About ASPBAE

ASPBAE is a non-profit, non-government regional organisation with membership throughout the Asia Pacific region. It has operational relations with UNESCO. Its overall purpose is to strengthen the theory and practice of adult education as a contribution to individual and social development.

Today, ASPBAE covers a wide diversity of groups and individuals involved in both formal and non formal education, working with and through government agencies, universities, NGOs, community groups, trade unions, indigenous peoples, women’s organisation, the media and other institutions of civil society. Their educational activities reflect global and regional imperatives in the promotion of people’s empowerment and sustainable development.

@ Copyright 2007 Tribal Education in India: The Need for Follow Through may be produced in whole or in part for study or training purposes, provided that the source is acknowledged. Reproduction for other purposes requires the permission of the

Asia South Pacific Association for Basic and Adult Education (ASPBAE)* C/o. MAAPL, 9th Floor, Eucharistic Congress Building No.35, Convent Street, ColabaMumbay – 400 039, India.Tel : 91-22-2202 1391, 2281 6853Fax: 91-22-2283 2217Email: aspbae@vsnl.comWebsite: www.aspbae.org

*Formerly known as Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult Education (ASPBAE)

AcknowledgementsThis report was written by Dominic M. D’Souza, Associate Director, Laya, Visakhapatnam, India. It forms part of a series of country papers in the Asia Pacific region produced by ASPBAE examining the impact of education policy on Indigenous People.A majority of the sources used in writing this paper have been secondary; however, the experiences of ASPBAE and Laya have also been drawn upon. Critical comments were contributed by C. R. Bijoy and Virginius Xaxa. The report was edited by ASPBAE Program Manager, Bernie Lovegrove and ASPBAE Research and Advocacy Officer, Joanna Lindner.

We would like to acknowledge the support of Asia Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) and the Japan Funds in Trust as well as DVV International.

The views expressed in this report may not represent the views of all members of the Asia South Pacific Association for Basic and Adult Education (ASPBAE).

ISBN Number: 81-278-0034-1

Executive Summary

Introduction

Tribal People in India

National Education Policy: Five Year Plans and Tribal Education

Education Challenges for Scheduled Tribes

Recommendations

Conclusion

Bibliography

Table of Contents

1

4

7

11

20

24

29

31

Executive Summary

What the report covers

The report draws support and evidence for its claims from a mixture of secondary data and first-hand experiences of ASPBAE and Laya. It begins by assessing the applicability of some of the most cited definitions of indigenous peoples to the indigenous (adivasi) and tribal peoples of India. For the purposes of this report the term ‘tribal people’ is used to refer to indigenous people. The report then highlights the Indian Constitutional measures that provide for tribal education and examines the extent to which the Five Year Plans for education specifically address the needs of tribal peoples.

The report draws on some educational indicators that compare outcomes for the general Indian population with those of Scheduled Tribes (indigenous peoples) and makes recommendations for achieving not only equity in learning outcomes but education that is more culturally attuned to the experience and context of tribal peoples in India.

Literacy levels are an important indicator of education access and outcomes and this report draws on government data to show that between 1961 and 2001 literacy levels for Scheduled Tribes increased by 38.6% from 8.53% to 47.10%. However this increase was from a very low base and over 50% of tribal people are illiterate.

The gender discrepancy in literacy levels has actually increased in this period. In 1961 the gender breakdown for Scheduled Tribes’ literacy levels was men: 13.83% and women: 3.16%. By 2001 the gender breakdown for Scheduled Tribe (ST) members was men: 59.17% and women: 34.76%. Even though the literacy rate for both men and women improved from very low bases, the discrepancy between men and women has increased from 10.67% to 24.41%.

Key Findings

The discrepancy in literacy rates between men and women has increased from 10.67% to 24.41%.

“

“

1

Executive Summary

In internationally agreed upon frameworks such as the Education for All (EFA) goals, enrolment is drawn on as an indicator of education access. According to government data, of the 193 million children aged between 6-14 years, 16 million or 8.29% of these are ST children. There are persistent gaps between enrolment figures for ST children and other children in India as well as between boys and girls. Also of concern is that enrolments are reported as Gross Enrolment Ratios rather than the more preferable and statistically-telling Net Enrolment Ratios. Retention rates paint a more accurate picture of education access and participation than enrolment ratios, and the picture is not promising. Amongst Scheduled Tribes, drop-out / push-out rates are high and have actually increased from the base rates recorded in 1990-91 to those recorded in 1998-99.

In addition to these more mainstream measures of education, this report refers to the way in which the Intellectual Property regime is biased against traditional forms of knowledge, knowledge dissemination, and knowledge ownership and the ramifications for tribal knowledge. This bias makes tribal peoples particularly vulnerable and encourages them not to share their knowledge, thus cutting them off from a source of potential livelihood.

Key Findings

There are persistent

gaps between enrolment

figures for ST children and other children in India as well as between boys

and girls.

““

2

Recommendations

To make tribal education effective and sustainable, policies need to promote collaborative relationships between government and civil society organizations (CSOs), especially tribal, community based organizations, to facilitate and monitor enrolment and retention at school; and ensure the education curriculum and style is relevant to each tribal context both at the primary and secondary levels. To do this requires attention be paid to gender equality, curriculum relevance, mother-tongue instruction, and appropriately trained teachers.

This report makes a number of recommendations to address the above problems.

The Government of India must be made aware that continued violations of the Constitutional provisions relating to Adivasis and Scheduled Tribes are the primary barriers to education. The protection of rights is a key prerequisite for sound development of tribal peoples.

1.

Education policies must pursue holistic, purposeful education for tribal peoples. This includes education that focuses on human rights and skills development for individuals within the community who want to foster initiatives that address livelihood pathways from a long-term perspective. This requires a focus on adult education, particularly sustainable adult literacy, especially for women. It also requires that members of Scheduled Tribes are specifically given access to legal education.

