The tz'u poetry of Ou-yang Hsiu (1007-1072):selected translations and critical comments

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THE TZ»U POETRY OF OU^YAMG HSIU (l00T«10T2)s SELECTED TRANSLATIONS AND CRITICAL COMMENTS

byOris D% Friesen

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of theDEPARTMENT OF ORIENTAL STUDIES

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree ofMASTER OF ARTS

In the Graduate CollegeTHE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1966

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library.

Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:

WILLIAM R*. SCHULTgf Associate Professor of Oriental Studies

PREFACE

The modified Wade«Giles system of romanization5

commonly used in American sinological publications, is employed throughout this thesis in rendering Chinese words and names2 The only exceptions are certain geo­graphical names commonly romanized according to other systems^ The dates of birth and death, when known, follow the first appearance of a personas name I The dates following the names of rulers are their reign dates«

The comparative difference in line length within any given poem is indicated in the translation by indent tationi More precisely, the shorter the line, the greater the indentation4

ill

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageABSTRACT o o o e o o o e o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o ^CHAPTER

1 ( 5 INTRODUCTION o o o o e o o e o o o o o o o o o o e 1II6 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 0 „ „ 0 o , » » = e « « « o e 6

III„ LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20PrOSe o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o e o 20Traditional Poetry „ = , » e „ „ „ „ „ 24Lyric Meters o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o e e 2y

IV. SELECTED TRANSLATIONS AND ANALYSES OF LYRIC METERS 48^Gathering Mulberries (I)11 » « « » <, » . = o = 48“Gathering Mulberries (II)** = . . 0 « . » « » 50“Gathering Mulberries (III)11 „ „ . p o , » . « 53“Walking through the Sedge . a » „ = . « « , . 56"Sand of the Washing Stream (I)" . . . , = . . 58"Altar of Sapphire" = o o = » « «, 6l“Jade Tower in Springtime" , 0 » 0 0 , » . . . 65“Waves Washing the Sand" „ . » « . . « « * „ . 67“Sand of the Washing Stream (II)” 71“Marshalled in the Court" .-,. o., » » . . . . 73

V © CONCLUSIONS c o o o o o o e o o o e e p p o o e p 7 6

iv

ABSTRACT

Ou»yang Hsiu was a man of wide-ranging intellect^ His rise from virtual obscurity to a position of eminence in the governmental and political world of his time was interrupted twice by exile to the provinces I However* he took advantage of these periods of political adversity to extend his reputation as a scholar and man of letters,*

His most significant contribution to literary history was his promotion of the ku«wen style of prose®Due largely to his efforts and literary talents* ku~wen became the dominant prose style in China by the time of his death® The success of his efforts to reform shih poetry was more limitedi In his tz8u poetry* he occasion#* ally employed styles which.were relatively new* but primarily carried on established traditions®

His tz8u are distinguished from his prose and shih by their sincere emotional quality® They reveal him as a sensitive individual rather than1an austere Confucian^ Some of the dominant qualities appearing in his tz8u are a concern with nature* time* drink* and love® They are enriched by a close association between the two worlds explored by the poet: the internal world of emotions and the external world of events®

v

SHIFTER I

INTRODUCTION

Hsim was a mam with oathelic imterests and abilities, reflecting the comprehensiveness of scholarship which was a characteristic of his age®From humble beginnings he rose to become one of the most influential men of his time® He was active in polities from his youth until his retirement, one year prior to his.death* Moreover, he was a highly respected authority in such scholarly areas as political theory, history, and the classics® He was an accomplished writer of tz 8u, shih, and fu, and was a leader in the writing of the ku#wen, as well as the p*ien=wen, style of preset He also found time to gain a respected name in such specialized areas as archaeology, epigraphy, and calligraphy, and he could play the oh#ln® He contributed to later scholarship by using his influence to promote new talent from among the younger generation of officials®

He is remembered primarily for his reform of the prose style of his time® Many of his prose works are of a utilitarian mature, and as a true Confueian, he believed there to be a close association between literature and ethical principles^ Due in part to these two facts.

Me reveals himself within his prose as an austere Oonfuoiam, seemingly devoid of human emotionsi He presents himself similarly in his shih, or traditional poetry, a genre which was becoming increasingly didactic and less spontaneous during the Sung dynasty (96©«?1279)<b In his tzfu, or Lyric Meters, however, he is seen as a poet with very real, human emotions<, In expressing these emotions, he displays certain attitudes and concepts which are more commonly found in Ghinese poetry than in Western poetry and which require some elucidation^

Nature is a favorite topic in Chinese poetry and is treated differently than is often the case in Western poetrya In the latter, tragedy frequently develops from the conflict between nature and man, wherein man is thwarted in his efforts to overcome the limitations imposed upon him by nature» In Chinese poetry, on the other hand, tragedy is to be found in the contrast between the permanent and enduring features of nature and the brevity and uncertainty of human life @ This feature will be shown to be quite evident in a number of ©u<eyang>s Lyric Meters®

A related subject which is given a great deal of attention by the Chinese poet, and by,Ou^yang in

li James Y| Liu, The Art of Chinese Poetry (Chicago, 1962), pp®49-50^

particular^ is time®' Perhaps because the Chinese poet isassured of no life after death5 time is of more importanceto him than to his Western counterpart2 Because of thisawareness of time# there are numerous Chinese poemslamenting the approach of old age# the passage of spring#and the falling and scattering of spring blossoms0

Such a consciousness of time leads to a heightenedawareness of the beauty of life in all its forms andcontributes to the minute observations of nature often

.2found in Chinese poetry0

Love also finds a place in Chinese poetry# as it-5does in the West® However# there are some distinctions

to be made between the concepts of love within the twotraditionse In Chinese poetry love is not exalted asan absolute which removes all moral responsibilities ~from the person in love# as is sometimes the ease inEnglish poetry® Moreover# Chinese poets do not regardlove as a symbol of spiritual union * Rather# love istreated more realistically as a feeling on a level with

3other emotions and sentiments0 This concept of love underlies several of ©u<=>yang8s Lyric Meters®

2. Ibido # pp® 50-52®3. IbidI# pp® 57?58® .y

4Another'concept, not fully understood fey many

Western readers, which appears in Chinese poetry andwhich is especially evident in many of Ou~yang»s LyricMeters is that of intoxicationo As used in poetry thisconcept generally carries no implications of grosssensuality, hilarity, or convivialityo It is more akinto the English metaphorical use of the word in thephrase ’intoxicated with beauty* 1 Being *drunk* inChinese poetry is primarily a matter of convention and4suggests mental escape from one’s normal concerns0

All poetry, Chinese as well as Western, is an exploration and expression of the external and internal features of life* External, as used here, refers to the world which is external to the individual and includes such things as actions and events, as well as natural objects and scenesj The internal aspect deals with the individual and his emotions, thoughts, memories, and fantasies* Thus, the reader has a right to expect a certain degree of consistency between these two aspects

,5of life as they appear within any given poem*

4' Ibid*, pp*.58-60*5, Ibid., pp. 96-98*

In the Lyrie Meters translated below an attempt has been made to examine these two worlds, the Internal and external, and the unity, or lack of It, which binds them together within the individual poema In other words, is the picture presented by the physical details of any given poem consonant with the emotion being expressed bythe poet? An attempt has also been made to discover the

" . ..technique of writing generally employed by ©u®yango That to say, does he begin with a statement of the external setting and then give expression to his inner experience, or does the poet view the external scene in the light of his inner experience, which has already been revealed or remains unstated? In the analyses of the individual lyric Meters, the emphasis has been placed on the poet6s usage of imagery and symbolism® Ho attempt has been made to analyze the rhyme structure or tonal patterns of the poems, and specific allusions occurring within them have not been examined in detail®

CHAPTER II

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Ou@yamg Hslu was born on August 6, 1007# at Mien^ehon# located near the central part of modern-day Szechwan Province# where his father ©u-yang Kuan (957® i©10) was a minor officiali Ou-yang Kuan was transferred to T’ai-chou# in modern-day Kiangsu Province# in 1010# where he died shortly after taking up his duties# leaving his family in a state of povertyi His widow# a daughter of the Cheng family and only twenty-nine years of age# accepted the responsibility of raising and caring for her two children and decided not to remarry@ Along "with ©u-yang Hsiu and his younger sister# she moved to Sui-ehou# located in modern-day Hupei Province# and took up residence with Kuan8s younger brother Yeh@Yeh# only a minor official# also had a wife and five children of his own to support# but treated his relatives kindly# assisting them as much as possiblei He was acquainted with one of the more wealthy families in the area by the name of Li# who lived in Hangchou# south

of Yeti8s residence in Ham4tMag6 It was through thisacquaintance that Ou^yang Hsiu became good friends withLi Yaovfu whom he visited; often^ Together they availedthemselves of the Li family library5 where 0u®yang wasintroduced to Han Yd (7.68#>824) 5 the T8amg dynasty (6l8«906) advocate of the km=wen style of prosed Accordingto tradition 0u=yang8s mother taught him to write by

2scratching in the dust with a reed6 In reality, hemost likely, along with his cousins, received someeducation from his uncle, and it is possible that he

- ' ,3received some instruction from members of the Li familyaThe early years of his life were uneventful, and

he met few people* Aside from Li Yao<rfu, he mentions onlyone other boyhood companioni He evidently spent much ofhis time at'Sui«chou in preparation for the examinations

4leading toward the chin^shih degreei In 1023 he sat for

lo Marjorie A, Locke, “The Early Life of Ou-yang Hsiu and His Relation to..the Rise of the Ku=wen Movement of the Sung Dynasty® (Ph0B» Thesis, University.of London, 195l)i. 15 part 1 , pp 0 ,-4=7 0 ,

2-5- James T 0C«, Liu, ©u^yang Hsiu 1 chih-hsdeh yl ts8ung?cheng (Hong &ong, 1 9 8 3 )5 P® 132^

3l Locke, part 1, pp| 7^8^4% Ibid*, p» 9l

the preliminary ehikjem examination at Suivehota and 5failed. Although his essay had been well written, his

fu composition failed to conform to the officiallyprescribed rhymes. He continued his studies and in 1026

passed the ch#=Jen examination at Sui^ehou, but failedthe examination at K 8al«?feng the following spring whichwould have qualified him for the chin»shih degree0 Onthis occasion the reason for his failure lay in a breach6of etiquette rather than academic incompetence. Follow­ing this failure ©u«?yang secured a patron in the person of Hsfl Yen, an official at Ham-yang in the southeasternsector of present-day Hupei Province, who appreciated

' 7ku-wen, or the Ancient Prose style.HsS was impressed by Ou-yang8s writings and

accompanied him to the capital in 1028„ Ou-yang then placed first in a qualifying examination at the Directorate of Education and qualified for formal study at the Wniversity in preparation for the chin-shih examination. When examined at the University in the autumn, he again

Hu K 8o, "Lu-ling Ou-yang Wen-chung kung nien-p8u® in. Ou-yang .Wen-chung ch^uan.rchi, SPPY ed®, p. 2a.

