aashto lrfd bridge design specifications

Amer i can As soc i a t i on o f S t a t e H ighway and Transpo r ta t i on O f f i c i a l s

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

SI Units4th Edition

2007

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications

SI Units4th Edition

2007

ISBN: 1-56051-355-1 Publication Code: LRFDSI-4

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

444 North Capitol Street, NW Suite 249 Washington, DC 20001

202-624-5800 phone/202-624-5806 fax www.transportation.org

2007 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law. Cover photos courtesy of the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (top) and the Maryland Department of Transportation (bottom).

iii

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 20062007

Voting Members

Officers:

President: Victor M. Mendez, Arizona

Vice President: Pete K. Rahn, Missouri

Secretary-Treasurer: Larry M. King, Pennsylvania

Regional Representatives:

REGION I: Robert L. Flanagan, Maryland, One-Year Term vacant, Two-Year Term REGION II: Joe McInnes, Alabama, One-Year Term Denver Stutler, Florida, Two-Year Term REGION III: Carol Molnau, Minnesota, One-Year Term Debra L. Miller, Kansas, Two-Year Term REGION IV: Victor M. Mendez, Arizona, One-Year Term Rodney K. Haraga, Hawaii, Two-Year Term

Nonvoting Members

Immediate Past President: Harold E. Linnenkohl, Georgia AASHTO Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, DC

2007 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.

iv

HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES 2006

MALCOLM T. KERLEY, Chair JAMES A. MOORE, Vice Chair

M. MYINT LWIN, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary FIRAS I. SHEIKH IBRAHIM, Federal Highway Administration, Assistant Secretary

ALABAMA, William F. Conway, John F. Black, George

H. Connor ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt ARIZONA, Jean A. Nehme ARKANSAS, Phil Brand CALIFORNIA, Kevin Thompson, Susan Hida, Barton

Newton COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard, Michael G. Salamon CONNECTICUT, Gary J. Abramowicz, Julie F. Georges DELAWARE, Jiten K. Soneji, Barry A. Benton DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, Donald Cooney FLORIDA, William N. Nickas, Marcus Ansley, Andre

Pavlov GEORGIA, Paul V. Liles, Jr., Brian Summers HAWAII, Paul T. Santo IDAHO, Matthew M. Farrar ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson, Thomas J. Domagalski INDIANA, Anne M. Rearick IOWA, Norman L. McDonald KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, James J. Brennan, Loren R.

Risch KENTUCKY, Allen Frank LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Tony M. Ducote MAINE, James E. Tukey, Jeffrey S. Folsom MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman, Robert J. Healy MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow MICHIGAN, Steve P. Beck, Raja T. Jildeh MINNESOTA, Daniel L. Dorgan, Kevin Western MISSISSIPPI, Mitchell K. Carr, B. Keith Carr MISSOURI, Shyam Gupta, Paul Kelly, Paul Porter MONTANA, Kent M. Barnes NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon, Mark Ahlman,

Hussam Fallaha NEVADA, William C. Crawford, Jr. NEW HAMPSHIRE, James A. Moore, Mark W.

Richardson, David L. Scott NEW JERSEY, Harry A. Capers, Jr., Richard W. Dunne NEW MEXICO, Jimmy D. Camp NEW YORK, George A. Christian, Donald F. Dwyer,

Arthur P. Yannotti NORTH CAROLINA, Greg R. Perfetti NORTH DAKOTA, Terrence R. Udland

OHIO, Timothy J. Keller, Jawdat Siddiqi OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Gregory D. Allen OREGON, Bruce V. Johnson PENNSYLVANIA, Thomas P. Macioce, Harold C.

Rogers, Jr. PUERTO RICO, Jaime Cabr RHODE ISLAND, David Fish SOUTH CAROLINA, Barry W. Bowers, Jeff Sizemore SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole TENNESSEE, Edward P. Wasserman TEXAS, William R. Cox, David P. Hohmann, Ronald D.

Medlock U.S. DOT, M. Myint Lwin, Firas I. Sheikh Ibrahim, Hala

Elgaaly UTAH, Todd Jensen VERMONT, William Michael Hedges VIRGINIA, George M. Clendenin, Prasad L.

Nallapaneni, Julius F. J. Volgyi, Jr. WASHINGTON, Jugesh Kapur, Tony M. Allen, Bijan

Khaleghi WEST VIRGINIA, Gregory Bailey, James W. Sothen WISCONSIN, Finn Hubbard WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R. Fulton

ALBERTA, Tom Loo NEW BRUNSWICK, Doug Noble NOVA SCOTIA, Mark Pertus ONTARIO, Bala Tharmabala SASKATCHEWAN, Howard Yea

GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE, Kary H. Witt N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard J. Raczynski N.Y. STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William J.

Moreau PENN. TURNPIKE COMMISSION, Gary L. Graham SURFACE DEPLOYMENT AND DISTRIBUTION

COMMAND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING AGENCY, Robert D. Franz

U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY, Paul C. T. Tan

U.S. COAST GUARD, Nick E. Mpras, Jacob Patnaik U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

FOREST SERVICE, Rosana Barkawi


v

FOREWORD

The first broadly recognized national standard for the design and construction of bridges in the United States was published in 1931 by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), the predecessor to AASHTO. With the advent of the automobile and the establishment of highway departments in all of the American states dating back to just before the turn of the century, the design, construction, and maintenance of most U.S. bridges was the responsibility of these departments and, more specifically, the chief bridge engineer within each department. It was natural, therefore, that these engineers, acting collectively as the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, would become the author and guardian of this first bridge standard.

This first publication was entitled Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures. It quickly became the de facto national standard and, as such, was adopted and used by not only the state highway departments but also other bridge-owning authorities and agencies in the United States and abroad. Rather early on, the last three words of the original title were dropped and it has been reissued in consecutive editions at approximately four-year intervals ever since as Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, with the final 17th edition appearing in 2002.

The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown enormously since 1931 and continues to do so. Theory and practice have evolved greatly, reflecting advances through research in understanding the properties of materials, in improved materials, in more rational and accurate analysis of structural behavior, in the advent of computers and rapidly advancing computer technology, in the study of external events representing particular hazards to bridges such as seismic events and stream scour, and in many other areas. The pace of advances in these areas has, if anything, stepped up in recent years. To accommodate this growth in bridge engineering knowledge, the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures has been granted authority under AASHTOs governing documents to approve and issue Bridge Interims each year, not only with respect to the Standard Specifications but also to incrementally modify and enhance the twenty-odd additional documents on bridges and structures engineering that are under its guidance and sponsorship.

In 1986, the Subcommittee submitted a request to the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research to undertake an assessment of U.S. bridge design specifications, to review foreign design specifications and codes, to consider design philosophies alternative to those underlying the Standard Specifications, and to render recommendations based on these investigations. This work was accomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), an applied research program directed by the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research and administered on behalf of AASHTO by the Transportation Research Board (TRB). The work was completed in 1987, and, as might be expected with a standard incrementally adjusted over the years, the Standard Specifications were judged to include discernible gaps, inconsistencies, and even some conflicts. Beyond this, the specification did not reflect or incorporate the most recently developing design philosophy, load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD), a philosophy which has been gaining ground in other areas of structural engineering and in other parts of the world such as Canada and Europe.