Continued work must be done to map the realities and circumstances that exist, on the ground, for tribal people. Such an understanding will provide a solid basis from which the Government of India can draw to develop more evidence-based policy. Further, providing increased resources for research on the issues that affect tribal education in India will allow CSOs to engage both education stakeholders and providers through more effective advocacy.

2.

3.

4.

3

The term ‘indigenous people’ has no universal, standard or fixed definition, but can be used about any ethnic group who inhabit the geographic region with which they have the earliest historical connection. One common characteristic of indigenous people is marginalization due to war, conquest and colonization. Several widely-accepted definitions have been put forward by internationally-recognized organizations, such as the United Nations, the International Labour Organization and the World Bank.

In 1972 the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) accepted the following definition:

1. Introduction

Indigenous populations are composed of the existing descendants of the peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country wholly or partially at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of the world, overcame them, by conquest, settlement or other means, reduced them to a non-dominant or colonial condition; who today live more in conformity with their particular social, economic and cultural customs and traditions than with the institutions of the country of which they now form part, under a state structure which incorporates mainly national, social and cultural characteristics of other segments of the population which are predominant.1

Since this definition was subsequently found to apply mainly to pre-colonial populations, and would likely exclude other isolated or marginal societies, in 1983 the WGIP enlarged this definition to include the following criteria:

(a)They are the descendants of groups, which were in the territory at the time when other groups of different cultures or ethnic origin arrived there;

(b) Precisely because of their isolation from other segments of the country’s population they have almost preserved intact the customs and traditions of their ancestors which are similar to those characterized as indigenous;

(c) They are, even if only formally, placed under a state structure which incorporates national, social and cultural characteristics alien to their own.2

In 1986 it was further added that any individual who identified himself or herself as indigenous and was accepted by the group or the community as one of its members was to be regarded as an indigenous person.3

1(Asian Centre for Progress of Peoples 2008-2009)2Working Group on Indigenous People (WGIP) FICN41Sub.211983121 Adds. para. 379 cited in ibid.3WGIP, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4. para. 381 cited in ibid.

4

After nearly 25 years of contentious negotiations over the rights of native peoples to protect their lands and resources and to maintain their unique cultures and traditions the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration on the Rights of the Indigenous Peoples on September 13, 2007. However, the Declaration does not provide a specific definition of indigenous peoples or populations. It is claimed that this was because ‘historically, indigenous peoples have suffered, from definitions imposed by others.’4

1. Introduction

a) tribal peoples in independent countries whose social, cultural and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions or by special laws or regulations;

(b) peoples in independent countries who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from the populations which inhabited the country, or a geographical region to which the country belongs, at the time of conquest or colonisation or the establishment of present state boundaries and who, irrespective of their legal status, retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions.5

the term ‘Indigenous Peoples’ is used in a generic sense to refer to a distinct, vulnerable, social and cultural group possessing the following characteristics in varying degrees:(a) Self-identification as members of a distinct indigenous cultural group and recognition of this identity by others;(b) Collective attachment to geographically distinct habitats or ancestral territories in the project area and to the natural resources in these habitats and territories; (c) Customary cultural, economic, social, or political institutions that are separate from those of the dominant society and culture; and(d) An indigenous language, often different from the official language of the country or region.6

A definition used by the International

Labour Organisation

applies to:

In the World Bank’s

operational policy:

4Erica Irene-Daes. E/CN.4/Stib.2/AC.4/1995/3, cited in (Trip Atlas 2009)5(ILO Convention 169 n.d.)6(World Bank 2005). p. 1, para 4.

5

There are various civil society definitions and descriptions of ‘indigenous people’. The following one has been used as a working definition by ASPBAE in its Community Action Tool (CAT):

1. Introduction

Indigenous peoples are distinct peoples who have historically determined for themselves their specific ways of life and living. This distinctness is also marked by an almost unbroken continuity, both in time and space. This historical continuity is based on their special relationship to a territory and its resources which they persistently insist upon. They define their development based on their relationship with their ancestral territories and the resources contained therein, and through the autonomous exercise of self-governance over themselves and their ancestral domain.7

7ASPBAE. Community Action Tool (CAT) 2009.

6

Scheduled Tribes and AdivasisIn the Indian context, the terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ (STs) and Adivasis are used interchangeably but they are not synonymous. ‘Scheduled Tribe’ is an administrative term meant to denote the communities listed in the Schedule of the Constitution of India under Article 366(25) which defines Scheduled tribes as ‘such tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purpose of this Constitution’. However, the 2005-2006 Annual Report of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs mentions the criteria of geographical isolation, distinctive culture, primitive traits, shyness of contact with the community at large and a low level of economic development, as the ‘criteria followed’.8

This Report goes on to say that:

these criteria are not spelt out in the Constitution but have become well established and accepted. They take into account the definitions in the 1931 Census, the reports of the First Backward Classes Commission 1955, the Advisory Committee on Revision of SC/ST lists 1965 and the Joint Committee of Parliament on the SC and ST Orders (Amendment) Bill 1967 1969.9

2.Tribal People in India

It must be noted that Adivasi is a political term literally meaning original inhabitants or indigenous people, used by the communities for self-identity, mobilization and organizing social protest. The Indian government is paranoiac of the term ‘indigenous peoples’ and has not ratified the International Labour Organisation’s Convention 169), stating the entire population of India at independence, and their successors, to be ‘indigenous’.