Locke, part 1, pp. 13-14.7o Liu, Ou-yang Hsiu ti chih-hsieh yd ts 8ung-

cheng, p. 1 3 2. . . .

• ,8placed flrste During this stay at the capital* it is likely that he made his first acquaintance with such men as the Ancient Prose advocate Su Shun<*chBin (1008*1048) and the skilled shih poet and calligrapher Shih Yen*nien (994 ,1041) i He remained a close friend to these men

,9the rest of their l i v e s I n the autumn of 1029, hetook the passing®out examination from the University, 1

placing first, and the following February placed firstamong those taking the examination for the chin-shih degreeIn April he placed in the first class of examinees forthe Court Examination and in June was appointed PrefecturalJudge at Loyangl Here he was under the supervision ofCh8ien Wei®yen (d2 1033?)* a master of the p 8ien®wen, orthe Parallel Prose style, and a member of the Hsi®k8unschool of poetrya He married the daughter of Hs$ Yen inJanuary, 1031, and with his wife and mother arrived in

10Loyang in Marchi

His first years in office seem to have been quite pleasanti Loyang offered much to be enjoyed, with its many picturesque lakes, islands, flowers, and other scenic

84 Locke, part 1, ppi l4®15i9o Ibidi, pi 26eI©! IbidI, ppl 32^33%

1011attraotlOBS*1 . He now formed close friendships with suchmen as Yin Chu (1001^10#%), a proponent of Ancient Prose,and Mel Ya©echsen (1 0 0 2«1©6 0 ), a famous writer of shih,

12or traditional poetrye He also began to acquire a reputation as a writer of tz'u, or Lyric Meters, and

.13began to make use of the Ancient Prose style himself0

The record of his activities during this period at Loyang is sparse0 He is known to have participated in a few official acts of ceremony, but his most noteworthy accomplishments were probably related more closely to his personal life. During the hot summer months, he apparently spent some time in the coolness of the mountains, and he made at least two excursions to nearby Mount Sung with

14companions such as Mel Yao«ch8en, Yin Chu, and others0

Thus, during the period from 1031 through 1032, he apparently lived a leisurely life with a minimum of official duties or personal discomfort0 Indeed, his private activities were probably not above reproach, and later he admitted the incontinence of his- first thirty years* The time which he spent at Loyang had

11* Ibid,, pp* 38-3912, Liu, Ou-yang Hsiu ti chih-hsfieh yi ts'ung-

cheng, p* 133o - .13= Locke, part 1, pp„ 34-35=14* Ibid., pp. 51-52=

a considerable effect on M s subsequent achievements15in the fields of scholarship as well as polities0

The next year his personal fortunes declined„In February5 1033* he travelled to K 8ai~feng on officialbusiness and paid a visit to his uncle Yeh at Han»tungon the return tripi When he arrived at Loyang in April,his wife, only seventeen years of age, had already diedshortly after giving birth to a son. In July a closefriend of Ou^yang, Chang Yao-fu, also died, and thefollowing October Ou-yang was sent to Kung Hsien, nearLoyang, to participate in the internment ceremony for theEmpress Liu and Lady Li, the mother of Emperor Jen Tsung(rol023»1063)o After Ou-yang9s return to Loyang, Wang Shu(del©34), Ch'ien Wei-yen8s recent replacement, voicedhis disapproval of the abuses.of office which Ch8ien had

.16allowed his staff to practice0 He also expressed his,17dissatisfaction with Ou-yang8s private life, Ou-yang6s

tenure of duty ended in March, 1034, at which time he left Loyang and travelled to, Hsiang«=eh8eng, in the central

15* Liu, Qu-yang Hsiu ti chlh-hsleh yf ts8ung- cheng, ppc 135-1367

16, Locke, part 1, pp. 5 6-6 1*17. Liu, Ou-yang Hsiu ti chih-hsieh y@ ts8uhg-

cheng, p. 1 3 6. -

12part of modern-day Honan Province, where he spent twomonths with his sister and brother-in-law before returning

- 18;to the capital city of K 8ai-feng6

He reached the capital in early summer and, after being examined by the Bureau of Academicians, was placed in charge of textual criticism at the Imperial Archives and assigned to assist in the compilation of a biblio-

.19graphical catalogueo Many of his friends were also atK8ai-feng, including Vang Shu, who had become his sponsorIOu-yang, however, was forced to spend much of his timein the performance of official duties and found fewopportunities to enjoy their company* He married thedaughter of the former official and Ancient Proseproponent Yang Ta-ya (9659-1033?) in November* Hissisterss husband died in August, 1035$ and Ou-yangbrought her tonthe capital to'live with him* Two monthslater he was struck with another tragedy when his second

,20wife died at the age of nineteen* His misfortunes reached their peak when in June, 1036, he was dismissed from his post and given a provincial appointment atI-ling, in the southern part of present-day Hupei

18* Locke, part 1, p* 62*19* Hu Kao, p* 3a*20* Locke, part 1, pp* 63-6 5*

13Province« This exile resulted, from his defense of FanChumg®yen (989^1 0 5 2) after the latterrs dismissal fromoffice® After a long Jmarneyy Ou-yang arrived at his

21destination in November, 16360 . While stationed here,he married the daughter of Hsieh Kernel (967?®1034?) in1037 and was subsequently appointed to a post at Kan®te,located in the northern part of moderm®day Hupei Province 2

22His son by his first wife died the following year®

Ou«yang finally returned to K8ai®feng in 1040to be re®assigned to his former position in the ImperialArchives and resumed work on the Ch6ung®wen General Index«

,23He was also presented with another son this year®After his return to the capital he met the Sung prose master Tseng Kung (l©19=l©83), who introduced him to Wang An®shih (1021*1686), a political opponent of. -- . ... . .24Ou»yang in his later years. Shortly thereafter he

,25began another period of duty in the provinces®

Meanwhile, Ou*yang8s friend and political reform advocate Fan Chung*yen was haling considerable military

21o Hu K8o, p. 3b.22, Ibid., pp. 3b®4a„23o Ibid®, p® 4a®24®, Locke, part 1, p® 17 *2 5 I Hu K8o, pp® 4a®4b®

siaoeess along the Shensi border against the Khitarns0‘As a result Fan received a long awaited appointment asa ranking court minister in 1043 and promptly initiated26the Oh^lngvli Reform Program Ou?yang received his .first really important assignment this year and returnedto K?ai*pfeng to be appointed Administrator of the Bureau

,27of Policy Criticism, The reform policies of the FanGhumg?yem government soon came under heavy attack, and28Fan was sent into exile early in 1045o Later in the same year, Ou*=yang8s political enemies accused him of being involved in a scandal* The true facts in the case are unclear today, but as a result of the charges made against him, he was sent to Chsu«ehou, in presemt=day

2-9Kiangsu Province, as a Departmental Special Consultant*It was the following year, while still at Gh®u«?>eh©u, that he styled himself $The Old Drunkard*" He was transferred south to Yang@ehou, also in modern-day Kiangsu Province, in 1047* In 1049 he was posted to Ying-chou, near the well-known resort area of West Lake,

2 6* James T*C* Liu, "An Early Sung Reformers Fan Chung-yen," in.Chinese Thought and Institutions, ed* John K» Fairbamk (Chicago, 1959), P® 108*

27l Locke, part 2, p% 72*28*' Liu, Ou^yang Hsiu ti chih-hsfeh y# ts8ung-

cheng, p* l8l* . . .29* Ibid*, p* 2 1 1*

in modern-day Anhwei Province* This is the lake to whichhe refers in a number of his lyric Meters* He was ,transferred in 1 050 to the Southern Capital5 Ying*»t*ien,

30in the western sector of modern-day Honan Provincei Although he accomplished little politically during these years, his name was becoming known in scholarly circles, and he used these periods of exile to advance his scholar®

,31ship *When his mother died in 1052, he resigned from

public office and went into mourning* In 1053 he super® vised the arrangements for her funeral at Lung®kang, in

fmodern Kiangsi Province, returning to Ying®ehou in thewinter* He came out of mourning in 1054, after which he

,32was summoned to Ksai®feng0 He was subsequently com­missioned to revise the T8ang History and promoted to the post of Han-Iin Academician* After being re-appointed as an official in the capital, he requested assignment at Ts*ai?chou, in the southeastern section of modern Honan Province, in 1055« The request, which was a result of disagreements with the Chief Councillor .

30* . Hu E0©, ppo 5a®5b@31 * Liu, Ou-yang Hsiu ti chih-hsdeh yi tshmg®

eheng, p* 214* .32 o Hu K 8 o, p * 6a „

16Gh8en Je-=chung5 was refused, but Ch8en was finally

33dismissedQ The following year Ou=»yang submitted amemorial to the throne strongly recommending Wang An<=shlh for appointments

In 1057 Ou#yamg was appointed Doctoral Examina«tion Administrator and placed in charge of the examine?tion for the chin^shih degree @ He promoted the AncientProse stylej, which had first been introduced on a widescale during the Gh8img«li Reform^ by making it the

.35standard for the examination^ He was the first ku«?wen proponent to hold this post, and this fact representeda significant step toward the eventual victory of Ancient

.36Prose over the Parallel Prose styled This was also the year Su Shih (1©37*11©1) and Su Ch8e (1039*1112) sat for the examinations, both of whom placed high on

.37the list of successful candidates <, In 106© he completed the Mew T8ang History while at K 8ai~feng6 Shortly

33o Liu, Ou-yang Hsiu ti chih-hsfleh yi ts8ung« cheng, pi 215o

34% H% R% Williamson, Wang An^shlhs A'-Chinese Statesman and Educationalist of the Sung Dynasty (Londonj1937 L TiTTde*

35o Liu, ©u^yang Hsiu ti chih«>hsleh yfl ts8ung« cheng, p% 216%

36% Locke, part 2, p% 73%37% Lin Yutang, The Gay Genius: The Life and

Times of Su Tungpo (lew York, 1947), p% 39%

thereafter he was promoted agains this time to the postof Assistant Commissioner of Military Affairs, and in

