talented students?
h. Are there any differences between the way artistically talented
students and “gifted and talented” students are catered for at this
school?
i. How are the needs of artistically talented students catered for/not
catered for by this school?
j. What do you think could be done to improve artistically talented
students’ experiences in art/school?
147
Appendix 2
Below are some questions that guided discussions in the interviews, although the
discussion was not limited to these:
a) What makes a good artist? (refer to artworks for specifics) Your teacher
has identified you as a particularly good artist. What makes you a good
artist?
b) (Using artworks and visual art diary as stimulus) How did you create this
artwork? What experiences/who helped you to develop the
ideas/techniques used? What role did your art teacher/classroom play in
the creation of this artwork? What other factors influence/influenced the
creation of your work?
c) What environment do you create your best artwork in? (considering
teacher, other students, other resources (e.g. materials) and physical
environment) What do you value most about creating in that
environment?
d) What do you find most challenging about creating artworks at school?
e) What is the best part of learning art at school?
f) How do you think you will use art in your future?
g) Is your art experience different from the experience of other students in
the class? Why/how?
h) What do you think could help you to extend your artistic talent?
i) In what ways are your artistic needs met by what goes on in your art
classroom?
148
j) What would you change (if you could) to improve your art experience?
(at school/outside of school) (and why?)
149
Appendix 3