India, however, had ratified the ILO Convention No.107 (which was later replaced by Convention No.169) relating to indigenous and tribal peoples in

independent countries. In India there are 461 Scheduled Tribe (ST) groups spread out disproportionately in almost all the 28 states and seven Union Territories of the country. About 84% live in eastern, central and western India, about 12% in north-east India, about 3% in south India and about 1% in north India. However, it is to note that not all who are called Adivasis are on the list of Scheduled Tribes, nor are all those listed as ST actually Adivasis. The Scheduled Tribal population is spread over nine states with areas marked as “Scheduled Areas” governed under certain constitutional provisions defined in its Fifth Schedule.

8(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2005-2006). p.48, para 3.1.8.9Ibid. p. 48: para 3.7.8

7

The north-east part of India has a different history to mainland India. Historically, the north-east was not part of mainland India with the colonial incorporation taking place much later, such as Assam in 1826, Garo Hills in 1873, Naga Hills in 1879, and Mizoram in 1881-90. The persistent revolts in the hill areas across the subcontinent including the north-east led the British to enact the Scheduled District Act (Act Fourteen of 1874) and the Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas Act 1935, under which the hill areas were classified as Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas; provincial legislature

had no jurisdiction in the former and only partial jurisdiction in the latter case. Under Article 244, the above areas in the north-east were included under the Sixth Schedule whereas the rest of the above areas in the sub-continent were brought under the Fifth Schedule. The areas in the Sixth Schedule enjoy a higher level of autonomy than those in the Fifth Schedule Areas in the Constitution. The Scheduled Tribe populations in both the Fifth and Sixth Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas are considered to be economically less developed, and therefore need social support.10

The Government of India has identified 75 tribal communities as Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) with a total estimated population of 2.5 million in 199111, spread over 17 states (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamilnadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, West Bengal) and one Union Territory (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) based on a four-point criteria viz., - i) smallness in size and diminishing in number; ii) backwardness and isolation; iii) use of pre-agricultural technology; and iv) very low literacy.12 There is a proposal to use of the term ‘Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs)’ instead of the classification of Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs) operative since 1973.13

2.Tribal People in India

10(Mundu 2006.). p.21.11 (Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2006). p.15, para 12.112(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.461, para 4.2.6513(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2006). p.15, para 12.1.

8

As per the 2001 Census, the tribal population in India is estimated to be 84.3 million, or 8.2% of the total population of India. One of the distinguishing features is that a majority of the tribals live in scattered habitations located in interior, remote and inaccessible, hilly and forest areas of the country. Nearly 22% of tribal habitations have less than 100 tribals and more than 40% have between 100 and 300, while approximately 38% of other tribal habitations have between 300 and 500 tribal members.14

Recognising the special needs of STs, the Constitution of India has enacted certain safeguards to protect these communities from possible exploitation and thus ensure social justice. While Article 14 confers equal rights and opportunities to all, Article 15 prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of sex, religion, race, caste etc; Article 15(4) enjoins upon the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes; Article 16(4) empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens, which in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State. Article 29 provides for the right to conserve one’s distinct language, script or culture under protection of interests of minorities or denied admission to state maintained and aided educational institutions on grounds of religion, race, caste, or language. Article 46 expects the State to promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections, particularly the STs, and promises to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Further, while Article 275(1) promises grant-in-aid for promoting the welfare of STs and for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled Areas, Articles 330, 332 and 335 stipulate reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and in the State Legislative Assemblies and in services. Finally, the Constitution also empowers the State to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of the socially and educationally backward classes (Article 340) and to specify those Tribes or Tribal Communities deemed to be as STs (Article 342).15

Constitutional Safeguards for the Scheduled Tribes

14(Sujatha 2000). p.1.15(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.443, para 4.2.3

9

10

Eleven Five Year Plans16

The underlying principle of the Nehruvian Panchsheel (five principles of tribal development) was to create an enabling framework for tribal people to move according to their own genius in a system of self-governance while sharing the benefits of development, retaining the best elements of their tradition, cultural life and ethos. This essentially amounted to the granting of autonomy/self-governance to the Scheduled Tribes. However, it has remained a Nehruvian dream.

In the fifth Five year plan the Tribal Sub-Plan approach came into existence as the main strategy for rapid socio-economic development of tribal people. Before that, however, let us consider what attempts were made in the first four Five Year Plans. The first Five Year Plan emphasized additional financial resources through a community development approach to address the problems of tribals rather than creating a clear-cut tribal development strategy; and, towards the end of the plan (1954), 43 Special Multipurpose Tribal Development Projects (MTDPs) were created. These MTDPs could not fully serve the interests of the tribals since there were too many schemes. Regardless of that, this approach continued during the second Five Year Plan as well. It was not until the third and fourth Five Year Plans that measures were taken to address the ineffectiveness of the MTDPs;

During the third Five Year Plan, another strategy for tribal development was evolved by converting Community Development Blocks where the concentration of tribal population was 66% and above, into Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). By the end of Fourth Five Year Plan, the number of TDBs in the country rose to 504 but this strategy too was considered to be a failure as it did not address the cause of more than 60% of the tribal population of the country living in blocks outside the TDBs.17

3. National Education Policy: Five Year Plans and Tribal Education

Eleven Five Year Plans

16The first Five Year Plan covered the time period 1951-56.17(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2005-2006). p. 30, para 2.1

11

Emerging in the fifth Five Year Plan, the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for the Scheduled Tribes was designed to channel the flow of outlays funds for TSP areas, at least in equal proportion to the ST population of each state or Union Territory. Along with core economic sectors, elementary education has been accorded priority in the Tribal Sub-Plan approach. Since primacy was accorded to elementary education, a broad policy frame for education was adopted in the Tribal Sub-Plan emphasizing equal importance for quantitative and qualitative aspects of education.

A second major development in the education policy of the tribals emerged with the recommendations of the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986 which specified, among other things, directions to:

3. National Education Policy: Five Year Plans and Tribal Education

Eleven Five Year Plans

18(Gautam 2003). p.2.