381061 was assigned to the Census OfficeBecause ofthe friendship between his wife and the Empress Ts*a©,his position at the court remained secure for the next

,39few years®When Jen Tsung died in IO6 3, he had no sonsf

Consequently, his nephew was placed on the throne andreigned under the name of Ying Tsung (ri 106461067)iThere followed a discussion which alienated Ou®yang from

40many of his political friends^ The problem arose when Ying Tsung, whose father was already dead, succeeded to the throne of his uncleZ Subsequently, many important conservative officials now proposed that Ying Tsung8s deceased father be designated uncle of the new emperorZ In this way the old imperial line would remain unbrokeni Other officials of note, such as ©u»yang and Fu Pi (1004^1083), advocated that he be designated father of the emperor® In this case a new imperial line would be created® The question was never resolved, but the

380 Mu, 0u4yang Hsiu ti chih#hs@eh yff ts8ung° eheng, p® 2 1 6®

39Z IbidZ, p% 234Z4oZ James TZcZ M u , Reform in Sung China % Wang

An«shih (102141086) and his Mew Policies (Cambridge, Mass®, 1 9 5 9 )5 pZ 8 6 Z " ~ ;

18factions finally compromised and designated the deceasedfather of Ylng Tsung as a relative of the emperor®Although the dispute arose from this rather minorquestion of ritual, its effects were, significant, andit caused such bitter feelings that a censor demanded

4lthe execution of Ou#yamg and Han Ch8i (l008<#1075) ®Because of the criticism levelled at him during thisdispute, often referred to as the P$u@>yi Case, Ou*yangfive times requested appointment to the provinces^ All

42his requests, however, were denied®

Yimg Tsung died in 1©67'and was succeeded by Shen Tsung (r® l©68*!G85)i The same year Ou^yang became the target of accusations levelled at him by his wifers younger brother Hs$eh Tsung®ju 2 Hstleh had been impeached and, in revenge for the failure of Ou^yang to act in his behalf, circulated stories alleging in®

43discretions between Ou^yang and his daughter«in®lawe Following this incident Ou*yang repeatedly asked to be allowed to resign, but his requests were denied* He was finally given a post outside the capital at Po®ehou,

4la Williamson, II, 87*424 M u , OUf*>yang Hsiu. ti chih^hs^eh yi ts 8ung®

cheng, p% 248243. Ibid 2, pp.® 248®2492

4%near his favored Ying^ehou and West Lakei Because of the different political views held by the two menj, Wang AneShihj. now in favor at the court, did not allow Ou^yang to serve at the capital again^ In 1068 he was trans» ferred to Ch8inge>chou, in present-day Shantung Province, and in 107 0 to Ts8ai-ehouZ It was at Ts8ai-chou that he styled himself 8The Sixty-one Year Old Han** He retired from office in 1071 with the title of Junior Preceptor' ; . ■ yto the Heir Apparent and returned once more to Ying-chou^He died in 1072 just after having completed the Historyof the Five Dynasties, which he had been commissioned

—

by the emperor to write®

Ibid-, p- 251%45% Williamson, I, 2 6 3%46% Hu K 8o, pp% 1Ob-1la %' * ’-i47® Williamson, I, 271®

CHAPTER III

LITERATURE

Prose

The two dominant prose styles in China fromthe Former Han dynasty (206 B^Cl-AlDl 8 ) to the Sungdynasty were p 8ien*»wen and ku«wenj

The difference is fundamentally one of function^ The term ku^wen has a double significancei First it comprehends the prose writings of the period up to and including the Western Han dynasty2 Secondly it denotes the style created and so named by Han Y'S, theoretically on the basis of these earlier models I In both cases its objectis utilitarian and it consists of 8free8 prose inwhich the artistic element is subordinated to the didactic I It employs such stylistic devices asare convenient to the elucidation of its subjectmatter, including t?he^characteristic Chinese device of parallelism^

P 8ien?wen, on the other hand, consists entirely of parallel writing in which complex regulations govern phraseology, tonal pattern and rhyme, and in which the purely visual element also plays an important part I It is a highly artificial style in which technical skill is its own end and rapidly becomes a parody of itself if used without discretion^ Gradually, the qualities which removed it from the utilitarian sphere assumed paramount importance and in the hands of the less talented writers it became mannered and obscure, worthless as literature and ineffectual for practical u s e © !

Parallel Prose (p8ien^wen) was the predominant style ofprose written during the Six Dynasties period (26^^88)

l2 Locke, part 2, pp% 3*^

20

21and the early T^ang, although there were numerouspractloners of the Ancient Prose style (ku- wen) as well aIn the latter years of the IMamg* several writers stronglydenounced the Parallel Prose styles calling it frivolous^and publicly advocated the writing of Ancient ProsedThe most outspoken member of this group was HanParallel Prose, however, continued to fluoristu Finallyin the eleventh century, the Ancient Prose style dis?placed Parallel Prose from its position of eminence iThe efforts of Ou*yang Hsiu were instrumental in effect®ing this reversal*

In the early years of the Sung dynasty Parallel2

Prose writing was at its height* It was employed by- *?

many prominent writers, such as Yang I (974®1020), Ch$ien¥ei«yen, and Liu Yun (ea* 1016)* Liu K!ai (9#8®100l)was the first important figure of this period to praisethe Ancient Prose style, but his words had little

3effect* Shih Chieh (1005®1O#5), who initiated the real revolt against Parallel Prose, believed, like Han Yi, that Buddhism was the cause of immorality and thatthe Parallel Prose style contributed to this degeneration*

:i 4Later this view was also upheld by Ou®yang Hsiu* It was

2* Ibid*, p* 33*3* Ibid*, pp* #1*42%4* Ibid*, pi 5#

Mu Hsiu (979^1 0 3 2 )5 however’5 who exerted the greatest,5influence on ©a*yang> through his disciple Yin Chu0

Ou«yang first met Yin in Loyamg* after having passed hischinvshih examinationi It was under Yin11 s influencethat he began seriously to consider the writing ofAncient Prose5 and it was with this style of writing.6that Ou«?yang achieved his greatest literary famei

As was the ease with most of the early Sung proponents of Ancient Prose, Ou^yang#s reasons for objecting to Parallel Prose were mainly ethical rather than stylistici The purpose of literature, it was

Jargued, was to civilize through instruction» He believed the Parallel Prose style to be incompatible with the expression of ethical principles and the success of one*s literary efforts to be dependent upon one8s ability to absorb ethical, or Confucian, principlesIt followed, therefore, t^at the deficiencies of the Parallel Prose .style derived from a lack of ethical standards among its practitioners, whereas the superiority of the classics

8resulted from the ethical correctness of their authors«,

5. Ibid0, pi 5 6*61 IbidI, ppl 62&63I7I IbidI, ppl 66*67i8 o Ibid ,, p . 71 o

As an alternative to the ornate and elaborate Parallel Prose style, ©a*yang, with the help of other members of the ku»wen school, developed an unadorned style of writing based on principles laid down by Han YtiU Together they established a prose style which was simple and flexible but not without elegance, and which underwent further development at the hands of later writers^ This unadorned style of writing was the most important contribution of the Sung dynasty ku«wen movementI

Ancient Prose did not, however, immediately replaceParallel Prose as the dominant styled The latter stylefirst began to give way to the former during the periodbetween 1040 and 10562 Ou^yang8s effectiveness in themovement was curtailed by his exile in 1036 and by sub*sequent provincial appointments2 In 1056 he became thefirst Ancient Prose advocate to be appointed to theexaminership for the chln*shih degree examination® Thesuccess of the ku*wem movement was also aided by theabsence of the Parallel Prose masters Liu Yun, Yang I,10and Oh&ien Wei«?yen, all of whom died prior to 1 0 5 0®0u«#yang soon surpassed his mentors, such as Yin Chu, and carried the ku*wen movement to new heights of success,

9® Ohung#kuo wem^hs@eh shih (Peking, 1 9 6 2),II, 5 6 2®

10* Locke, part 2, ppi 72*74*

!

24until it finally effectively supplanted Parallel Prose in the latter half of the eleventh century as the accepted medium of prose expression^

Traditional Poetry

During the T’®ang dynasty the dominant literaryform was shih or traditional poetryThe two mostcommonly practised types were l@#shih and chieh^chffIRegulated Verse, or Ifleshih, consists of eight five™or seven^syllable lines following a prescribed rhymescheme and tonal pattern in which the four middle lines

,11form two antithetical couplets^ Ghiehyehl also containslines of five or seven syllables but is limited to afour^line stanza, or quatrain«> “Metrically, a Quatraincorresponds to half of an eight4>line poem in RegulatedVerse, but it must be emphasized that each Quatrain is aself-contained piece of writing and in no sense a

"12 -

truncated poem I ** Many of the rules for M4»shih also•'apply to chl!eh«,chi „

The peak in popularity and excellence of thisstyle of poetry was attained in the eighth century with <

poets such as Li Po (7014762) and Tu Fu (7 1 2^7 7 0 )6 In

11o James Liu, pi 26®12& Ibidj, pi 2 9i

25the ninth century poets such as Li Shang®yin (8 1 3 8 5 8)began to develop an esoteric style which laid heavy

.13emphasis on diction and the use of allusions 6 Tradi®tional poetry could riot, however, retain the quality and excellence which distinguished it during the T®ang

■ 1dynastyWith the beginning of the Sung dynasty, thetendency among poets to form schools modeled on someT3ang master manifested itself^ The Hsi«k3um school,which was the first to appear, selected Li Shang®yinas its modelt The members of the Hsi®k?un schoolcontinued and intensified the practices of the lateT8ang and Five Dynasties (907^960) periods4 1 The leaderswere Yang I and Liu Tun whose poems.are blemished bypreciosity and over«?refinement4 They tended also to useelaborate allusions and stereotyped themes * Anotherimportant representative of the school was Ch8ien Wei®

15yen 4

Han Yl$s influence is evident not only in Ou»yang8s promotion of Confucianism and ku«wen but in his traditional poetry as well6 There are extant more than 8 5© traditional

134 A*e* Graham, Poems of the Late T8ang (Baltimore, 1 9 6 5), pp2 19®314

14 James Hightower, Topics in Chinese Literature? Outlines and Bibliographies (Cambridge,Mass4, 1 9 6 5 )2 P6 84% .

15^ Chung#kuo Wen®hs#eh shih, p& 552%

style poems written by Ou^yang, whleM, like those of Han16

Yij, are often closely related stylistically to prosedBeeanse of his constant use of prose techniques in thecomposition of traditional style poems, they are nearly