From its inception until the early 1970s, the sole design philosophy embedded within the Standard Specifications was one known as working stress design (WSD). WSD establishes allowable stresses as a fraction or percentage of a given materials load-carrying capacity, and requires that calculated design stresses not exceed those allowable stresses. Beginning in the early 1970s, WSD began to be adjusted to reflect the variable predictability of certain load types, such as vehicular loads and wind forces, through adjusting design factors, a design philosophy referred to as load factor design (LFD). Both WSD and LFD are reflected in the current edition of the Standard Specifications.

A further philosophical extension results from considering the variability in the properties of structural elements, in similar fashion to load variabilities. While considered to a limited extent in LFD, the design philosophy of load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD) takes variability in the behavior of structural elements into account in an explicit manner. LRFD relies on extensive use of statistical methods, but sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridge designers and analysts.

With the advent of these specifications, bridge engineers had a choice of two standards to guide their designs, the long-standing AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and the alternative, newly adopted AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, and its companions, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications and AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications. Subsequently, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the states have established a goal that LRFD standards be incorporated in all new bridge designs after 2007.

Interim Specifications are usually published in the middle of the calendar year, and a revised edition of this book is generally published every four years. The Interim Specifications have the same status as AASHTO standards, but are tentative revisions approved by at least two-thirds of the Subcommittee. These revisions are voted on by the AASHTO member departments prior to the publication of each new edition of this book and, if approved by at least two-thirds of the


vi

members, they are included in the new edition as standards of the Association. AASHTO members are the 50 State Highway or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each member has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is a nonvoting member.

Annual Interim Specifications are generally used by the States after their adoption by the Subcommittee. Orders for these annual Interim Specifications may be placed by visiting our web site, bookstore.transportation.org; calling the AASHTO Publication Sales Office toll free (within the U.S. and Canada), 1-800-231-3475; or mailing to P.O. Box 96716, Washington, DC 20906-6716. A free copy of the current publication catalog can be downloaded from our website or requested from the Publications Sales Office.

Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures:

AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements. 1998.

AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges with Design Examples for I-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges. 2003.

AASHTO Guide SpecificationsThermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures. 1989.

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction. 2004.

AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design. 1998.

Bridge Data Exchange (BDX) Technical Data Guide. 1995.

Bridge Welding Code: AASHTO/AWS-D1.5M/D1.5: 2002, an American National Standard. 2002.

Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works. 1995.

Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works. 1995.

Guide for Painting Steel Structures. 1997.

Guide Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges. 2003.

Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings. 1989.

Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges. 1999.

Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges. 1997.

Guide Specifications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges. 1990.

Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS070W Steel. 2000.

Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design. 1999.

Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor Design). 1986.

Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges. 1989.

Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers. 1989.

Guide Specifications for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks. 1991.


vii

Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems. 1993.

Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges. 2000.

Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation and Maintenance Manual. 1998.

Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges. 1988.

Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals. 2001.

Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other AASHTO committees and task forces are as follows:

Guide Specifications for Cathodic Protection of Concrete Bridge Decks. 1994.

Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays. 1995.

Guide Specifications for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges. 1998.

Inspectors Guide for Shotcrete Repair of Bridges. 1999.

Manual for Corrosion Protection of Concrete Components in Bridges. 1992.

Two Parts: Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlay Pavements and Bridge Decks. 1990.

AASHTO Maintenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of Roadways and Bridges. 1999.

The following bridges and structures titles are the result of the AASHTONSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration and are available for free download from the AASHTO web site, bookstore.transportation.org:

Design Drawing Presentation Guidelines. 2003.

Guidelines for Design Constructability. 2003.

Guide Specification for Coating Systems with Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer. 2003.

Shop Detail Drawing Presentation Guidelines. 2003.

Shop Detail Drawing Review/Approval Guidelines. 2003.

Steel Bridge Fabrication Guide Specification. 2003.

Steel Bridge Fabrication QC/QA Guide Specification. 2003.

The following have served as chairmen of the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures since its inception in 1921: Messrs. E. F. Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Subcommittee; Albin L. Gemeny; R. B. McMinn; Raymond Archiband; G. S. Paxson; E. M. Johnson; Ward Goodman; Charles Matlock; Joseph S. Jones; Sidney Poleynard; Jack Freidenrich; Henry W. Derthick; Robert C. Cassano; Clellon Loveall; James E. Siebels; David Pope; Tom Lulay; and Malcolm T. Kerley. The Subcommittee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those active members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.

The Subcommittee would also like to thank Mr. John M. Kulicki, Ph.D., and his associates at Modjeski and Masters for their valuable assistance in the preparation of the LRFD Specifications.

Suggestions for the improvement of the LRFD Specifications are welcomed, just as they were for the Standard Specifications before them. They should be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001. Inquiries as to intent or application of the specifications should be sent to the same address.


ix

PREFACE AND ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th Edition contains the following 14 sections and

an index:

1. Introduction 2. General Design and Location Features 3. Loads and Load Factors 4. Structural Analysis and Evaluation 5. Concrete Structures 6. Steel Structures 7. Aluminum Structures 8. Wood Structures 9. Decks and Deck Systems 10. Foundations 11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls 12. Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners 13. Railings 14. Joints and Bearings

Index

Detailed Tables of Contents precede each section. References follow each section, listed alphabetically by author.

Figures, tables, and equations are denoted by their home article number and an extension, for example 1.2.3.4.5-1, but when they are referenced in their home article or its commentary, they are identified only by the extension. For example, in Article 1.2.3.4.5, Eq. 1.2.3.4.5-2 would simply be called Eq. 2. When this equation is referenced anywhere else other than its home article, it is identified by its whole nomenclature; in other words, Eq. 1.2.3.4.5-2. The same convention applies to figures and tables.

Please note that the AASHTO materials specifications (starting with M or T) cited throughout the LRFD Specifications can be found in Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, adopted by the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Materials. Unless otherwise indicated, these citations refer to the current 25th edition. ASTM materials specifications are also cited.

Please note that this year marks the final SI edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. In the future, the book will only be published in customary U.S. units. Note also that this time Section 8, "Wood Structures," is in customary U.S. units. AASHTO apologizes for any inconvenience to wood bridge designers working in SI units.


x

CHANGED AND DELETED ARTICLES, 2007 SUMMARY OF AFFECTED SECTIONS The revisions to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,4th Edition affect the following sections: 3. Loads and Load Factors 4. Structural Analysis and Evaluation 5. Concrete Structures 6. Steel Structures 8. Wood Structures 10. Foundations 11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls 13. Railings 14. Joints and Bearings SECTION 3 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 3 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 3.2 3.31 3.4 3.11.5.7 Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 3. SECTION 4 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 4 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: References Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 4. SECTION 5 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 5 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 5.2 5.3 5.4.2.3.2 5.4.2.3.3 5.4.2.6 5.5.3.1 5.5.3.2 5.7.2.1 5.7.3.1.1 5.7.3.1.2 5.7.3.2.2 5.7.3.4 5.8.2.8

5.8.3.2 5.8.3.3 5.8.3.4 5.8.3.4.1 5.8.3.4.2 5.8.3.4.3 5.8.3.5 5.8.3.6.2 5.8.3.6.3 5.8.4 5.8.4.1 5.8.4.2 5.8.4.3