• Accord priority to opening primary schools in tribal areas;

• Develop curricula and devise instructional material in tribal language at the initial stages with the arrangements for switchover to regional languages;

• Encourage promising ST youths to take up teaching in tribal areas;

• Establish Ashram schools/residential schools on a large scale in tribal areas;

• Formulate incentive schemes for the STs, keeping in view their special needs and lifestyle.18

12

The NPE, 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992, recognized the heterogeneity and diversity of the tribal areas while underlining the importance of instruction through the mother tongue and the need for preparing teaching and learning materials in the tribal languages. Some efforts towards the development of education in tribal areas were evident in the first five Five Year Plans, but emphasis on raising the literacy level of tribal communities by setting the target to enroll all children in the age group of 6 -14 years as a time-bound programme was only given from the sixth Five Year Plan. It was proposed to achieve the objective in two stages: Stage 1) 95 per cent of enrolment in the age group 6 -11 and 50 per cent in the age group 11—14 by 1985 and, Stage 2) universal enrolment in the age group 6 -14 by 1990.

3. National Education Policy: Five Year Plans and Tribal Education

The seventh Five-Year Plan mainly focused on revitalizing the education system by including vocational courses, suitable curricula, strengthening the infrastructure and introducing more Ashram Schools. The eighth and ninth Five-Year Plans further emphasized the need for promoting vocational education and additional grants were allocated for this purpose. Vocational education was introduced in tribal areas mainly with a view to relate education to the world of work and allow students to imbibe proper skills, values, attitudes and dignity of labour.19

The tenth Five-Year Plan helped to promote the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Education for All Movement), the Indian flagship to meet the Dakar goals of Education for All by committing to provid useful and relevant elementary education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. The plan also focused on giving high priority to vocationalisation of education at high school/higher secondary level and on mobilizing local resources to develop educational infrastructure, as well as utilizing the services of the educated local tribals, improving the educational status of PTGs and the tribals living in the forest villages through ashram (residential) schools, mobile schools and community-based educational programmes, and developing teaching material and instruction medium in tribal languages/dialects up to primary level.20

The approach to the eleventh Five-Year Plan states that: Development and empowerment of socially disadvantaged groups and bringing them to par with the rest of the society is a Constitutional commitment. Schemes for the educational upliftment of the SCs and STs have borne fruit although the gap between the general population and the SCs and STs is still at unacceptable levels. Educational schemes in favour of these sections therefore need to be continued with redoubled vigour.21

19(Manohar 2002). p.2-3.20(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.466, para 4.2.77.21(Government of India, Planning Commission 2006). p.85, para 5.7.1.

13

a.Progress in LiteracyLiteracy is a primary index of educational development. The following census figures illustrate the trends in literacy amongst STs and others:

There has been a substantial increase in the literacy rates of STs during the last four developmental decades but the gap between the literacy rates of STs and those of the general population persists. Also, the progress in literacy of STs is not uniform across the country. The increase is largely attributed to the high literacy rates in the north-east. Therefore, progress in literacy in mainland India has been tardy. The high literacy in the north-east is attributed to the fact that tribal peoples of the north-east have been able to retain better control over livelihood resources along with a militant assertion and autonomy over resources and governance, compared to mainland India where the Adivasis have been cheated of their resources, pushing them into poverty to such an extent that survival itself is jeopardized.

Although the female literacy rate amongst STs has increased substantially from 4.85% in 1971 to 18.19% in 1991, the gap between ST females and the general population has also been widening during the same period, though with a slight decrease after 1981. The literacy rate of STs was 8.53% in the 1961 Census, and has steadily increased to reach 47.10% in the 2001 Census, yet it is still far below the overall national literacy rate of 64.84% as per the 2001 census. Moreover, here too, it is the increased literacy rates in the north-east that pushes up the overall figure. For instance, in 1991 the female literacy rate in Madhya Pradesh (the state with the largest ST population) was 10.73% while that of Mizoram was 78.60%, Nagaland 54.75%, Assam 43.03% and Tripura 49.65%.23

22Government of India, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Selected Educational Statistics 2002-03, cited in: (Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2006). p.10.23(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p. 452-53, para 4.2.38-40.

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

40.40

45.96

56.38

64.13

75.26

15.35

21.97

29.76

39.29

53.67

28.30

34.45

43.57

52.21

64.84

13.83

17.63

24.52

40.65

59.17

3.16

4.85

8.04

18.19

34.76

8.53

11.30

16.35

29.60

47.10

YearTotal Population STs

Male MaleFemale FemaleTotal Total

Table – 1: Literacy Rate of STs and Total Population22

14

b.EnrollmentsST children aged 6-14 comprise 2.89% of the total population of children 6-14 in India. Of the 193 million children falling into that age bracket, 16 million of them (10.87 million of 6-11 years and 5.12 million of 11-14 years) were STs as of March 2001.24

Table – 2: Gross Enrolment Ratios of STs and Total Population (1990-91 to 1999-2000)25

Just as there is a considerable gap between literacy rates of STs when compared to the general population, their enrolment ratios when compared to the total population are also much lower as indicated inTable 2. The pace of progress of enrolment of both ST boys and girls at the middle level between 1990-91 and 1999-2000 has been relatively good compared to that of the total population, yet the enrolment ratio of ST girls both at primary and middle levels was lower than that of the total population in both the years.

24(Gautam 2003). p.2.25(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.454.

(+) 3.3

(+)12.8

(-) 6.9

(-) 22.4

(-) 25.3

(-) 20.3

(-) 0.8

(+)3.6

(-) 4.9

58.0

70.8

44.8

103.4

126.8

78.6

39.7

51.3

27.5

100.1

114.0

85.5

62.1

76.6

47.8

(+) 2.8

(+) 8.6

(-) 2.5

97.7

112.7

82.7

94.9

104.1

85.2

58.8

67.2

49.7

1990-91 1999-2000

I to V I to V

YearClasses(1)

Total Population (Includes ST population)

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Total

Boys

Girls

Gap

Scheduled Tribes

I to VIII I to VIII

(2) (3) (4) (5)

15

c.RetentionThe drop-out / push-out rate, which is a more accurate indicator of education access and participation also shows that there has been a steady decline in both general and ST categories (Table 3).