,,17always clear and intelligible 6 Although he disliked the over«?refinement and obscurity of the Hsi®k9un style, he wished to preserve the basic form of poetry as estab® lished by the poets of the T8ang dynasty^ He sought, however, to endow this form with sufficient elasticity to allow for clarity of expression and naturalness of stylel This desire for clarity and simplicity produced in many of his poems a prosaic, quality which harmed their poetic effectiveness^ Literary critics are generally agreed that in the older poetic forms, Ou»yang did not achieve the excellence which characterises his prose and Lyric Meters2 There are some lyrical poems, however, in which he effectively communicates his impressions in

,19unadorned but beautiful languaged

16% Ibid-, p% 563617% Chung4kuo wen<#hs9eh favta shih (Taipei,

1964), II, 140%1 8 % Ch9ien Ghung»shu, Sung shih hstlan chu

(Peking, 1958), p% 27%19% Chungeskuo wen«hs#eh shih, pp% 563=564%

I

27The school was replaced by men staeh as

On«=yangs Mel Yao®ch8en<$l and Sm Shun«?ch1,ins all of whommodelled their poetry on that of Han and who shared

,2 0basically the same poetic principles 2 Their style ofwritingj, however^ died with the death of its founders <>Hences the importance of Ou«yang1s traditional poems tothe development of Chinese poetry is quite limited,although, his reaction against the decadence of earlySung poetry did much to help lay the groundwork for later21poets such as Wang An^shih and Su Shihu

Lyric Meters

The term tziu, which is translated here as LyricMeters, is used to denote a form of poetry characterizedby lines of unequal length, but with a fixed number ofsyllables per:line, and prescribed rhyme and tonalsequences2 Lyric Meters exist in a large number ofvariant modes or patterns 2 The title of each mode derivesfrom the period when music was an inherent element of theLyric Meter and may or may not be related to the text of

22any given poem2 . Such a succinct definition naturally

202 Chungeskuo wen«hs@eh fa«#ta shih, p2 1392212 CMien, p% 27222% James j 2y 2 Liu, p2 302

28requires some qualificationi There do exist several modes dating from the T°ang and Five-Dynasties periods with lines of equal length! AlsOj, the degree of adherence to rhyme and tonal sequences was dependent upon the stage of development of the genre! During its early, formative period, considerable liberty seems to have been taken by writers in the use of rhyme and tonal sequencesi Adherence to the fixed sequences of early modes by Sung dynastypoets was not unusual# It was later, however, that strict observance of rhyme schemes became common practice, although some liberty was still allowed with regard to tonal sequences!

Scholars disagree as to the date of origin of this genre I The earliest date advanced for its inception is the sixth century AZb! The HGhiang Man Hungw Meter by Mang Wu Ti (r% 502*549) Is often cited as the earliest example! That Lyric Meters were being produced among the masses by the early T$ang ppriod has been proven by the finds at Tun=huang! Although it is difficult to determine the precise date of origin of this type of poetry, it is clear that the Lyric Meter passed through several stages of development during the T 8ang dynasty

23! Glen Baxter, “Metrical Origins of the Tz8u,tt in Studies in Chinese Literature,-ed! John L! Bishop (Cambridge, Mass!, 1 9 6 5), pp! 1 8 0-1 8 7!

29until it crystallized into a definite art form sometime in

24the eighth and ninth centuries 2

Popular music played an important role in itsdevelopment s and during the 1%mg period many foreigntunes came into China I

Song words for such tunes could be supplied in three ways s a pre-existing poem could be adapted to a given tuBes a new poem could be written in a traditional form for the tune, or a new poem could be written directly for the tune and derive its form from the musical phrasing pecul­iar to that tune 1 The last alternative would produce the multitude of patterns characteristic of the tzjhay and was undoubtedly responsible for the examples of the form once established^But there is good evidence that poems in the strict ll-shih and chfeh-chl forms, especially the latter, were sung.to the foreign tunes

It is also likely that not only foreign tunes but indig­enous popular tunes were supplied with new words in a similar mannera

Lyric Meters are usually categorized according to length and designated as belonging to the short mode, generally consisting of less than sixty-three characters, or the long mode, consisting of more than sixty-two characters a The former category applies to the majority of the mid-Teang Meters, many of which also have lines of regular length and which are characterized by fresh­ness, clarity, and liveliness! During the latter half of

24a Chung-kuo wen-hsfeh shih, p! 5 2 7I

25a Hightower, pp! 90-91I

the ninth eentnryp the Lyric Meter gradually became morepopular among the literati and poets^ Consequently, it

<

lost some of the simple honesty and directness of ex*pression which had characterized it as a folk styleand now became more elegant and adornedI This stageof development is represented by the Hua*ehien school 26of writers®

The Hua*chlen chi is am anthology of Lyric Meters published in the Szechuan area in the mid®tenth century2 Of the poets represented in this collection. Wen T*ing* yun (caZ 859) is awarded pride of place, and his poems are generally regarded as representative of the Hua*chien school as a whole I Many describe the emotions of women living in a sophisticated and leisured milieu, and are characterized by an allusive and suggestive sensuality2 The difference between this style and that of the mid* T8ang is quite obvious®

A"poet of the Five Dynasties period whose Meters do not appear in the Hua»ehien chi but who is important in relation to Ou*yang Hsiu is Feng Yen*chi (903*980)6 He was prime minister at the Southern T8ang court and an accomplished writer of Lyric Meters, a considerable

26^ Chung*kuo wem*hs#eh shih, pp® 527*529 <6 27I Ibid®, pp% 530*531%

31mambep of which reflect the private activities of officials and often deal with women and love® Many also are

28profoundly expressive of deeply felt personal emotionsi

The most important writer of Lyric Meters fromthe Southern T&ang court was Li YS (937^978)s the lastruler of the kingdom^ He broadened the subject matterdealt with in Lyric Meters and composed some in a more

29colloquial language than had been used previously&

With the founding of the Sung dynasty in 9 6opthe rich and leisured atmosphere in which the LyricMeter had thrived at the courts of the small kingdomsceased to exists The founding emperor, T8ai Tsu (r& 960*9 7 5), reformed all phases of government and centralizedit to a degree never before realized^ Consequently, thelikes and interests of court officials carried con®siderable influence among the lower ranking officialsbThe acquaintance of Emperors Chen Tsung (r* 998*1022),Jen Tsung, and Shen Tsung with the tonal rules of Lyric

30Meters was a positive aid to its future development*

The Chinese language underwent certain changes between the T®aag and Sung dynasties which made it no

281 Ibid-, pi 5342 * >. 292 Ibid2, m l 537^5382

302 Chung*kuo wen*hsieh fa*ta shih, pp2 63*64»

32longer suitable for the unalterable rules of traditionalpoetry® Due partly to this faet> the traditional poeticforms suffered a decline in popularity following their

31flowering in the T*amg6 During the Sung, under theinfluence of a growing neo®Confueian atmosphere,' suchpoetry became increasingly didactic, devoid of feelingand sincere sentiment, and tended to become imitativerather than creativei It became increasingly difficultfor the poet to express personal sentiment and emotionin the traditional poetic forms and less encumbered formswere turned to, such as songs and the closely relatedLyric Meter% Lyric Meters were popular among enter*tainers and singing girls, as well as poets, throughoutthe Northern Sung dynasty (960*1126), and possessed avitality and flexibility no longer enjoyed by traditionalpoetry® Due in part to its association with the baserforms of entertainment, the Lyric Meter was ignored asa possible didactic medium, in favor of the traditional

.32poetic forms® This contrast in function between traditional poetry and the Lyric Meter led to a oorresv ponding difference in style and content, even in works

31I Hightower, pi 6jI32^ Chung-kuo wen*hslfeh fa<*»ta shih, pp% 65^661

33written by the same poet 6 This is especially noticeable

.33in the poetic works of Om^yang©Although Lyric Meters were becoming increasingly

literary and less associated with music throughout thenorthern Sung periodj, a large number still functionedas songs4 Many of Gueyang$is Meterss for example„ couldbe and probably were sungi The form was employed at thecourt j, at official banquets^ and as an expression ofsorrow upon parting with a friend © They were sung byentertainers and appeared in many of the popular prompt#

,34books of the time© Although this form was indulged inprivately by many scholars5 the public point of view wasthat the Lyric Meter was artistically demeaning and should

,35be held in contempt ©The style in the early Sung period remained

,36virtually unchanged from that of the Five Dynasties©Nearly all Lyric Meters were in the short mode* Although a few examples in excess of one hundred syllables appear in earlier collections from the T8ang and Five Dynasties periods j, the long mode was not of great importance to

33% Chung#kuo wen«hsieh shih* pi 5^6%341 Chungakuo wen#hsieh fa#ta shihj, ppl 64-65I 35% Ibid I pi 62.1361 Chung#kuo wen«hs#eh shihj pI 545I

these writersj, and even less examples of the longer modes„37appear among works of the early Sung poets* The content

of their Meters also followed in the tradition of theHua^chien school and the Southern T8ang style of poetry,the poets displaying little individuality among themselves^Consequently, many of the Meters from the early Sung andFive Dynasties periods have become hopelessly confused as

,38to authorship*

During the period of unification and centralis zation of government from 960 to the beginning of the eleventh century, many literary figures were engaged in the writing of the dynastic histories and the compilation of encyclopedias, such as the T8ai*p8img ylUlanj Due partly to this fact, very little poetry was produced in the Sung prior to 1100, and the few Lyric Meters written by Wang Y^?ch8emg (95^1001), Su I^ehien (9584996),: and others were mediocre in qualityi Through the first four decades of the eleventh century the empire enjoyed relative peace and prosperity, and men born during the early years of the dynasty now began to assume positions of leadership in government, as well as in literature and

37l Chung4kuo wen4hsieh fa=ta shih, pi 771 3&1 Ibid], p] 67t

35scholarship in general 2 Strictly speaking, this period

,39marks the genesis of Sung literary history@Fan Chung®yen was primarily a political figure

40and reformer, and only a few of his Meters are extant!nevertheless, he was one of the more accomplished poetsof the Sung, as. well as one of the earliest! He spentmuch of his time on the frontier, and his poems oftendeal with the separation theme and frontier life, dis<=playing considerable artistry and an expansion of subjectmatter! Due, however, to the small number which havesurvived, it is difficult to gauge his influence on the