5.8.4.4 5.9.5.2.3a 5.9.5.3 5.9.5.4.1 5.9.5.4.2a 5.9.5.4.3a 5.9.5.4.3b 5.9.5.4.3d 5.10.8 5.10.11.4.1b 5.10.11.4.1c 5.10.11.4.1d 5.10.11.4.1f

5.10.11.4.2 5.11.2.5.1 5.13.2.4.2 5.13.2.5.2 5.13.3.8 5.14.1.1 5.14.1.4 5.14.1.4.1 5.14.1.4.2 5.14.1.4.3 5.14.1.4.4 5.14.1.4.5 5.14.1.4.6

5.14.1.4.7 5.14.1.4.8 5.14.1.4.9 5.14.1.4.9a 5.14.1.4.9b 5.14.1.4.9c 5.14.1.4.9d 5.14.1.4.10 5.14.2.5 References


xi

Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 5. SECTION 6 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 6 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 6.6.2 6.7.4.2 6.10.1.5 6.10.1.6 6.10.1.9.1 6.10.1.10.2

6.10.8.2.3 6.10.10.4.2 6.10.11.1.1 6.10.11.1.3 6.10.11.3.3 6.11.1

6.11.8.2.2 6.11.8.2.3 6.11.9 6.11.11.2 6.13.1 6.14.2.8

References A6.2.1 A6.2.2 A6.3.3 D6.1 D6.4.1

D6.4.2 D6.5.1

Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 6. SECTION 8 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 8 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 8.2 8.3 8.4.1 8.4.1.1.2 8.4.1.1.3 8.4.1.1.4 8.4.1.2

8.4.1.2.1 8.4.1.2.2 8.4.1.2.3 8.4.1.3 8.4.4 8.4.4.1 8.4.4.2

8.4.4.3 8.4.4.4 8.4.4.5 8.4.4.6 8.4.4.7 8.4.4.8 8.4.4.9

8.5.2.2 8.5.2.3 8.6.2 8.6.3 8.7 8.8.2 8.8.3

8.9 8.10.1 8.10.2 8.13 References

Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 8. SECTION 10 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 10 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 10.6.2.4.3 10.6.3.1.2a Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 10.


xii

SECTION 11 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 11 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 11.5.6 11.9.4.2 11.9.8.1 Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 11. SECTION 12 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 12 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 12.8.4.2 12.10.4.2.4a 12.10.4.2.5 12.11.2.1 Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 12. SECTION 13 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 13 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 13.9.2 13.9.3 Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 13. SECTION 14 REVISIONS Changed Articles The following Articles in Section 14 contain changes or additions to the specifications, the commentary, or both: 14.3 14.6.3.1

14.7.5.2 14.7.5.3.1

14.7.5.3.3 14.7.5.3.7

14.7.6.2 14.7.6.3.1

14.7.6.3.3

Deleted Articles No Articles were deleted from Section 14.

AASHTO Publications Staff January 2007


SECTION 1 (SI): INTRODUCTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1-i

1 1.1 SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS....................................................................................................................1-1 1.2 DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................................1-2 1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY .......................................................................................................................................1-3

1.3.1 General.........................................................................................................................................................1-3 1.3.2 Limit States ..................................................................................................................................................1-3

1.3.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................................1-3 1.3.2.2 Service Limit State.............................................................................................................................1-4 1.3.2.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State........................................................................................................1-4 1.3.2.4 Strength Limit State ...........................................................................................................................1-4 1.3.2.5 Extreme Event Limit States ...............................................................................................................1-5

1.3.3 Ductility .......................................................................................................................................................1-5 1.3.4 Redundancy .................................................................................................................................................1-6 1.3.5 Operational Importance................................................................................................................................1-6

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................................................1-8


1-1

SECTION 1 (SI)

INTRODUCTION

1 1.1 SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS C1.1

The provisions of these Specifications are intended forthe design, evaluation, and rehabilitation of both fixed andmovable highway bridges. Mechanical, electrical, andspecial vehicular and pedestrian safety aspects of movablebridges, however, are not covered. Provisions are notincluded for bridges used solely for railway, rail-transit, or public utilities. For bridges not fully covered herein, theprovisions of these Specifications may be applied, asaugmented with additional design criteria where required.

These Specifications are not intended to supplantproper training or the exercise of judgment by theDesigner, and state only the minimum requirementsnecessary to provide for public safety. The Owner or theDesigner may require the sophistication of design or thequality of materials and construction to be higher than theminimum requirements.

The concepts of safety through redundancy andductility and of protection against scour and collision areemphasized.

The design provisions of these Specifications employthe Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)methodology. The factors have been developed from thetheory of reliability based on current statistical knowledgeof loads and structural performance.

Methods of analysis other than those included inprevious Specifications and the modeling techniquesinherent in them are included, and their use is encouraged.

The commentary is not intended to provide a completehistorical background concerning the development of theseor previous Specifications, nor is it intended to provide adetailed summary of the studies and research datareviewed in formulating the provisions of theSpecifications. However, references to some of theresearch data are provided for those who wish to study thebackground material in depth.

The commentary directs attention to other documentsthat provide suggestions for carrying out the requirementsand intent of these Specifications. However, those documents and this commentary are not intended to be apart of these Specifications.

Construction specifications consistent with these design specifications are the AASHTO LRFD BridgeConstruction Specifications. Unless otherwise specified,the Materials Specifications referenced herein are theAASHTO Standard Specifications for TransportationMaterials and Methods of Sampling and Testing.

Horizontally curved concrete girders are not fully covered and were not part of the calibration data base.

The term notional is often used in these Specifications to indicate an idealization of a physical phenomenon, as in notional load or notional resistance. Use of this term strengthens the separation of an engineer's notion or perception of the physical world in the context of design from the physical reality itself.

The term shall denotes a requirement forcompliance with these Specifications.

The term should indicates a strong preference for a given criterion.

The term may indicates a criterion that is usable, but other local and suitably documented, verified, and approved criterion may also be used in a manner consistent with the LRFD approach to bridge design.


1-2 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS (SI)

1.2 DEFINITIONS BridgeAny structure having an opening not less than 6100 mm that forms part of a highway or that is located over or under a highway. CollapseA major change in the geometry of the bridge rendering it unfit for use. ComponentEither a discrete element of the bridge or a combination of elements requiring individual design consideration. DesignProportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge. Design LifePeriod of time on which the statistical derivation of transient loads is based: 75 years for these Specifications. DuctilityProperty of a component or connection that allows inelastic response. EngineerPerson responsible for the design of the bridge and/or review of design-related field submittals such as erection plans. EvaluationDetermination of load-carrying capacity of an existing bridge. Extreme Event Limit StatesLimit states relating to events such as earthquakes, ice load, and vehicle and vessel collision, with return periods in excess of the design life of the bridge. Factored LoadThe nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors specified for the load combination under consideration. Factored ResistanceThe nominal resistance multiplied by a resistance factor. Fixed BridgeA bridge with a fixed vehicular or navigational clearance. Force EffectA deformation, stress, or stress resultant (i.e., axial force, shear force, torsional, or flexural moment) caused by applied loads, imposed deformations, or volumetric changes. Limit StateA condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)A reliability-based design methodology in which force effects caused by factored loads are not permitted to exceed the factored resistance of the components. Load FactorA statistically-based multiplier applied to force effects accounting primarily for the variability of loads, the lack of accuracy in analysis, and the probability of simultaneous occurrence of different loads, but also related to the statistics of the resistance through the calibration process. Load ModifierA factor accounting for ductility, redundancy, and the operational importance of the bridge. ModelAn idealization of a structure for the purpose of analysis. Movable BridgeA bridge with a variable vehicular or navigational clearance. Multiple-Load-Path StructureA structure capable of supporting the specified loads following loss of a main load-carrying component or connection. Nominal ResistanceResistance of a component or connection to force effects, as indicated by the dimensions specified in the contract documents and by permissible stresses, deformations, or specified strength of materials. OwnerPerson or agency having jurisdiction over the bridge.