Table – 3: Drop-Out Rates amongst STs and Total Population (1990-91 and 1998-99)26 (in %)

The problem of drop-outs/push-outs is a common feature for both general and ST students. While both categories have been showing a decreasing trend during 1990-91 to 1998-99, the problem appears to be worse with regard to STs, as they have very high drop-out rates of 57.36% in classes 1-5, 72.80% in classes 1-8 and 82.96% in classes 1-10 during 1998-99.27

26Educational Profile of States/UTs, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, cited in: (Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.454.27Ibid. 454.

Category Classes (I-V) Classes (I-VIII) Classes (I-IX)

1990-91 1998-99 1990-91 1998-99 1990-91 1998-99

Total 42.60 39.74 60.90 56.82 71.34 67.44(includes ST students)

STs 62.52 57.36 78.57 72.80 85.01 82.96

Gap 19.92 17.62 17.67 15.98 13.67 15.52

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

16

Taking note of the alarming dropout rate and low literacy levels especially among tribal girls, the Government proposed the following in its Draft National Tribal Policy, 200628:

a) There will be special focus on girls’ education, inclusive of context-specific traditional and innovative interventions. Anganwadis/crèches will be linked with schools so that girls are not required to do baby-sitting which affects their education. Special and sustained education initiatives/drives will be continued/launched in low female literacy tribal pockets i.e. in districts having less than 35% ST female literacy with a view to significantly raising the literacy levels among Scheduled Tribe girls by the end of the eleventh Plan period.

b) Most teachers in schools in ST areas are non-STs who tend to view tribal language, culture and social practices as being inferior to theirs. Psychologically, this has a strong negative impact on children, which again contributes to their dropping out of school. One way of tackling this problem would be to change the way ST communities are being educated. To enable comprehension of lessons taught, tribal children will be taught in their mother tongue at least in the Classes 1-3. This step will be adopted particularly in case of uni-lingual tribes. Text books will be prepared in tribal languages and will acknowledge the role of tribal leaders and tribals in the

struggle for Indian independence and their contribution in other areas. The portrayal of tribals in the text books will be imbued with human dignity and empathy. This will be completed by the end of the eleventh Plan period.

c) A normative network of primary, secondary and high schools equipped with proper school buildings, hostels and other requisite infrastructure facilities will be worked out for all tribal areas. The norms would generally be one residential high school for ST boys and one residential high school for ST girls in each block in the tribal areas, and at least one primary school and one primary level girls’ hostel in every Gram Panchayat (Village Government). About 10-25% non-tribal students from the neighbourhood will be admitted in these schools in order to encourage integration and competition.

d) The target of completing and operationalising 100 Eklavya Model Residential Schools29 with classes six to twelve as per the scheme of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs will be achieved and all schools will be made high quality schools by the end of the eleventh Plan period.

d. Proposed National Tribal Education Policy Commitments

28(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2006). p.10, para 9.5.29Eklavya was a loyal and brave student in the epic ‘Mahabharata.’ The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has been establishing Eklavya Model School (EMRS) in the country since 1997-1998 out of funds under Article 275 (1) of the Constitution of India for providing quality education to Scheduled Tribes students in tribal areas. To improve the education infrastructure and standard of education in tribal areas, these schools are modeled on the line of Navodaya Vidyalaya. The guidelines provide that each school will have STs Students from 6th to 12th standard. Every class will have 60 students (30 boys and 30 girls) and the total sanctioned strength of the school will be 420 students.

17

e) Teacher absenteeism is high in schools in tribal areas, primarily because appointed teachers are rarely from the interior areas to which they are assigned. To prevent teacher absenteeism in tribal areas, local and tribal teachers from local Panchayats will be given preference in employment, and the teaching and non-teaching staff of primary schools will be placed under the control of the village management committee appointed by the Gram Sabha (Village Assembly) or Gram Panchayat.

The Draft Tribal Policy also commits to take steps to improve education, sports and employment opportunities for STs by ensuring:

• Annual increase of 3% in literacy growth rate, for both male and female;• 100% enrolment of tribal children and reduction of dropout rates, especially

tribal girls, to bring up to par with others by the end of eleventh Five Year Plan;• Opening primary schools for boys and girls within a radius of 1 km of tribal

villages;• Opening residential facilities for primary sections at Panchayat level;• Development of primers in major tribal languages for the students up to class

three;• Making a residential high school or hostel facilities available in every block

in the tribal areas (approx. 600) along with provision for food and other consumables and to provide 10% - 25% of seats for non-tribal students from the neighborhood Below Poverty Line (BPL) families for inter-mixing and competition;

• Introducing appropriate incentives for parents to send their daughters to schools through secondary level.

• Opening of boys and girls hostels for ST children for middle and higher education in towns and cities, including in non-tribal areas;

• Providing appropriate sports infrastructure in each school from primary stage. At least 5% of the annual grant of the school may be kept aside for development of sports and sports events;

• Earmarking positions within the district cadres for employment of teachers from Panchayat or intermediate Panchayat levels with transfer of powers to Gram Sabhas to recruit and control them;

• The scope of Post Matriculation Scholarships, Overseas Scholarships and Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship will be broadened for higher studies. Outstanding national level tribal sports persons shall be considered for appropriate scholarships and training abroad, to develop their talent in line with international standards;

• Sponsoring of ST candidates in recognized public/private vocational training institutions, which provide recognized certificate/diploma courses acceptable to both the public/private sector.30

More research is needed to ascertain the extent to which this policy has been acted on and what, if any, impact it has had.