.41development of this genre®

The Lyric Meters of Yen Chu (991#»1055) continued in the Southern T6ang tradition of Feng Yen*chi and Li YiZ They are primarily concerned with love and separationand reflect the peace, opulence, and prosperity enjoyedin the early years of the dynasty! They have shed some of the ornate elegance of the Hua^ehien school and resemble the poems of Feng Yen®ehi in their simplicity of language! The strong points of Yen*s Meters lie in

39% Ibid!, pp! 664-67!40! Chunglkuo wen^hsHeh shih, p! 57^24ie Ohung#kuo wea?hs#eh fa=ta shih, p! 68!

their sharply delineated imageryi Many* reflecting his relatively easy life at ecmrt* are somewhat insipid

;*3and lack profundity and sincerity of expression*In his prose and traditional poems* 0n*yang Hsita

appears as a stoical and dignified Gonfncian* but inhis Lyric Meters* he is unmasked as a living human beingwith feelings2

Only when we become intoxicated with that tender and attractive style of writing appearing in Ou«=»yang8s tz8u* do we become thoroughly acquainted with his personality and spirit* an extremely ardent and sensitive spirit| and we then realize the true worth and quality of his writings

The majority of his Meters appear in two collectionsentitled Liu?! tz8u and Tsui«wen oh8ln=ch8€ wai«p^ien*which differ considerably in content as a result of thehaphazard manner of anthologizing Lyric Meters during theSung dynastyi

Because Lyric Meters were not regarded as liter®ture in the eleventh century* those written by Ou«yangand collected under the title of 3Hing®shan chi were notincluded in the official collection of his works* en»titled 0h(l®8hih chil Ou=>yangBs complete works* includinghis Meters* were not brought together until the period

426 Chung«kuo wen^hsleh shlh* pp% 572®5T3i43. Chung®kuo wen hsfleh fa®ta shih* p% 712442 Hsileh Li®jo* Sung tz8u t8ung®lun (Taipei*

1958)* pp2 84®85 2

' 37from 1195 to 120©, more than a century after his death!It is quite possible, therefore, that many of his LyricMeters were mishandled and altered before the compilationof his complete works was begunI The extant Liu«i tz8ucollection was compiled by Mao Chin (1598^1659)2 Ittook its title from an earlier collection of Ou==yang8 sMeters and is based largely on the collection now entitledOhin?t 81 yflehafu which appears in his complete works iThe Liu«#i tzgu collection is comprised of 171 poems,whereas the Ssu^pu pei#yao edition of Chin#»t*i y#eh«#fucontains l8l selections! pearly all of the poemsoccurring in Liu<#i tz&u also appear in the latter collecttionI The Tsui«wen eh8in^ch8,B wai >p8ien collection wasthe result of an independent compilation made sometimeduring the Sung dynastye It includes 203 Meters, many ofwhich are found in the other collections, but it also

45contains a number of additional selections! It is through reading these additional Meters that one sees most clearly the vastly different style of Ou^yang8s Lyric Meters as opposed to that of his prose or traditional poetry! The total number attributable to Ou«?yang8s author­ship is uncertain but is probably in the vicinity of 24© Meterse

45! Jao Tsumg-i, Tz8u?chi k?ao (Hong Kong, 1 9 6 3), pp! 37*4©!t

The Meters translated belows with the exceptionof one found in Ts8ao4>t8ang shihyjHa appear in the Liu°i tzgu collection and consequentlys do not present assharp a contrast to ©u^yang^s traditional writings asdo the pieces in Tsul«wem ch8 in^ch8fl wai4>ptien • Somedifferences however, between the two styles remainsevident I The following fa, or prose^poem, entitled"The Sound of Autumn" and translated by MGi Graham isquoted as an illustration of Ou*?yang, the Gonfucian,as he appears in most of his prose and traditional poemsWhen compared to those poems translated below, thedissimilarity of the two styles becomes apparent e

One night when I was reading I heard a sound coming from the southwestZ I listened in alarm and said:

"Strange! At first it was a patter of'(drops, a rustle in the air| all at once it is hooves stampeding, breakers on a shorej it is as though huge waves were rising startled in the night, in a sudden downpour of wind and rain6 When it collides with something it clatters and clangs, gold and iron ring togetherj and then it is as though soldiers were advancing against an enemy, running s'wiftly with the gag between their teeth, and you hear no voiced command, only the tramping of men and horses!"

I said to the boy, "What is this"' sound? Go out and look!"

The boy returned and told me s "The moon and stars gleam white and pure,

the bright river is in the sky, nowhere is there any sound of mans the sound is over among the trees!" ' ■ ,"Alas, how sad 161 I answered 6 "This is the sound of autumn, why has it come? If you wish to know the signs which distinguish autumn, its colours are pale and mournful, mists dissolve and the clouds are gathered away; its face is clear

39and brights with the sky high overhead and a sun of crystal| its breath is harsh and raw, and pierces our flesh and bones j its mood is dreary and dismal, and the mountains and rivers lie desolate 2 Therefore the sound which dis= tinguishes it is keen and chill, and bursts out in shrieks and screams^ The rich, close grass teems vivid green, the thriving verdure of splendid trees delights usj then autumn sweeps the grass and its colour changes, touches the trees and their leaves drop6 The power by which it lays waste and scatters far and wide is the 4 unexpended fury of the breath of heaven and earth! For autumn is the minister of punishments, the dark Yin among the four seasons! It is also the symbol of arms, metal among the five elements!Hence it is said to be the breath of justice between Heaven and.Earth, and its eternal purpose is stern executiono By Heaven8s design for all things, spring gives birth, autumn ripens! That is why in music the note S-hang reigns over—the scale of the west, and Yi»tse is the piteh=>tube of the seventh month! Bhang means "grief,8 the grief of things which grow old! Yi means •destruction8! things which have passed their prime deserve to be killed!

“Alas| The plants and trees feel nothing, whirling and scattering when their time comes| but mankind has consciousness, the noblest of all intelligences I A hundred cares move his heart, a myriad tasks weary his bodyj the least motion within him is sure to make his spirit waver,: and how much more when he thinks of that which is beyond the reach of his endeavour, worries over that which his wisdom is powerless to alter|It is natural that his glossy crimson -changes to withered wood, that his ebony black is soon flecked with stars| What use is it for man, who is not of the substance of metal and stone, to wish to vie for glory with the grass and trees? But remembering who it is who commits this violence against us, why should we complain against the sound of autumn?”

The boy did not answer, had dropped his head and fallen asleep© I heard only the sound of the

insects chirping from the four walls, as though to make a chorus for my sighs 3 °

Because of the manner in which love is treatedin a number of Lyric Meters in Tsui«wen Gh*lm*oh*Q wai<?p 8ien3 many commentators have argued that these works arefalsely attributed to Ou«yang@ The ground on which theybased their claims is that Ou«yang# being the foremostConfuqian of his age, would never stoop to writing such

>7trivial and immoral poetry2 In reality, the same romantic emotions are expressed in each collection^ However, the poems in Liu^i tz9u are subtle in manner, whereas the others are more frank and straightforwarde Tseng Tsao (ca I 1147) argued against Ou-pyangs s authorship of the latter group of poems in his preface, to Y#eh«fuya^tz'%, and Lo Pi (ca I 1195) supported his claim: in a

:colophon to the same book@' In a preface to Liu^l tz8u, Lo ascribes the 8shallow8 selections to Liu Hui (caI 1090) The consensus now is that the Lyric Meters in both Liu«i tz8u and Tsui^wen ch8im^ch8# wai^p8ien were most

46% Oyril Birch,-Anthology of Chinese Literature (New York, 1 9 6 5), pp% 368=3696

4 7 % Hu Shih, Tz 8u hsUan (Shanghai, 1 9 2 8), p%J 60%48% Chungykuo wen=,hs#eh fa=ta shih, p% 71%49% Jao, p% 3 8%50% 0hung«kuo wen=hsi!eh fa=ta shih, p% 71%

41likely written by Ou*yang^ One supporting argument advancedIn favor of this view is that neo®Confucian philosophy hadnot yet permeated Chinese society during his lifetime4

Consequently^ the writing of such poetry would not have,51carried the opprobrium it later acquired« Also, men such

, as Fan Ohumg*yem, Ssu°?ma Kuang (1019^1086), and Wang An«shih were all more restrained when writing traditionalpoetry and expressed romantic feeling only in their LyricMeters4 It is reasonable, therefore, to expect thetraditional poetic forms to reflect Gu-yang^s publicpoint of view and the Lyric Meters to express his private

.,52 musingSe

His Meters are often concerned with love, drinking,or the passage of spring and closely resemble those ofYen Chu^ They often contain profoundly expressed sentiment,and the style, less ornate than that of the Hua*ehienschool, reveals a close relationship to the Meters of theFive Dynasties period* The influence of Feng Yen-»ehi : r

.,53is especially noticeable* The majority of Ou®yang$S Meters also resemble the poems of his predecessors in

51* Hu Shih, p* 60l521 Chung<»kuo wen<#hs@eh fa«#ta shih, p* 66*53e Ohung«#kuo wen^hsfeh shih, p* 545*

42.54

that they are written in the short mode? Consequently,many have become confused with the Meters of Yen Chu and

" ,55Feng Yen^ehi?His talents, however, were not limited to a

mastery of the style of the Five Dynasties period© Incomparing the two collections, Liu»i tz8u and Tsui^wench8in~ch 8ti wai«»prien, several dissimilarities becomeobvious^ The forMer collection is dominated by a serioustone, while the latter is lighter in mood! Moreover,the poems in Liu#! tz8u are couched in a more literarylanguage than is characteristic of the other collection©A still more important difference is that the twocollections reflect two distinct stages in the developmentof the Lyric Meter! The Meters of the Liu^i tz8ucollection represent a resurgence of the Southern Ti$angstyle, whereas the Tsui^wen ch8im^oh*M wai<#p*ien collectionreflects a new trend which was becoming popular in theNorthern Sung period! The use of longer modes and simplerdiction, characteristics of the poetry in the lattercollection, were soon to become common features of the

,56Lyric Meter? The shift toward simpler diction and

54! Ch®en Shou«yi, Chinese Literatures A Historical Introduction (New York, 1961), p! 393"!