SECTION 1 (SI): INTRODUCTION 1-3

Regular ServiceCondition excluding the presence of special permit vehicles, wind exceeding 90 km/h, and extreme events, including scour. RehabilitationA process in which the resistance of the bridge is either restored or increased. Resistance FactorA statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal resistance accounting primarily for variability of material properties, structural dimensions and workmanship, and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance, but also related to the statistics of the loads through the calibration process. Service LifeThe period of time that the bridge is expected to be in operation. Service Limit StatesLimit states relating to stress, deformation, and cracking under regular operating conditions. Strength Limit StatesLimit states relating to strength and stability during the design life. 1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 1.3.1 General

Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of constructibility, safety, and serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectability,economy, and aesthetics, as specified in Article 2.5.

C1.3.1 The limit states specified herein are intended to

provide for a buildable, serviceable bridge, capable of safely carrying design loads for a specified lifetime.

Regardless of the type of analysis used, Eq. 1.3.2.1-1

shall be satisfied for all specified force effects andcombinations thereof.

The resistance of components and connections is determined, in many cases, on the basis of inelastic behavior, although the force effects are determined by using elastic analysis. This inconsistency is common to most current bridge specifications as a result of incomplete knowledge of inelastic structural action.

1.3.2 Limit States

1.3.2.1 General

Each component and connection shall satisfy Eq. 1 for each limit state, unless otherwise specified. For service and extreme event limit states, resistance factors shall be takenas 1.0, except for bolts, for which the provisions ofArticle 6.5.5 shall apply, and for concrete columns inSeismic Zones 3 and 4, for which the provisions ofArticle 5.10.11.4.1b shall apply. All limit states shall beconsidered of equal importance. =i i i n rQ R R (1.3.2.1-1) in which:

For loads for which a maximum value of i is appropriate:

0.95 = i D R I (1.3.2.1-2)

For loads for which a minimum value of i is appropriate:

1 1.0 = i D R I (1.3.2.1-3)

C1.3.2.1

Eq. 1 is the basis of LRFD methodology. Assigning resistance factor = 1.0 to all nonstrength

limit states is a temporary measure; development work is in progress.

Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the last concerns the consequences of the bridge being out of service. The grouping of these aspects on the load side of Eq. 1 is, therefore, arbitrary. However, it constitutes a first effort at codification. In the absence of more precise information, each effect, except that for fatigue and fracture, is estimated as 5 percent, accumulated geometrically, a clearly subjective approach. With time, improved quantification of ductility, redundancy, and operational importance, and their interaction and system synergy, may be attained, possibly leading to a rearrangement of Eq. 1, in which these effects may appear on either side of the equation or on both sides. NCHRP Project 12-36 is currently addressing the issue of redundancy.



where: i = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied

to force effects = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier

applied to nominal resistance, as specified inSections 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 12

i = load modifier: a factor relating to ductility,

redundancy, and operational importance D = a factor relating to ductility, as specified in

Article 1.3.3 R = a factor relating to redundancy as specified in

Article 1.3.4 I = a factor relating to operational importance as

specified in Article 1.3.5 Qi = force effect Rn = nominal resistance Rr = factored resistance: Rn

The influence of on the reliability index, , can be estimated by observing its effect on the minimum values of calculated in a database of girder-type bridges. For discussion purposes, the girder bridge data used in the calibration of these Specifications was modified by multiplying the total factored loads by = 0.95, 1.0, 1.05, and 1.10. The resulting minimum values of for 95 combinations of span, spacing, and type of construction were determined to be approximately 3.0, 3.5, 3.8, and 4.0, respectively.

A further approximate representation of the effect of values can be obtained by considering the percent of random normal data less than or equal to the mean value plus , where is a multiplier, and is the standard deviation of the data. If is taken as 3.0, 3.5, 3.8, and 4.0, the percent of values less than or equal to the mean value plus would be about 99.865 percent, 99.977 percent, 99.993 percent, and 99.997 percent, respectively.

1.3.2.2 Service Limit State

The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on

stress, deformation, and crack width under regular serviceconditions.

C1.3.2.2

The service limit state provides certain experience-related provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical considerations.

1.3.2.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State

The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on

stress range as a result of a single design truck occurring atthe number of expected stress range cycles.

The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set ofmaterial toughness requirements of the AASHTOMaterials Specifications.

C1.3.2.3

The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent fracture during the design life of the bridge.

1.3.2.4 Strength Limit State

Strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that

strength and stability, both local and global, are providedto resist the specified statistically significant loadcombinations that a bridge is expected to experience in itsdesign life.

C1.3.2.4

The strength limit state considers stability or yielding of each structural element. If the resistance of any element, including splices and connections, is exceeded, it is assumed that the bridge resistance has been exceeded. In fact, in multigirder cross-sections there is significant elastic reserve capacity in almost all such bridges beyond such a load level. The live load cannot be positioned to maximize the force effects on all parts of the cross-section simultaneously. Thus, the flexural resistance of the bridge cross-section typically exceeds the resistance required for the total live load that can be applied in the number of lanes available. Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit state, but overall structural integrity is expected to be maintained.



1.3.2.5 Extreme Event Limit States

The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensurethe structural survival of a bridge during a majorearthquake or flood, or when collided by a vessel, vehicle, or ice flow, possibly under scoured conditions.

C1.3.2.5

Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period may be significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.

1.3.3 Ductility

The structural system of a bridge shall be proportionedand detailed to ensure the development of significant andvisible inelastic deformations at the strength and extremeevent limit states before failure.

It may be assumed that the requirements for ductilityare satisfied for a concrete structure in which the resistanceof a connection is not less than 1.3 times the maximumforce effect imposed on the connection by the inelasticaction of the adjacent components.

Energy-dissipating devices may be accepted as meansof providing ductility.

For the strength limit state: D 1.05 for nonductile components and connections = 1.00 for conventional designs and details

complying with these Specifications 0.95 for components and connections for which

additional ductility-enhancing measures havebeen specified beyond those required by theseSpecifications

For all other limit states:

D = 1.00

C1.3.3

The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Brittle behavior is undesirable because it implies the sudden loss of load-carrying capacity immediately when the elastic limit is exceeded. Ductile behavior is characterized by significant inelastic deformations before any loss of load-carrying capacity occurs. Ductile behavior provides warning of structural failure by large inelastic deformations. Under repeated seismic loading, large reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effecton structural survival.

If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection made of brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of load-carrying capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile performance shall be verified by testing.

In order to achieve adequate inelastic behavior the system should have a sufficient number of ductile members and either:

Joints and connections that are also ductile and can provide energy dissipation without loss of capacity; or

Joints and connections that have sufficient excess

strength so as to assure that the inelastic response occurs at the locations designed to provide ductile, energy absorbing response.