30(Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs 2006). p.1 para 9.6.

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There is a need for social auditing of the manner in which the Constitutional safeguards, policy, programme commitments and the allocated resources have been utilized and schemes implemented at the ground level for STs, especially in education.

There has been non-implementation of the reservation in employment. The figures provided by the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment in September 2006 admit that the 7.5 percent reserved quota was never filled to the extent provided in government services. The figures were 4.1% for Group A, 4.6% for Group B, 6.7% for Group C and Group D. This affirmative action has not been fulfilled by state governments besides the central governments, the various departments, and educational institutions.

Under the grant-in-aid schemes provided for in Article 275(1), Central Sector Schemes and Centrally Sponsored Schemes31 are launched. These schemes are plagued by non-disbursement due to non-fulfillment of administrative procedure, rampant diversion of funds, delayed disbursement, misuse of funds, non-utilization of funds released leading to huge unspent balances (as on 31 December 2005 the Ministry of tribal Affairs had Rs.4,849.10 million unspent while the States and Union Territories together had run up a figure of Rs.15,229 million.)

There are instances of schools being occupied by armed forces in areas afflicted by armed conflicts such as in the north-east and central India. About 250 schools and Ashram schools were occupied and used as camps in Dantewada district of Chattisgarh alone as of January 2006.

There is a need for the assessment of the relevant provisions under Article 244 with regard to education and educational institutions. The self-governing powers over development of content, infrastructure, administrative control and monitoring could also be included.

Also, there is a need to assess to what extent the powers of the District Council under the Sixth Schedule are actually exercised to establish, construct, or manage primary schools in the district and with the prior approval of the Governor, to make regulations in particular, to prescribe the language and the manner in which primary education shall be imparted in the primary schools in the district. Further, it must be evaluated the extent to which the provision of ‘the panchayats (extension to the scheduled areas) Act 1996,’ in the fifth schedule areas exercise control over institutions and functionaries in all social sectors, including education.

31Scheme for PMS, Book Bank and Upgradation of Merit of ST Students; Scheme for Hostels for ST Girls and Boys, Ashram Schools in TSP Areas and Post Matric Scholarship

Further Assessment of the Influence of Constitutional Safeguards on the Reality of Scheduled Tribes

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Tribal development is rooted in tribal cultural values aimed at leading and maintaining an ideal life flowing from self-determination over ancestral territories and self-governance as manifested in:• tribal knowledge systems and practices• tribal economy and modes of production• tribal sustainable development of lands and natural resources.32

The educational challenges arise from the Government’s ambivalent perception of development of the tribal population in India. On one hand there is the ‘panchsheel’, self-governance, where the emphasis is on protection of tribal rights over their natural resources, culture, customary laws and their identity; on the other hand, in the name of industrialization and modernization there is utter disregard to their land and forest rights, denigration of their beliefs and cultural practices, reducing them to being backward, isolated and in dire need of welfare, mainstreaming and even assimilation. This ambivalence is all the more evident in tribal education, especially in relation to learning life skills.

In keeping with Article 45 of Directive Principles of the Constitution, and the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act 2002 the Government of India has enacted the Right to Education Act, in November 2008 thus making the right to free and compulsory education for those aged 6-14 a fundamental right under the 93rd Amendment of the Constitution in 2005. This is very much in keeping with some of the Education for All (EFA) goals set out in Dakar as well as the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) related to education.

As indicated in an earlier section, the Government of India has invested in meeting the goals of free and compulsory primary education, adult literacy, and is attempting to bridge gender disparities. Further measures are being taken to improve early childhood care and education. However, much more needs to be done in all of these areas and also in relation to quality of education and access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes. As discussed previously, there a need for social auditing of the manner in which the resources have been utilized and schemes implemented at the ground level. Moreover, in spite of Constitutional guarantees and persistent Government efforts, tribal communities continue to lag behind the general population.

Universalizing Access

32(ASPBAE, Community Action Tool (CAT) 2009)

4. Education Challenges for Scheduled Tribes

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External Constraints: (T)he population and distance norms formed by the Government have not been beneficial to the tribal locations because of their sparse population and sporadic residential patterns. Further, in formulating policies and programmes for tribal education the complex realities of

the tribal life and the expectation of tribals from the system has not been researched either by the tribal welfare department or by the education department. The school calendar is a case in point, where vacations and holidays cater to the need of the formal school set up in a non-tribal context, has little consideration for local context and festivals of the tribals. This lack of sensitivity to the problems and the failure in understanding the tribal social reality coupled with the faulty selection and appointment of teachers in tribal areas have resulted in poor performance and teacher absenteeism among tribal schools.

Internal Constraints: A majority of schools in tribal areas are without basic infrastructure and facilities. No serious effort has been made to change the curricula and course content to suit the tribal context except for some sporadic pilot projects. In respect of pedagogy, it has been found that the rigid systems of formal schooling, which emphasize discipline, routine norms and teacher-centred instruction, have made tribal children wary of the school. This has lead to sharp division between home and school resulting in a lack of interest among the children towards school. A major factor behind non-enrollment.

Socio-economic constraints: The main occupation of tribals is agriculture, practiced either through the method of shifting cultivation or terrace cultivation where the productivity remains very low. Consequently, children play an important role contributing directly or indirectly to the family income by participating in family occupation and household works like cattle grazing, fuel and fodder collection. In an economy dominated by struggle

for survival, options are limited. Since education does not provide any visible and immediate benefit and tribals do not see beyond their present state, the participation of tribal children in education also become limited. Poor health is another major hindrance in the promotion and participation of tribal children in education. Further, some tribal communities are seasonal migrants and their absence in a particular place for a year leads to absenteeism among their children and makes it difficult for them to effectively benefit from schooling.33

External Constraints

4. Education Challenges for Scheduled Tribes

The reasons are multi-faceted as Prof. K. Sujata points out:

33(Sujatha 2000). p.8-12.