55! Isleh, p! 8 5!5 6! Lu K®an^Ju and Feng Yuan^ehun, Chung^kuo

shih shih (Hong Kong, 1 9 6 1), III, 6 2 3!

less allusive language reflects the changing function ofthe Lyric Meter in the eleventh century6 It was thenless often employed to describe the cultured and ratherleisurely life of the upper classes, and more frequentlyused to express the sorrows and Joys of men and womenof the less educated lower classes who were caught upin the midst of a burgeoning urbanized1 society*

Culturally, the Sung period was one of the great ages of Chinese history^ The dynasty, which lasted from 960 to 1 2 7 9s faced powerful enemies abroad? the Liao, a Khitan state in the northeast| a Tangut state called Hsinhsia in the northwest| and later the Jurehen Tungus and MongolsI Militarily too weak to overpower these menacing neighbors, it was forced to buy peace with heavy tribute, at the same time maintaining costly border defenses in ease of duplicity% Internally this hard^bought peace was put to good use! The empire was ruled by a strong central government whose elaborate bureaucracy functioned, at least until the fiscal strain of national defense became intolerable, with considerable efficiency* Cities grew in size, trade flourished, and education, encouraged by the civil service examination system and spread through government schools and private academies, reached a larger number of people than ever before I Mew philosophical systems evolved, voluminous histories and encyclopedias were compiled, and painting and porcelain reached their highest level of development*

In comparison with the preceding centuries, the Sung period was also strikingly modern in character^ By Sung times the Chinese had gotten up off the floor and were sitting on chairs, contraptions that came in from the west with Buddhism and spread slowly throughout Chinese societyj they were reading printed books, drinking tea, carrying on at least part of their monetary transactions with paper money, and experimenting with explosive weapons I Many of them lived in large eities#*«the main Sung capital, K^ai^feng, was almost certainly the

44largest city In the world at that time#>#and traveled freely about the empire by boat, horse, carriage, or palanquin over an elaborate system of roads and waterways! In their way of life, their values, and their interests, the Sung people were in many respects far closer to modern Western man than our European ancestors of the same period

Such affluence gave rise to a level of luxuriance and extravagance never before attained in China I

City life in the Sung was free and luxurious!Cities were no longer conglomerations of walled villages dominated by the imperial palace or some other center of political authority!Amusement quarters, instead, were mow the centers of social life.! Here were to be found countless wine shops, tea shops, and restaurants specials izing in various types of cuisime««the ancestors of the Chinese restaurants which have become a ubiquitous element of our modern world civilization! There were houses featuring professional female entertainers comparable,to the geishas of a later period in Japan! Both these houses and restaurants frequently shaded off into brothels?There were also theaters, puppet shows, jugglers, storytellers, and other entertainments of all types to add to the color and interest of life in the amusement quarters!^#

It was in such an environment as this that the language of the Lyric Meter became simpler and more straightforward than it had been in the more refined atmosphere of the Five Dynasties period! This new quality is apparent in many Meters written by Chang Hsien (990*1078),

572 Burton Watson, Su Tumg«p&os Selections from a Sung Dynasty Poet (New.York, 1965)V pp! 3 42

58! Edwin 0 ! Reisehauer and John K! Fairbank.East Asiag The Great Tradition, I, in A History ofEast Asian Civilization, 2 volumes (Boston, 1980), I, 2240

especially those .written in the latter half of his life* and it became a dominant characteristic of the Lyric Meters of Lin Yung (ca*. 1045) I The preference for less allusive language led both poets to employ the long mode frequently& The subject matter dealt with in their Meters markedly reflects the difference between life in the Southern T#ang period and life in the eleventh century* From these poems the reader obtains a view of the splendor of city life during a period of peace and affluence* Elegant suggestiveness is now replaced by realistic and detaileddescription of the virtues* as well as evils* of urbanized

,59life*The precise position of Ou^yang in the historical

development of Lyric Meters is still unclear* Somecritics contend that he and Chang Hsien are links betweensuch poets as Yen Chu* on the one hand* and.Liu Yung* onthe other* Their argument is that although Ou^yangexhibits Southern T8ang characteristics in many of hispoems* he also often manifests the qualities whichcharacterize the very different poetry of Liu Yung and hissuccessors*

There are two phenomena * * * in the Tsui^wen ch8im?oh8# wai«?p*ien tz8u% collection of Ou^yang Hsiu which should be noteds one is his creations of and experimentSyvwith the long mode* and the

59* Chumg-kuo wen^hsleh fa<#ta shih* pp* 76^77*

other is his frequent use of the colloquial language and common expressions within his tzhu This became the most prominent characteristic of the tzBu of his near contemporary Liu Y u n g 60

©ther scholars mention only his importance as a writer ofthe Southern T8ang style of poetry and make no mention ofany other contributions by him toward the development ofLyric Metiers i

In their tz 8u Yen /Olm/ and ©u /#yang Hsiu/ reveal in detail the sentiments and the manner of living of the higher circles of society| their style is genial and beautiful«, corres* ponding to the position of that class of society, but their scope of expression is restricted and the form employed by them is the short m o d e 61

The critic quoted above places Chang Hsien and Liu Yungin direct contrast to Ou«?yang and Yen Chtu "In speaking

-3 q 4 rof form, content, or style, it is obvious that thetwo men, Chang /Esien/ and Liu /Yung/', were certainly thecentral agents in the transformation of the tz8u of their 62time I" Ou^yang, he goes on to say, should be regarded only as another exponent of the Southern T?ang tradition and set quite apart from Chang and Liu* Regardless of ©Ueyang8 s position in Lyric Meter development, his Meters are generally considered to be of a high quality and

6©2 Chung?kuo wen^hsleh shih, pi 5664

612 Chung«kuo wen?hs#eh fa«ta shih, p2 j6l 62I Ibid2, pi 77I

certainly entitle him to a prominent position in the field of poetry2

CHAPTER IV

SELECTED TRANSLATIONS AMD ANALYSES OP LYRIC METERS

While at Yinge>chous Ou«yang spent much of his time enjoying the scenery and comforts of nearby West Lake® In his admiration for West Lake he wrote ten Lyric Meters in the mode of "Gathering MnlberrieSg" in which the first line of each ends with the words “Hsi Hu hao" or "West.Lake is beautiful«” Three of these poems are translated below®

The first selection deals primarily with the external world and contains no direct expression of sentiment^

Gathering Mulberries I

Lotus flowers have blossomedj West^Lake is beautiful! Gome along and bring wine 6 Banners and pennants are unneeded^

Red*flower flags and canopies of green leaves surroundus!

The painted barge glides deeply amid the flowers whose Fragrance floats over my golden wine cup!Fine mist descends softly®

A strain, of piped music attends our drunken return!1

l! Oueyang HsiUg Chinyt8! yiehyfu in Ou«yang Wen?chung ch8uan«chig SPPY ed!s 131s 4b!

48

49The first stanza begins with a description of the

natural scene# wherein the images of the lotus flowers and of West Lake present the beauty of nature in all its color& The next line associates this objective# natural beauty .with human pleasure# and suggests that such beauty beactively enjoyed and not merely contemplated^ The firstline then concerns itself with nature# while the world of man is dealt with in the following line® These two worlds are imperceptibly blended in the third and fourth linesi Here# the banners# pennants# flags# and canopies all suggest the world of man# whereas red flower and green leaves suggest the world of nature and referparticularly to the lotus flowers of the first line2 Bymeans of juxtaposition and substitution of imagery# the poet has effectively blended the world of man with the world of nature and has thus prepared the reader for the second stanza# which deals largely with the human elemento

Of the images in the second stanza# only flowers and mist suggest nature rather than man2 Flower# however# is often a euphemism for girl2 Hence# even this image suggests humanityi The imagery of the first stanza also lacks the richness of the second stanza# wherein the painted barge# golden wine cup# and piped music all present a vivid picture of leisure and eleganeeU The

fine mistj, with !±ts suggestion of haziness or cloudinesss corresponds effectively to the poet8s beclouded state of mind as described in the last line of the Meter®

The poems then* begins with a line extolling the natural beauty of West Lake^ and through the effective use of imagerys the poet blends this world of mature with a world of humanity2 This line of thought is brought to a conclusion in the last limes which contains no nature imagery and is an expression of appreciation for music and drink6 Here5 the interest in the beauty of nature has been replaced by an interest in worldly pleasures*

The next selection also begins with an expression of appreciation for mature* but ends on a more melancholy note than the poem above*

Gathering Mulberries II

A springtime shower passes! West Lake is beautiful*> Myriad plants strive for elegance*

.* Amid confusion of butterflies amdplamorof bees*

The bright sun8 s fire^like warmth hastens budding . blossoms*Magnolia oars drive a painted barge far off in the

distance®I wonder* are we Immortals?Sunlight is mirrored in the waves*

As a steady breeze wafts pipes' and strings over the broad water

2* Ibid** pi 3b*

51The first stanza describes the external scene,

while the second stanza uses Images of the external world to describe symbolically an internal world of feelings and emotionsi The emotion being expressed by the poet is one of melancholy regarding his irrecoverable youthI This mood is occasioned by his observance of the spring*# time scene, reminding him of the great distance separating him from his youthi

In the first stanza the poet paints an external scene of fresh, vernal springtime® From the first two lines, the reader learns that the scene is near a lake, the time is spring, and the numerous plants have just been re«* freshed by rain2 The use of the word "strive" underscores the active, operative quality of the plants, while the butterflies and bees, not only enhance the natural beauty" of the scene, but also help to illustrate the life and activity associated with spring® In the fourth line the blossoms are beginning to bud because of the warm sun, and here again the poet has emphasized the operative quality of a natural object, in this case, the sun®

The human element is indirectly introduced into this springtime scene in the second stanza by means of the painted barge and its oars of magnolia I Here, as in the previous poem, the poet has. blended the world of nature with the world of man, not only by mentioning

man made oars fashioned from the wood of magnolia trees, but also by his description of the boat which recalls the aforementioned gaily painted springtime scene i The painted barge is so far off in the distance that it causes him to dreamily wonder if he and his companions are some sort of supernatural beings in another worldo . This dreamy mood is maintained in the following line by mentioning the reflection of the sunlight rather than the sunlight itself* The Second stanza leaves the im­pression that everything seen and heard by the poet exists in a world which he can only sense but not enter2 In the first line of the second stanza the painted barge, with all its connotations of youthful revelry, is far removed from the poet, and this sense of distance between the boat and the poet is sustained into the last line where the wind carries some strains of music to the poet8s ears from the boat2 However, this is as close as he comes to participating in the merriment on the boat I Taking the boat as a symbol for youthful activity, it becomes obvious that the poet is lamenting the fact that he is limited to the role of observer2 Thus, nature and the activity with

/which it is associated in the first stanza is contrasted to the poet and his passive role 2

The cause, in the above poem, of the poet being confined to the role of observer is the passage of time2

53This eoBcern with time appears also in the following selection^ Here again the poet begins with am external scene5 but now he clearly expresses his internal sentiment in the second stanza 2 The poem is an expression of sad® mess concerning the poet,8s loss of youthe This sadness is occasioned by his observance of the external setting!