Statically ductile, but dynamically nonductile response

characteristics should be avoided. Examples of this behavior are shear and bond failures in concrete members and loss of composite action in flexural components.

Past experience indicates that typical components designed in accordance with these provisions generally exhibit adequate ductility. Connection and joints require special attention to detailing and the provision of load paths.

The Owner may specify a minimum ductility factor as an assurance that ductile failure modes will be obtained. The factor may be defined as:

u

y

= (C1.3.3-1)

where:



u = deformation at ultimate y = deformation at the elastic limit

The ductility capacity of structural components or connections may either be established by full- or large-scale testing or with analytical models based on documented material behavior. The ductility capacity for a structural system may be determined by integrating local deformations over the entire structural system.

The special requirements for energy dissipating devices are imposed because of the rigorous demands placed on these components.

1.3.4 Redundancy

Multiple-load-path and continuous structures should

be used unless there are compelling reasons not to usethem.

Main elements and components whose failure isexpected to cause the collapse of the bridge shall bedesignated as failure-critical and the associated structuralsystem as nonredundant. Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension may be designated fracture-critical.

Those elements and components whose failure is notexpected to cause collapse of the bridge shall bedesignated as nonfailure-critical and the associatedstructural system as redundant.

For the strength limit state:

R 1.05 for nonredundant members

= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy

C1.3.4 For each load combination and limit state under

consideration, member redundancy classification (redundant or nonredundant) should be based upon the member contribution to the bridge safety. Several redundancy measures have been proposed (Frangopol and Nakib, 1991).

For all other limit states: R = 1.00

1.3.5 Operational Importance

This Article shall apply to the strength and extreme

event limit states only. The Owner may declare a bridge or any structural

component and connection thereof to be of operationalimportance.

C1.3.5 Such classification should be based on social/survival

and/or security/defense requirements. The commentary to Article 3.10.3 provides some guidance on selecting importance categories as they relate to design for earthquakes. This information can be generalized for other situations.



For the strength limit state: I 1.05 for important bridges = 1.00 for typical bridges 0.95 for relatively less important bridges.

For all other limit states: I = 1.00

Three levels of importance are specified in Article 3.10.3 with respect to seismic design: critical,essential, and other. For the purposes of this Article, bridges classified as critical or essential in Article 3.10.3 should be considered of operational importance.



REFERENCES

AASHTO. 2004. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 2nd Edition, LRFDCONS-2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. AASHTO. 2005. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 25th Edition, HM-25. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. Frangopol, D. M., and R. Nakib. 1991. Redundancy in Highway Bridges. Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL,Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 4550.


SECTION 2 (SI): GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2-i

2.1 SCOPE...................................................................................................................................................................2-1 2.2 DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................................2-1 2.3 LOCATION FEATURES ......................................................................................................................................2-3

2.3.1 Route Location.............................................................................................................................................2-3 2.3.1.1 General...............................................................................................................................................2-3 2.3.1.2 Waterway and Floodplain Crossings .................................................................................................2-3

2.3.2 Bridge Site Arrangement .............................................................................................................................2-4 2.3.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................................2-4 2.3.2.2 Traffic Safety .....................................................................................................................................2-4

2.3.2.2.1 Protection of Structures ...........................................................................................................2-4 2.3.2.2.2 Protection of Users ..................................................................................................................2-5 2.3.2.2.3 Geometric Standards................................................................................................................2-5 2.3.2.2.4 Road Surfaces ..........................................................................................................................2-5 2.3.2.2.5 Vessel Collisions .....................................................................................................................2-5

2.3.3 Clearances....................................................................................................................................................2-6 2.3.3.1 Navigational.......................................................................................................................................2-6 2.3.3.2 Highway Vertical...............................................................................................................................2-6 2.3.3.3 Highway Horizontal...........................................................................................................................2-6 2.3.3.4 Railroad Overpass..............................................................................................................................2-6

2.3.4 Environment.................................................................................................................................................2-7 2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION......................................................................................................................2-7

2.4.1 General.........................................................................................................................................................2-7 2.4.2 Topographic Studies ....................................................................................................................................2-7

2.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................................................................2-7 2.5.1 Safety ...........................................................................................................................................................2-7 2.5.2 Serviceability ...............................................................................................................................................2-8

2.5.2.1 Durability...........................................................................................................................................2-8 2.5.2.1.1 Materials ..................................................................................................................................2-8 2.5.2.1.2 Self-Protecting Measures.........................................................................................................2-8

2.5.2.2 Inspectability......................................................................................................................................2-9 2.5.2.3 Maintainability...................................................................................................................................2-9 2.5.2.4 Rideability .........................................................................................................................................2-9 2.5.2.5 Utilities ..............................................................................................................................................2-9 2.5.2.6 Deformations ...................................................................................................................................2-10

2.5.2.6.1 General ..................................................................................................................................2-10 2.5.2.6.2 Criteria for Deflection............................................................................................................2-11 2.5.2.6.3 Optional Criteria for Span-to-Depth Ratios ...........................................................................2-13

2.5.2.7 Consideration of Future Widening...................................................................................................2-14 2.5.2.7.1 Exterior Beams on Multibeam Bridges..................................................................................2-14 2.5.2.7.2 Substructure ...........................................................................................................................2-14

2.5.3 Constructibility ..........................................................................................................................................2-14 2.5.4 Economy ....................................................................................................................................................2-15

2.5.4.1 General.............................................................................................................................................2-15 2.5.4.2 Alternative Plans..............................................................................................................................2-15

2.5.5 Bridge Aesthetics .......................................................................................................................................2-16 2.6 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS ................................................................................................................2-17

2.6.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................2-17 2.6.2 Site Data.....................................................................................................................................................2-18 2.6.3 Hydrologic Analysis ..................................................................................................................................2-19 2.6.4 Hydraulic Analysis ....................................................................................................................................2-20

2.6.4.1 General.............................................................................................................................................2-20 2.6.4.2 Stream Stability................................................................................................................................2-20 2.6.4.3 Bridge Waterway .............................................................................................................................2-21 2.6.4.4 Bridge Foundations..........................................................................................................................2-21


2-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS (SI)

2.6.4.4.1 General...................................................................................................................................2-21 2.6.4.4.2 Bridge Scour ..........................................................................................................................2-22

2.6.4.5 Roadway Approaches to Bridge.......................................................................................................2-24 2.6.5 Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Area..........................................................................................2-24 2.6.6 Roadway Drainage .....................................................................................................................................2-25

2.6.6.1 General.............................................................................................................................................2-25 2.6.6.2 Design Storm....................................................................................................................................2-25 2.6.6.3 Type, Size, and Number of Drains ...................................................................................................2-25 2.6.6.4 Discharge from Deck Drains............................................................................................................2-26 2.6.6.5 Drainage of Structures......................................................................................................................2-26

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................2-27

2


SECTION 2 (SI)

GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES

2-1

2.1 SCOPE

Minimum requirements are provided for clearances,environmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies,economy, rideability, durability, constructibility,inspectability, and maintainability. Minimum requirementsfor traffic safety are referenced.

Minimum requirements for drainage facilities and self-protecting measures against water, ice, and water-bornesalts are included.

In recognition that many bridge failures have beencaused by scour, hydrology and hydraulics are covered indetail.

C2.1

This Section is intended to provide the Designer withsufficient information to determine the configuration andoverall dimensions of a bridge.