SocioEconomic Constraints

Internal Constraints

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Living closely with forests and interacting constantly with various flora and fauna, the tribals have developed invaluable knowledge, which is passed on from generation to generation through oral tradition, folklore and practice. This includes treatment of diseases/ ailments, without any codified text or rights to accredit their legitimate ownership. As tribal communities have a very close dependence on natural resources, their livelihood and life-style often depend upon and are shaped by these resources. Therefore, their survival and sustenance is closely linked to access, control, conservation and utilization of these resources.

Intellectual Property Rights and the Protection of Tribal Peoples’ Knowledge

Corporate protectionism in terms of patents and Intellectual Property Rights arising out of various international treaties/instruments on trade and common property resources such as the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) under the World Trade Organization (WTO) represents a real threat to economic livelihood of these communities. They are also a source of potential exploitation of the tribal resource base as bio-diversity expressed in life forms and knowledge is sought to be converted into private property and treated as an open access system for free exploitation by those who want to privatize and patent it. There is an urgent need to provide appropriate legal and institutional arrangements for recognizing and acknowledging the rights of tribal communities to such resources and knowledge.34

While the Government’s concern is appreciable and relevant, it must be recalled how national laws and policies on land, forests and governance were imposed on tribal peoples in India with little consideration to their customary laws on these aspects.

The key concerns in protection of tribal people’s knowledge are:1. First, it is not just customary use but also ownership and control that is important

to tribal communities;2. Second, the rights and obligations of tribal peoples are philosophically at odds with

the western concept of resource exploitation and intellectual property rights35;3. Third, TRIPS denigrates, undermines, and discriminates against indigenous ways

of thinking and behaving.36

Hence, sharing of this knowledge becomes a dangerous proposition for tribal people because that knowledge may be appropriated by those who have the capacity to use the system to claim exclusive ownership over such knowledge and commercialize it. Pharmaceutical and agri-business transnational corporations are now more aggressive in their bid to have access and control over tribal knowledge and genetic resources which can bring them huge profits.

34(Government of India, Planning Commission n.d.). p.461.35(Maui 2001)36(Tauli-Corpuz 2003)

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Documentation of tribal knowledge has become controversial as in the case of biodiversity registers where documentation can lead to both an over-harvesting by communities, themselves, as well as exploitative usage by outsiders without proper compensation to the knowledge holders. The National Biodiversity Act, 2002 recommends village or community biodiversity registers to be carried out at the national level. However, this opens up innumerable possibilities to commercialise the knowledge.

Documentation of Tribal Knowledge

When digitalising cultural materials, the important questions are: How do we send a message that strengthens the holistic context of each cultural item and collection? How do we ensure that both indigenous and non-indigenous peoples receive the message? The collective nature and enduring guardianship - care, development and preservation - with which indigenous communities imbue their cultural and intellectual property cannot be addressed by copyright alone. The issues involved include: Who can speak for what? Who has the authority for what? Whose custom? Whose heritage? Whose culture? Whose identity?37

Mother-Tongue Instruction and Tribal EducationThe Constitution of India and the National Curriculum Framework (2005)38 allows the use of tribal dialect (mother tongue) as the medium of instruction where the population of the said tribe is more than one hundred thousand.

Mother-Tongue Instruction and Tribal Education

An increasing number of researchers strongly advocate the use of the mother tongue or home language as medium of instruction in early stages of education. This assumes greater significance in the context of education of tribal children because their mother tongue is often quite distinct from the prominent languages in the state or regional languages. ST children face problems wherever teachers do not speak their dialect at all. From the perspective of language, it is desirable to have a local teacher from the same tribal community.39

37(Sullivan 2002).38(National Council for Education Research and Training 2005). p.37, para 3.1.2.39Jha, Jyotsna & Jhingran, Dhir: Elementary education for the Poorest and Other Deprived Groups – The Real Challenge of Universalization, Manohar Publishers, 2002, cited in (Gautam 2003). p.4.

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More specifically, there is a need to make tribal education effective and sustainable by promoting collaborative relationships between government and CSOs, especially tribal, community based organizations, to facilitate and monitor universalized enrolment and retention at the primary level and ensure education relevant to tribal context both at the primary and secondary levels.

According to the Constitutional provisions for STs, protection precedes and is a pre-condition for development. Therefore, the failure of the State to uphold the Constitutional provisions for STs and Adivasis constitutes the prime barrier to education for tribal people. Such failures breed insecure conditions, particularly of livelihood, which is a disincentive to invest in education. Further, the primary authority to control education is vested in the community as provided for in the law (such as District Council in the Sixth Schedule and Gram Sabha in the Fifth Schedule). That the community can determine the content, form, structure and infrastructure is not pointed out. The State has subverted these constitutional provisions. Rectification of this is fundamental in creating the conditions for educational advancement.40

5. Recommendations

While on the one hand it is necessary to critically analyze the government’s obligations and commitments to promote tribal education, on the other hand it is important to take note of the experience of civil society organizations (CSOs). It is clear that major learning both for children and adults in the tribal context takes place through struggles on issues focusing on human rights of tribal communities.41 More specifically, structured, systematic training initiatives for developing change agents in tribal communities adds lasting value on internalizing learning processes. Also, education on alternatives which challenge the existing processes of development is crucial from the perspective of sustainable livelihood. Hence tribal ‘education’ must be an integral part of the empowerment process. For a lasting impact, youth must be a key part of development activity, along with adults. There is a need to advocate a comprehensive tribal education policy in India that addresses these concerns.