Gathering Mulberries III

Myriad blossoms have lost their fragrances West Lake is beautiful!

Lingering red flowers lie hither and yon#*Meath the mist of flying catkins!

A willow# yielding to a constant wind# leans over the balustrade!

Pipes and song fade awayg the traveller takes his leave! Only then do I sense that spring has vanished!As I lower the easement screen# i

Paired swallows return through the fine raini^The first line tells of the beauty of West Lake

as it appears in late spring after the blossoms have fallen! Such imagery suggests melancholy which# however# is softened by the declaration that in spite of this loss the scenery is still beautiful! The image of late spring® time also suggests that the poet has passed the springtime of his life! The external scene is described more specif® ieally within the next two lines! The image of the lingering red flowers conveys a sense of loneliness and

3! Ibid!# p! 4a!

is a reminder that in a short time these blossoms too shall disappear2 The image of the flowers lying hither and yon underlines their transiencyZ The flying catkinss as opposed to the constancy and permanence of the wind, suggest acquiescence and transiency, while the image of mist enhances the melancholy nature of the scene 4 The suggestion of submissiveness is sustained into the fourth line where the wind, an image first introduced indirectly in the third line, bends the willow over the balustrade2 Here, the wind becomes a symbol for the permanence of natural forces in general 2

The wind imagery is carried into the second stanza by the mention of pipes 2 This provides a connection between the first and second stanzas, although the poet*s attention shifts from the natural to the human scene, as in the previous two poems i, This shift in attention is accompanied by a change in mood brought on by the cessation of the music and the departure of the traveller, both

Aacts suggesting quiet, lonely solitude A The beginning of the second stanza resembles the first line of the poem, since in both instances something pleasant has passed^In the first stanza West Lake remains beautiful in spite of this loss, and the remainder of the stanza describes this beauty, although in somewhat melancholy terms a The first line of the second stanza, however, ends in the same

!®0©„d of sadness with which it begins * This mood, then, continues through the following three lines* After having introduced the human element into the scene, the poet8s attention shifts easily to himself, and in the second line he begins to speak of the inner experience occasioned by his observance of the natural scene around him* The transiency of human life, and of the poet8s life in particular, is opposed to the certainty and constancy of the passage of spring and of time * Here, the poet is implicitly compared to the blossoms, catkins, and willow of the first stanza whose evanescence and submissiveness

Iwere opposed to the constancy of the wind * In the nextiline the poet rolls down the screen, thus shielding

himself from the external world and its, reminders of the disappearance of spring© The window screen thus becomes a self^imposed barrier between the poet and these reminders of his irretrievable youth* Paired swallows are a poetic symbol for the happiness of lovers who are together* The last line, then, underscores the poetes loneliness through contrast*

In the above poem, as in the preceding one, the poet begins with a description of the natural element in the external world* He then focuses attention on the human element and easily and naturally passes into the

56internal world of feelingsi The following poem also employsthis techniquei

Walking through the SedgeNear the post house a few plum blossoms linger I Bordering the stream, near a bridge, willows

are slender»Blowing over redolent grass, warm winds toss the

jogging reins6The distance between^us increases, parting6s sorrow

becomes infinite!He grows ever more distant, never stopping, like a

spring stream!By degrees I am overcome with feeling.Tears overflow on my powder!

Ascending a high tower at twilight I lean on a lofty balustrade®

On the rim of the grassy plain is a green mountain!Still farther, beyond the mountain, is the traveller!^

The speaker is a girl, and the first two lines provide a description of the external scene where the parting with her loved one takes place® The image of the post house immediately suggests travel, and the lingering plum blossoms indicate springtime! The melancholy suggested by the few remaining plum blossoms corresponds to the forlorn state of the speaker, while the delicacy associated with the image of plum blossoms further enhances the tenderness of the scene! The bridge and the willows are poetic symbols of parting! In the third lime, the loved one who has left is indirectly introduced! Warm wind is often associated with romantic love, and the

4! Ibid!, pp!. 6av6b!

association of this image with the rider and his horse re4»enforees the idea that the object of the speaker*s love is leaving her* This line associates the natural element with the human element^ preparing the reader for the expression of personal feeling in the next line! The speaker now moves from the external world to the world of her feelings and tells the reader of the sorrow of parting which is overwhelming heri This account of the internal world is continued in a more subtle mdnner in the fifth line with mention of the spring stream* a poetic symbol of melancholy and sorrow2 The description of the girl8s feelings is blended with the external scene of parting through the water image* which appears first, as a stream, in the second line^

The second stanza is a continuation of the emotional expression of the girl after her loved one has disappeared in the distance and the full impact of his parting is impressed upon her a Her act of ^ascending a high tower16 in the third line of the second stanza parallels his act of riding away in the third line of the first stanza, and in both cases the acts function as transition scenes^ In the first stanza, the transition Is .from nature description to emotional expression, but the order is reversed in the second stanza, giving the poem a circular structurei low, for a moment her eyes are attracted by the grassy plain.

and then eateh sight of the distant green mountain^ " These objects, however, only remind her of the distance between her and her loved one^ She then leans against the lofty balustrade of a high tower at dusk, which emphasizes her solitary and lonesome state® The thought of her being surrounded by a grassy plain underscores her hopeless situation by making her appear insignificanti This insignificance is enhanced by the implicit comparison of herself with the mountain standing opposite her across the plain® The image of the high tower is a poetic symbol for a ‘place of vigil where one awaits the return of his loved one! Thus, images of nature, by the use of symbolism and juxtaposition, are blended with images of separation and loneliness to give expression to feelings of melancholy and sadness^

The three stage progression from the world of external to internal sentiment mentioned above is evident in the following poem which also carries a suggestion of the contrast between the permanence of nature and the transiency of manss life2

Sand of the Washing Stream I

Arching the lake, the. red bridge echoes to the sound of painted chariot wheelsi

Clouds of springtime are immersed in placid spring water:

Jade green, porcelain smooth, clear and unsullied^

Floating gossamer threads blocking the road ensnare a drunken visitor*

As a bird8 s call from beyond the flowers beckons a traveller2The sun declining* departs once more I Of Would that spring could be detained25The first stanza sets the scene* and the first

thing to catch the poet8s eye is the lake 2 He then sees the bridge over the lake and hears the noise of chariot wheels rolling across the bridge@ Ifext* he tells of the calmness of the water which permits him to see the reflee® tions of clouds 2 The next line underscores the quiet serenity of the scene by likening the smoothness of the lake to porcelain^ The second and third lines contain several images of stillness and quiet* such as the placid spring water* the immersed clouds* and the clear* porcelain smooth lake 2 Such static visual images balance the clam# orous image of the resounding chariot wheels* and the effect of the images of stillness is increased by this contrast 2 ;

The mature imagery introduced in the first stanza is carried over into the second stanza with the image of the floating gossamer threads2 low* however* nature is more than merely an object of beauty2 This line is transitional* in that nature is still calm and serene* as in the first stanza* but also begins to function in a manner contrary

5l Ibid2* 133i 4a2

to the wishes of man2 The image of the drmmkem visitor introtitaees the human elements while the image of the beckoning bird suggests that matmre has a will of its own to which man must submiti Since the hearer of the call is a traveller, there is a strong suggestion that the call of the bird will indeed be obeyede, From. this inter? play between nature and man, it is a short step to the last line of the poem, wherein the conflict between nature and man8s desires moves from the external world to the world of inner experience i Here, the poet % observation of the setting sun reminds him of, tfce passing of spring, a symbol of youth, and of his inability to halt theprogression of time* The idea of leaving, suggested by

, ■

the image of the traveller, continues into the last line with the image of the declining sun, thus tightening the unity of these two lines* The imagery in the first stanza, such as springtime clouds, and the jade green, porcelain smooth lake, is refined and elegant nature imagery, but with the introduction of the human element in the second stanza, the imagery takes on a corresponding sensuous and epicurean quality* This is suggested by the images of the drunken visitor, gossamer threads, and flowers, often a euphemism for girlso

The description of nature in the above selection is , on the whole, ob jective * The poet describes nature

- ' 61 as It appears and offers no editorial comment about It %In this respect It differs considerably from the following poem In which the poet8s nature description is accompanied by personal value Judgments^ Although this poem is not included in the traditional collections of Ou«yang®s Lyric Metersj, it is generally attributed to hinu

Altar of Sapphire Reminiscing on a Spring Lay

A year8s springtime events number only a few5 They are already past by more than halfe

Dense greenery and rich crimson blossoms: a trifling thing2

In a green willow courtyard.Curtained by warm breezes.