2 2.2 DEFINITIONS AggradationA general and progressive buildup or raising of the longitudinal profile of the channel bed as a result of sediment deposition. Check Flood for Bridge ScourCheck flood for scour. The flood resulting from storm, storm surge, and/or tide having a flow rate in excess of the design flood for scour, but in no case a flood with a recurrence interval exceeding the typically used 500 years. The check flood for bridge scour is used in the investigation and assessment of a bridge foundation to determine whether the foundation can withstand that flow and its associated scour and remain stable with no reserve. See also superflood. Clear ZoneAn unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The traveled way does not include shoulders or auxiliary lanes. ClearanceAn unobstructed horizontal or vertical space. DegradationA general and progressive lowering of the longitudinal profile of the channel bed as a result of long-term erosion. Design DischargeMaximum flow of water a bridge is expected to accommodate without exceeding the adopted design constraints. Design Flood for Bridge ScourThe flood flow equal to or less than the 100-year flood that creates the deepest scour at bridge foundations. The highway or bridge may be inundated at the stage of the design flood for bridge scour. The worst-case scour condition may occur for the overtopping flood as a result of the potential for pressure flow. Design Flood for Waterway OpeningThe peak discharge, volume, stage, or wave crest elevation and its associated probability of exceedence that are selected for the design of a highway or bridge over a watercourse or floodplain. By definition, the highway or bridge will not be inundated at the stage of the design flood for the waterway opening. Detention BasinA stormwater management facility that impounds runoff and temporarily discharges it through a hydraulic outlet structure to a downstream conveyance system. Drip GrooveLinear depression in the bottom of components to cause water flowing on the surface to drop. Five-Hundred-Year FloodThe flood due to storm and/or tide having a 0.2 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. General or Contraction ScourScour in a channel or on a floodplain that is not localized at a pier or other obstruction to flow. In a channel, general/contraction scour usually affects all or most of the channel width and is typically caused by a contraction of the flow.



HydraulicsThe science concerned with the behavior and flow of liquids, especially in pipes and channels. HydrologyThe science concerned with the occurrence, distribution, and circulation of water on the earth, including precipitation, runoff, and groundwater. Local ScourScour in a channel or on a floodplain that is localized at a pier, abutment, or other obstruction to flow. Mixed Population FloodFlood flows derived from two or more causative factors, e.g., a spring tide driven by hurricane-generated onshore winds or rainfall on a snowpack. One-Hundred-Year FloodThe flood due to storm and/or tide having a 1 percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. Overtopping FloodThe flood flow that, if exceeded, results in flow over a highway or bridge, over a watershed divide, or through structures provided for emergency relief. The worst-case scour condition may be caused by the overtopping flood. Relief BridgeAn opening in an embankment on a floodplain to permit passage of overbank flow. River Training StructureAny configuration constructed in a stream or placed on, adjacent to, or in the vicinity of a streambank to deflect current, induce sediment deposition, induce scour, or in some other way alter the flow and sediment regimens of the stream. ScupperA device to drain water through the deck. Sidewalk WidthUnobstructed space for exclusive pedestrian use between barriers or between a curb and a barrier. Spring TideA tide of increased range that occurs about every two weeks when the moon is full or new. Stable ChannelA condition that exists when a stream has a bed slope and cross-section that allows its channel to transport the water and sediment delivered from the upstream watershed without significant degradation, aggradation, or bank erosion. Stream GeomorphologyThe study of a stream and its floodplain with regard to its land forms, the general configuration of its surface, and the changes that take place due to erosion and the buildup of erosional debris. SuperelevationA tilting of the roadway surface to partially counterbalance the centrifugal forces on vehicles on horizontal curves. SuperfloodAny flood or tidal flow with a flow rate greater than that of the 100-year flood but not greater than a 500-year flood. TideThe periodic rise and fall of the earths ocean that results from the effect of the moon and sun acting on a rotating earth. WatershedAn area confined by drainage divides, and often having only one outlet for discharge; the total drainage area contributing runoff to a single point. WaterwayAny stream, river, pond, lake, or ocean. Waterway OpeningWidth or area of bridge opening at a specified stage, and measured normal to principal direction of flow.


SECTION 2 (SI): GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2-3

2.3 LOCATION FEATURES 2.3.1 Route Location

2.3.1.1 General

The choice of location of bridges shall be supported byanalyses of alternatives with consideration given toeconomic, engineering, social, and environmental concernsas well as costs of maintenance and inspection associatedwith the structures and with the relative importance of theabove-noted concerns.

Attention, commensurate with the risk involved, shallbe directed toward providing for favorable bridge locationsthat:

Fit the conditions created by the obstacle beingcrossed;

Facilitate practical cost effective design,construction, operation, inspection andmaintenance;

Provide for the desired level of traffic service andsafety; and

Minimize adverse highway impacts.

2.3.1.2 Waterway and Floodplain Crossings

Waterway crossings shall be located with regard toinitial capital costs of construction and the optimization oftotal costs, including river channel training works and themaintenance measures necessary to reduce erosion. Studiesof alternative crossing locations should includeassessments of:

The hydrologic and hydraulic characteristics ofthe waterway and its floodplain, includingchannel stability, flood history, and, in estuarinecrossings, tidal ranges and cycles;

The effect of the proposed bridge on flood flowpatterns and the resulting scour potential at bridgefoundations;

The potential for creating new or augmentingexisting flood hazards; and

Environmental impacts on the waterway and itsfloodplain.

Bridges and their approaches on floodplains should belocated and designed with regard to the goals andobjectives of floodplain management, including:

Prevention of uneconomic, hazardous, or

incompatible use and development of floodplains;

C2.3.1.2

Detailed guidance on procedures for evaluating thelocation of bridges and their approaches on floodplains iscontained in Federal Regulations and the Planning andLocation Chapter of the AASHTO Model Drainage Manual(see Commentary on Article 2.6.1). Engineers withknowledge and experience in applying the guidance andprocedures in the AASHTO Model Drainage Manualshould be involved in location decisions. It is generally saferand more cost effective to avoid hydraulic problems throughthe selection of favorable crossing locations than to attemptto minimize the problems at a later time in the projectdevelopment process through design measures.

Experience at existing bridges should be part of thecalibration or verification of hydraulic models, if possible.Evaluation of the performance of existing bridges duringpast floods is often helpful in selecting the type, size, andlocation of new bridges.



Avoidance of significant transverse andlongitudinal encroachments, where practicable;

Minimization of adverse highway impacts andmitigation of unavoidable impacts, wherepracticable;

Consistency with the intent of the standards andcriteria of the National Flood Insurance Program,where applicable;

Long-term aggradation or degradation; and Commitments made to obtain environmental

approvals.

2.3.2 Bridge Site Arrangement

2.3.2.1 General

The location and the alignment of the bridge should beselected to satisfy both on-bridge and under-bridge trafficrequirements. Consideration should be given to possiblefuture variations in alignment or width of the waterway,highway, or railway spanned by the bridge.

Where appropriate, consideration should be given tofuture addition of mass-transit facilities or bridge widening.

C2.3.2.1

Although the location of a bridge structure over awaterway is usually determined by other considerations thanthe hazards of vessel collision, the following preferencesshould be considered where possible and practical:

Locating the bridge away from bends in thenavigation channel. The distance to the bridgeshould be such that vessels can line up beforepassing the bridge, usually eight times the lengthof the vessel. This distance should be increasedfurther where high currents and winds areprevalent at the site.