40Bijoy, C.R., Critical Input to the earlier Draft of the National PositionPaper/Policy Brief on Indigenous Education.41(ASPBAE, Laya’s Work In Tribal Education and Implications for Policy Advocacy 2003). p.34.

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5. Recommendations

Some key aspects to be considered:

Relevance to tribal contextThe school schedule must be prepared as per the local requirements and take into consideration festivals, holidays and seasonal activities that may interfere with schooling.

LanguageWhile teaching in the local/tribal dialect appears to be relevant, some parents’ perception of the mainstream languages of Hindi/English as language of social and economic opportunity cannot be ignored.

CurriculumThe curriculum must be relevant to daily life, local history and the culture of the tribal areas.

Relevant teachersThere is a need for relevant teachers, as much as possible drawn from the tribal communities and who are motivated and sensitized towards working in tribal areas. However, there is a need for balancing local and regional/national factors.

Gender equity and quality educationThe prime focus should be on gender equity and provision of quality education that makes tribal communities economically effective and independent.

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5. Recommendations

In addition to these areas of focus there is a need to promote ‘holistic purposeful education’ for tribals that focuses on:

• Human rights education, especially in the current context where there is an increasing threat to tribal communities’ access and control of natural resources;

• Development of skills to initiate and sustain relevant micro-alternatives that address livelihood issues from a long term perspective.

Achievement of these foci necessitates the consideration of:

Adult education and literacyLow achievement in adult literacy relates to lack of interest and motivation by prospective learners. Given the situation, the lack of interest and motivation may be justified. On the other hand, outside of the formal educational process, there is often a non-formal educational process which is highly sophisticated that includes vast knowledge and skills for survival under adverse conditions. This needs to be given due recognition. Often official ‘education and literacy’ programmes are considered to be superior, which demonstrates a clear bias and can tend towards an elitist approach.42

Often adult education stops at literacy. Unless it is relevant and carefully followed up, retention of literacy is difficult. There is a need to look at major issues in the tribal community and identify educational processes that can address them and enable the community to make informed choices and decisions. This will also help to build informed leadership which can perpetuate these undertakings.43

Concentrated adult education campsThere has been a debate on the ‘crash’ also called ‘camp’ or residential concentrated literacy method to search for an ideal, relevant and cost effective module. Replication of models used by CSOs has been difficult. Also some camp modules have been successful because the participants were highly motivated.44

42Bijoy, CR, Critical Input to the earlier Draft of the National PositionPaper/Policy Brief on Indigenous Education43(ASPBAE, Working Group meeting Report on Tribal/Indigenous Education 2003). p.6.44Ibid. 5.

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5. Recommendations

Adult education and tribal womenAdult education can also relate with the self-help groups, mahila mandals (women’s associations), NTFP collection and selling groups. The content focus could be on women’s health problems, dowry, participation in decision making within the family and the community, and participatory process of women in development.

Relevant knowledge and skill developmentSkill development must be perceived in the context of value based education with critical appreciation of traditional knowledge systems and relevant skill development in response to the changing external environment. Skills development is much more important in such areas as political analysis, law and methods of resistance to threats to life, livelihood and dignity:

• Conserving community based collective systems through cultural forms of expression;

• Nurturing of collective decision making systems and taking stances on norms that are ‘dehumanizing’;

• Strengthening traditional knowledge and skills;• New skills and technical knowledge to meet local needs;• Skills for micro-finance management: numeracy and accounting skills;• Skill for micro-enterprise development: value addition and marketing;• Skills of articulation, negotiation to safeguard sources of livelihood: human

rights, legal rights.

The new knowledge and skills provided to tribal groups through education must be used to augment and not discredit their naturally endowed and culturally acquired knowledge and skills. This value addition must be in the direction of marketing them profitably, which should go beyond producing handicrafts for tourists and performing cultural shows for the 'mainstream' functions. Their knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses for alternative health care, expertise in tracking wild animals for wild-life management should be used for the benefit of all and the economic returns to the tribals should go to the community as a whole rather than a few individuals.45

45(Annamalai n.d.)

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5. Recommendations

Legal educationThere is a vital need to develop an informed cadre of tribal citizens in law related processes. A critical understanding of the customary laws and the legal provisions in the tribal context is necessary to achieve social justice. The legal machinery in the current circumstances is either insensitive or manipulative in character. In order to safeguard human rights and ensure enlightened governance there is a need for a special focus on educating elected leaders on relevant laws, their role and functions: especially in the light of the specific application of the 73rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution to tribal areas, known as the Panchayat Extension to Schedule Areas Act, 1996 and the recent legislation, The Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, and other protective legislations.46

Mapping ground realities Lastly, it is imperative to encourage CSOs/NGOs working in tribal areas of India or focusing on tribal people’s education to take up assessment of the ground reality of Constitutional safeguards, government policy and programme commitments for Adivasis and Scheduled Tribes, especially as they relate to education service delivery and outcomes.

46(ASPBAE, Laya’s Work In Tribal Education and Implications for Policy Advocacy 2003). p. 25.

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As indicated above, the Government of India passed a piece of legislation in November 2008 that has further imbedded the concept of education as a fundamental, inalienable, human right. In order to ensure that the right to education is not violated for any of its citizens, the Government of India will have to do better at providing the constitutionally mandated protections to Adivasis and Scheduled Tribes. Taking into account the mainstream indicators of education as laid out by internationally agreed upon frameworks such as Education for All (EFA), the Government of India has a large task ahead of it if it is to meet the goals by 2015. In addition to these goals, the Government must also take into account the ways in which mainstream measures of knowledge and international regimes designed to organize and attribute knowledge are biased against tribal peoples and it needs to work alongside communities to protect the vulnerable from being exploited. This is a task best done in conjunction with communities, CSOs, and tribal peoples, themselves.

6. Conclusion

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30

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