Crossing the navigation channel near right anglesand symmetrically with respect to the navigationchannel.

Providing an adequate distance from locations withcongested navigation, vessel berthing maneuversor other navigation problems.

Locating the bridge where the waterway is shallowor narrow and the bridge piers could be located outof vessel reach.

2.3.2.2 Traffic Safety

2.3.2.2.1 Protection of Structures

Consideration shall be given to safe passage ofvehicles on or under a bridge. The hazard to errant vehicleswithin the clear zone should be minimized by locatingobstacles at a safe distance from the travel lanes.

C2.3.2.2.1



Pier columns or walls for grade separation structuresshould be located in conformance with the clear zoneconcept as contained in Chapter 3 of the AASHTO RoadsideDesign Guide, 1996. Where the practical limits of structurecosts, type of structure, volume and design speed of throughtraffic, span arrangement, skew, and terrain makeconformance with the AASHTO Roadside Design Guideimpractical, the pier or wall should be protected by the use ofguardrail or other barrier devices. The guardrail or otherdevice should, if practical, be independently supported, withits roadway face at least 600 mm from the face of pier orabutment, unless a rigid barrier is provided.

The face of the guardrail or other device should be atleast 600 mm outside the normal shoulder line.

The intent of providing structurally independentbarriers is to prevent transmission of force effects from thebarrier to the structure to be protected.

2.3.2.2.2 Protection of Users

Railings shall be provided along the edges of

structures conforming to the requirements of Section 13.

C2.3.2.2.2

All protective structures shall have adequate surfacefeatures and transitions to safely redirect errant traffic.

In the case of movable bridges, warning signs, lights,signal bells, gates, barriers, and other safety devices shallbe provided for the protection of pedestrian, cyclists, andvehicular traffic. These shall be designed to operate beforethe opening of the movable span and to remain operationaluntil the span has been completely closed. The devicesshall conform to the requirements for Traffic Control atMovable Bridges, in the Manual on Uniform TrafficControl Devices or as shown on plans.

Protective structures include those that provide a safeand controlled separation of traffic on multimodal facilitiesusing the same right-of-way.

Where specified by the Owner, sidewalks shall beprotected by barriers.

Special conditions, such as curved alignment, impededvisibility, etc., may justify barrier protection, even with lowdesign velocities.

2.3.2.2.3 Geometric Standards

Requirements of the AASHTO publication A Policy on

Geometric Design of Highways and Streets shall either besatisfied or exceptions thereto shall be justified anddocumented. Width of shoulders and geometry of trafficbarriers shall meet the specifications of the Owner.

2.3.2.2.4 Road Surfaces

Road surfaces on a bridge shall be given antiskid

characteristics, crown, drainage, and superelevation inaccordance with A Policy on Geometric Design ofHighways and Streets or local requirements.

2.3.2.2.5 Vessel Collisions

Bridge structures shall either be protected againstvessel collision forces by fenders, dikes, or dolphins asspecified in Article 3.14.15, or shall be designed towithstand collision force effects as specified inArticle 3.14.14.

C2.3.2.2.5

The need for dolphin and fender systems can beeliminated at some bridges by judicious placement of bridgepiers. Guidance on use of dolphin and fender systems isincluded in the AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines,Volume 7; Hydraulic Analyses for the Location and Design ofBridges; and the AASHTO Guide Specification andCommentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges.



2.3.3 Clearances

2.3.3.1 Navigational

Permits for construction of a bridge over navigablewaterways shall be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guardand/or other agencies having jurisdiction. Navigationalclearances, both vertical and horizontal, shall beestablished in cooperation with the U.S. Coast Guard.

C2.3.3.1

Where bridge permits are required, early coordinationshould be initiated with the U.S. Coast Guard to evaluate theneeds of navigation and the corresponding location anddesign requirements for the bridge.

Procedures for addressing navigational requirements forbridges, including coordination with the Coast Guard, areset forth in the Code of Federal Regulations, 23 CFR,Part 650, Subpart H, Navigational Clearances for Bridges,and 33 U.S.C. 401, 491, 511, et seq.

2.3.3.2 Highway Vertical

The vertical clearance of highway structures shall be in

conformance with the AASHTO publication A Policy onGeometric Design of Highways and Streets for theFunctional Classification of the Highway or exceptionsthereto shall be justified. Possible reduction of verticalclearance, due to settlement of an overpass structure, shallbe investigated. If the expected settlement exceeds 25 mm,it shall be added to the specified clearance.

C2.3.3.2

The specified minimum clearance should include150 mm for possible future overlays. If overlays are notcontemplated by the Owner, this requirement may benullified.

The vertical clearance to sign supports and pedestrianoverpasses should be 300 mm greater than the highwaystructure clearance, and the vertical clearance from theroadway to the overhead cross bracing of through-trussstructures should not be less than 5300 mm.

Sign supports, pedestrian bridges, and overhead crossbracings require the higher clearance because of their lesserresistance to impact.

2.3.3.3 Highway Horizontal

The bridge width shall not be less than that of the

approach roadway section, including shoulders or curbs,gutters, and sidewalks.

Horizontal clearance under a bridge should meet therequirements of Article 2.3.2.2.1.

C2.3.3.3

The usable width of the shoulders should generally betaken as the paved width.

No object on or under a bridge, other than a barrier,should be located closer than 1200 mm to the edge of adesignated traffic lane. The inside face of a barrier shouldnot be closer than 600 mm to either the face of the object orthe edge of a designated traffic lane.

The specified minimum distances between the edge ofthe traffic lane and fixed object are intended to preventcollision with slightly errant vehicles and those carryingwide loads.

2.3.3.4 Railroad Overpass

Structures designed to pass over a railroad shall be in

accordance with standards established and used by theaffected railroad in its normal practice. These overpassstructures shall comply with applicable federal, state,county, and municipal laws.

Regulations, codes, and standards should, as aminimum, meet the specifications and design standards ofthe American Railway Engineering and Maintenance ofWay Association (AREMA), the Association of AmericanRailroads, and AASHTO.

C2.3.3.4

Attention is particularly called to the following chaptersin the Manual for Railway Engineering (AREMA, 2003):

Chapter 7Timber Structures, Chapter 8Concrete Structures and Foundations, Chapter 9Highway-Railroad Crossings, Chapter 15 Steel Structures, and Chapter 18Clearances.

The provisions of the individual railroads and the

AREMA Manual should be used to determine:



Clearances, Loadings, Pier protection, Waterproofing, and Blast protection.

2.3.4 Environment

The impact of a bridge and its approaches on localcommunities, historic sites, wetlands, and otheraesthetically, environmentally, and ecologically sensitiveareas shall be considered. Compliance with state waterlaws; federal and state regulations concerningencroachment on floodplains, fish, and wildlife habitats;and the provisions of the National Flood InsuranceProgram shall be assured. Stream geomorphology,consequences of riverbed scour, removal of embankmentstabilizing vegetation, and, where appropriate, impacts toestuarine tidal dynamics shall be considered.

C2.3.4

Stream, i.e., fluvial, geomorphology is a study of thestructure and formation of the earths features that resultfrom the forces of water. For purposes of this Section, thisinvolves evaluating the streams, potential for aggradation,degradation, or lateral migration.

2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION 2.4.1 General

A subsurface investigation, including borings and soiltests, shall be conducted in accordance with the provisionsof Article 10.4 to provide pertinent and sufficientinformation for the design of substructure units. The typeand cost of foundations should be considered in theeconomic and aesthetic studies for location and bridgealternate selection.

2.4.2 Topographic Studies

Current topography of the bridge site shall beestablished via contour maps and photographs. Suchstudies shall include the history of the site in terms ofmovement of earth masses, soil and rock erosion, andmeandering of waterways.

2.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES 2.5.1 Safety

The primary responsibility of the Engineer shall beproviding for the safety of the public.

C2.5.1

Minimum requirements to ensure the structural safetyof bridges as conveyances are included in theseSpecifications. The philosophy of achieving adequatestructural safety is outlined in Article 1.3.



2.5.2 Serviceability

2.5.2.1 Durability

2.5.2.1.1 Materials

The contract documents shall call for quality materialsand for the application of high standards of fabrication anderection.

Structural steel shall be self-protecting, or have long-life coating systems or cathodic protection.

Reinforcing bars and prestressing strands in concretecomponents, which may be expected to be exposed toairborne or waterborne salts, shall be protected by anappropriate combination of epoxy and/or galvanizedcoating, concrete cover, density, or chemical compositionof concrete, including air-entrainment and a nonporouspainting of the concrete surface or cathodic protection.

Prestress strands in cable ducts shall be grouted orotherwise protected against corrosion.

Attachments and fasteners used in wood constructionshall be of stainless steel, malleable iron, aluminum, orsteel that is galvanized, cadmium-plated, or otherwisecoated. Wood components shall be treated withpreservatives.

Aluminum products shall be electrically insulated fromsteel and concrete components.

Protection shall be provided to materials susceptible todamage from solar radiation and/or air pollution.

Consideration shall be given to the durability ofmaterials in direct contact with soil and/or water.

C2.5.2.1.1

The intent of this Article is to recognize thesignificance of corrosion and deterioration of structuralmaterials to the long-term performance of a bridge. Otherprovisions regarding durability can be found in Article 5.12.

Other than the deterioration of the concrete deck itself,the single most prevalent bridge maintenance problem is thedisintegration of beam ends, bearings, pedestals, piers, andabutments due to percolation of waterborne road saltsthrough the deck joints. Experience appears to indicate thata structurally continuous deck provides the best protectionfor components below the deck. The potential consequencesof the use of road salts on structures with unfilled steeldecks and unprestressed wood decks should be taken intoaccount.

These Specifications permit the use of discontinuousdecks in the absence of substantial use of road salts.Transverse saw-cut relief joints in cast-in-place concretedecks have been found to be of no practical value wherecomposite action is present. Economy, due to structuralcontinuity and the absence of expansion joints, will usuallyfavor the application of continuous decks, regardless oflocation.

Stringers made simply supported by sliding joints, withor without slotted bolt holes, tend to freeze due to theaccumulation of corrosion products and cause maintenanceproblems. Because of the general availability of computers,analysis of continuous decks is no longer a problem.

Experience indicates that, from the perspective ofdurability, all joints should be considered subject to somedegree of movement and leakage.

2.5.2.1.2 Self-Protecting Measures

Continuous drip grooves shall be provided along the

underside of a concrete deck at a distance not exceeding250 mm from the fascia edges. Where the deck isinterrupted by a sealed deck joint, all surfaces of piers andabutments, other than bearing seats, shall have a minimumslope of 5 percent toward their edges. For open deck joints,this minimum slope shall be increased to 15 percent. In thecase of open deck joints, the bearings shall be protectedagainst contact with salt and debris.

C2.5.2.1.2

Ponding of water has often been observed on the seatsof abutments, probably as a result of construction tolerancesand/or tilting. The 15 percent slope specified in conjunctionwith open joints is intended to enable rains to wash awaydebris and salt.

Wearing surfaces shall be interrupted at the deck jointsand shall be provided with a smooth transition to the deckjoint device.

Steel formwork shall be protected against corrosion inaccordance with the specifications of the Owner.

In the past, for many smaller bridges, no expansiondevice was provided at the fixed joint, and the wearingsurface was simply run over the joint to give a continuousriding surface. As the rotation center of the superstructure isalways below the surface, the fixed joint actually movesdue to load and environmental effects, causing the wearingsurface to crack, leak, and disintegrate.



2.5.2.2 Inspectability

Inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks, coveredaccess holes, and provision for lighting, if necessary, shallbe provided where other means of inspection are notpractical.

Where practical, access to permit manual or visualinspection, including adequate headroom in box sections,shall be provided to the inside of cellular components andto interface areas, where relative movement may occur.

C2.5.2.2

The Guide Specifications for Design and Constructionof Segmental Concrete Bridges requires external accesshatches with a minimum size of 750 mm 1200 mm, largeropenings at interior diaphragms, and venting by drains orscreened vents at intervals of no more than 15 000 mm.These recommendations should be used in bridges designedunder these Specifications.

2.5.2.3 Maintainability

Structural systems whose maintenance is expected to

be difficult should be avoided. Where the climatic and/ortraffic environment is such that a bridge deck may need tobe replaced before the required service life, provisions shallbe shown on the contract documents for:

a contemporary or future protective overlay, a future deck replacement, or supplemental structural resistance. Areas around bearing seats and under deck joints

should be designed to facilitate jacking, cleaning, repair,and replacement of bearings and joints.

Jacking points shall be indicated on the plans, and thestructure shall be designed for jacking forces specified inArticle 3.4.3. Inaccessible cavities and corners should beavoided. Cavities that may invite human or animalinhabitants shall either be avoided or made secure.

C2.5.2.3

Maintenance of traffic during replacement should beprovided either by partial width staging of replacement orby the utilization of an adjacent parallel structure.

Measures for increasing the durability of concrete andwood decks include epoxy coating of reinforcing bars, post-tensioning ducts, and prestressing strands in the deck.Microsilica and/or calcium nitrite additives in the deckconcrete, waterproofing membranes, and overlays may beused to protect black steel. See Article 5.14.2.3.10e foradditional requirements regarding overlays.

2.5.2.4 Rideability

The deck of the bridge shall be designed to permit the

smooth movement of traffic. On paved roads, a structuraltransition slab should be located between the approachroadway and the abutment of the bridge. Constructiontolerances, with regard to the profile of the finished deck,shall be indicated on the plans or in the specifications orspecial provisions.

The number of deck joints shall be kept to a practicalminimum. Edges of joints in concrete decks exposed totraffic should be protected from abrasion and spalling. Theplans for prefabricated joints shall specify that the jointassembly be erected as a unit.

Where concrete decks without an initial overlay areused, consideration should be given to providing anadditional thickness of 10 mm to permit correction of thedeck profile by grinding, and to compensate for thicknessloss due to abrasion.

2.5.2.5 Utilities

Where required, provisions shall be made to support

and maintain the conveyance for utilities.



2.5.2.6 Deformations

2.5.2.6.1 General

Bridges should be designed to avoid undesirablestructural or psychological effects due to theirdeformations. While deflection and depth limitations aremade optional, except for orthotropic plate decks, any largedeviation from past successful practice regardi

aashto lrfd bridge design specifications

Documents