Is a manj mournful and melancholy^Buying flowers and drinking wine in Ch8ang«?an;

Can this approach the hillside plums and peaches of home?An availing east wind dries the visitor8s tears9

To reveal my thoughts is difficulty The spirit of dreams lacks reality^

I can do naught but return^This Meter again concerns a man lamenting his loss

of youth, but more important is his growing repulsion forcity life^ The poem differs from many of Ou®yang$s LyricMeters in that the external and internal worlds arescarcely distinguishedZ The poet, blends the two worldstogether by repeatedly using Imagery of the externalworld to express his feelings^ This union is re»enforcedby the comments which qualify his scenery description2

6 % Ts8ao«t8ang shih«yl, SPPY ed%, 2: 7a^

62Through the use of phrases such as “only a fews“ “a trifling things “ and “can this approachs11 the poet places certain emotional judgments on his natural scenesi

The first stanza opens with two lines which, through their symbolism and tone of expression, reveal the object of the poet8s state of mind* He is melancholy over the passing of spring, which he feels is slipping by too quickly, and he elaborates on this theme In the third line with specific references to nature* As before, springtime can be taken to mean youth, and the year becomes a symbol for the poet8s entire lifetime* At this point the poem seems to be a lament for the passing of spring and the corresponding approach of old age, but the third line ends with the surprising declaration that what has just been related iif only a trifling thing* Thisstatement is transitional in* that it links the somewhat

' ' i -generalized musings of the first three lines with the more specific and concrete external description in the following three lines, and signals a change in the poet8s interest 2 Now, nature and Ipss of youth are no longer his prime concern* Rather, lie uses nature imagery in the fourth and fifth lines for the secondary purpose of introducing the human element* The dismissal of spring8s

Ipassing as a trifling affair‘implies that he is about to relate something of relatively greater importance* In

63this fashionj, he effectively underlines the importance of the monrnfnl man# who then becomes the dominant subject of the poeme The green willow courtyard ^curtained by warm breezes® suggests a lush^ elegant5 and romantic atmosphere, a kind of surrounding often associated with pleasure and happiness* In this ease,.however, the opposite is true^ Thus, the last half of this stanza ends on a slight note of irony, just as does the first half2

The second stanza begins in the same manner as the first, combining external imagery with the poet6s reflections^ The imagery of the first line, such as purchased flowers and wine, connotes artificiality, which is in sharp contrast to the natural ^hillside plums and

V Ci ~peaches imagery in the second linev Flowers may also mean girls, but in either case the overt statement that the poet8s home is superior to the bustle of the city is re* enforced by the imagery* eh8ang#»an is used in the second stanza to suggest the activity of city life and probably does not refer specifically to that eity^ The association of girls and wine in the first line of the second stanza suggests incontinence, and coupled with the imagery of the last three lines of the first stanza, suggests that the man in the sixth line has been exposed to the luxuriance of city life^ The reason for his mournful state is clearly explained in the second line of the second stanza where he

relates that he has become saturated with city life and yearns for the simplicity and purity of life in the country* side2 The image of the east wind, in the third line, suggests travel and that of the visitor suggests transiency% This visitor is most probably the man mentioned in the last line of the first stanza, and may also be the poet himselfi The wind blowing on the visitor8s tears acts as an agent of resolution, and the poet now decides on a course of actionHence, the suggestion of travel, in the third line of the second stanza, is an indication that the poet is about to go somewhere and introduces the last three lines of the poem, wherein the poet does, in fact, decide to leave for home* The poet concludes that he can gain no solace for his melancholy from such insubstantial things as relating his feelings to others or dreaming^He rejects these two possible courses of action and reduces by two the number of alternatives he can selects In this manner he imparts added emphasis to the final decision to return home 2

.The influence of nature as an inspirational agent is evident in the above selection but becomes even more obvious in the following poem, in which the poet expresses his sentiments on the eve of his departure^ This poem

65differs from the others represented here,, in the nearly exclusive attention given to the poet6s. internal sentimentso

Jade Tower in SpringtimeFacing the wine glass, I resolve to speak of the day

I®11 return.But words come not|tspringss countenance provokes

melancholy sobs%The life of man is naturally thus plagued with ' sentiment,But these feelings of remorse matter not to the wind

and moonIAs evening passes the parting song gains a new refrain5Slowly the music touches my heartsNow I must inspect all the peonies|Only then can I readily depart with the spring wind2‘

At first the poet intends to speak of pleasant subjects in order to rid himself of the sadness of departure, but his resolution is thwarted by the sight of spring, reminding him of the contrast between his melancholy and the brightness and gaiety all around hinu In the third line he laments the fact.that man®s life, especially his own, is concerned with sentimenti He then vents his anger, in the fourth line, on the unfeeling objects of nature, such as the wind, suggesting freedom and independence, and the moon, suggesting passive aloofness® Such imagery underscores the contrast between man and impersonal nature^

As the evening progresses a new refrain is added to the parting song, and the poet becomes even more saddened

7® Oueyang, 132g 8a2

66by the singing2 The dominant images in the first and second lines of the second stanza are associated with singing, which suggests humanity rather than objective nature 2 Since this world of. humanity saddens the poet even more than did the countenance of spring, he comes to realize that mature can offer him solacei He then concludes that the peonies can give him the inspiration needed to make his departure2 The images of the peonies, bright and tender, and the spring wind, fresh and independent, contrast effectively with the melancholy tone of the two preceding lines, thereby pointing out the contrast between the world of man and the world of naturei The peonies may also symbolize girls, in which case the poem becomes a love lyric^

In examining the two stanzas, it is worth noting that within the first stanza the first two lines speak of the melancholy caused by the world of nature, while in the following two lines the poet becomes irritated with nature because of its effect on him and because of its lack of concern about his feelings^ Within the second stanza the first two lines speak of the melancholy caused by the world of humanity, but in the last two lines the poet realizes that nature, after all, is able to soften this mood of depression2 The last lines of both stanzas are related in that they employ the image of the wind2 In the

67second stanza 9. however, the poet is no longer estranged from the wind6 Also, in the first stanza the wind is associated with the moon, which exists in darkness and is a reflector of light bat not the source* In the second stanza, on the other hand, the association of the wind with the peonies, which are bright and colorful, further enhances the inspirational quality of nature as viewed by the poet I In the second line of the first stanza, spring is the cause of the poet*s melancholy, but in the last line of the poem, the spring wind aids in buoying his spirit^ The poem, then, is an account of the poet6s growing sense of alienation from nature and the subsequent reconciliation2

The above Meter carries a faint suggestion of the contrast between mature and man, an idea expressed more clearly in the following selection, which also deals with parting2 Although not as pronounced as in "Jade Tower in Springtime,M the inspirational quality of nature is"suggested in this poem2

Waves Washing the SandWith lifted glass I toast the east wind2

Now together, we linger a while 2 By weeping willows on royal roads #neath Loyamg6s

eastern wall.It was here in times gone by, hand in hand, we

Strolled among fragrant flowers 2

We meet5 and all too soon must part 6 Boundless Is my remorse^

This,year8s flowers are redder than last year8s &Alas I Though next year8s shall be even lovelier.

Who will share my delight?®The first stanza again describes the external

sceney. The east wind, often a symbol of love, adds meaning to the lingering, mentioned in the second line, by sug« gesting a reason for such hesitatingZ The willows in the third line function as a symbol of parting, and the image of the royal roads suggests travelZ Thus, the imagery and symbolism of the first three lines tell the reader that the poet is about to depart on a reluctant journey, taking him away from someone with whom he is romantically involvedZ In the third line the poet prepares for a shift from the present into the past, a change in tense which is occasioned by the surrounding scene reminding him of pleasant hours in the paste In the fourth line, as the transition is completed, the poet reminisces, and by associating this scene with pleasant past memories, in the last two lines of the stanza, he emphasizes his desire to remain hereZ Operating on another level the first lineof the poem expresses the poet8s love for springtime,

*since the east wind often symbolizes the season of springe In this case, spring refers to the season of the year as

8Z IbidZ, 133: 2aZ

well as to his past youth* and. the thought of springtime and youth leads him to thoughts of the past* which find expression in the last three lines of the stanzai Oonsid® ered from a different viewpoint* the person to whom the poem is addressed may be taken as a man* In this case* the object of the poet8s romantic interest* hinted at with the mention of the east wind* is not introduced until the last line of the first stanza with the mention of flowers* a symbol for women*

In the second stanza the poet6s attention shiftsfrom the external world to the internal scene of emotions\and feelings* and he reverts to use of the present tense in the first two lines* thus echoing the first stanza I In the first line of the second stanza* he states* for the first time explicitly* the subject of the poem* which is that of parting! In the first lines of the first stanza* he has contrasted the movement of the wind with his own hesitation* and in the second stanza the suddenness of parting is contrasted with the limitlessness of his remorse© The third line is* as in the first stanza* a transition linei Here the poet8s eye passes from the internal scene back to the world of nature! The sight of the flowers reminds him of the flowers of last year* and his attention shifts from the present to the past! He does not remain in the past* however* as in the first stanza but moves into

70the future in the fourth line I' After having made this transition from past to future5 he moves again from the external to the internal world and conjectures about his own future in the last line% The beauty of the flowers which increases with the years seems to operate on several levels of meaning^ It corresponds to the poet$s growing appreciation of- the one whom he must leave but is also connected with his love of springtime and youth which has already found expression in the first stanza® In this ease,, the increasing beauty of the flowers correspondsto the increase in value placed on each year which brings/one closer to the end of life i The flowers may also be regarded as women, as in the first stanza! Then the poem becomes a parting poem between two men in which the poet recalls former romantic experiences and then laments that his companion will not be with him next year! There exists throughout, a contrast between man and nature which is clearly brought out by the last three lines of the poem!In the first stanza this contrast is hinted at with the first two lines, in which travel and movement are suggested by the wind, but the poet prefers to linger a whilpI In the third and fourth lines of the second stanza, the predictable annual renewal of the beauty of the flowers contrasts to the irregularity and transiency of human life as expressed by the last line!

71The poem above begins in the external world as do

the majority of these selections, but differs from most of them by introducing the human element before the natural element^ The following Meter is also distinguished by this characteristic! It shows a concern for time, as does "Waves Washing the Sand,” but the poet*s treatment of it here is less melancholy!

Sand of the Washing Stream II

A traveller on the levee pursues a painted barge!Spring water laps at the bankg the sky hangs heavily

all around!Among green willows, beyond the tower, appears a swing!Laugh not. Sir, at the flower in my white hair!The Liu«yao rhythm quickens| pass the wine cup $round

again!In the life of man what can equal the drinking of wine?"

This poem begins as an expression of melancholy concerning the poet8s loss of youth, but the poet effec® tively tempers this melancholy with the carefree optimism expressed in the second stanza! The sight of the traveller pursuing a pleasure boat in the first line of the poem reminds the poet of his own youth when he too engaged in such sport! The first indication that all is not well with the poet occurs with his statement in the second line that "the sky hangs heavily all around!" This tells the reader

92 Ibid!, p! 4a!

that the poet is depressed, but the cause of depression is still obscurei In the third line he hints at the cause with the mention of a swing, something which is usually associated with women^ The fact that the swing is leamong green willows, beyond the tower” suggests that he is separated from women and romance by a considerable distance, temporally as well as spatiallyi This stanza, in addition to describing a rather lush, natural scene, subtly tells the reader through symbolism and imagery, that the poet is saddened by the loss of his youth»

The imagery of the first stanza is associated with the external world surrounding the poets It describes .that which the poet observes® The images are not closely associated with the poet but are rather distant from him, such as the traveler, spring water, green willows, the tower, and the swingI The images in the second stanza, , on the other hand, such as the flower, his white hair, and the wine cup from which he is drinking, are an integral part of his immediate situations This shift is appropriatesince he is no longer reflecting on his distant past ordescribing external happenings, but is giving vent to his personal feelings and emotionsi This expression of histhoughts is an answer to the melancholy brought on by hisobservations in the first stanza I In the second stanza the poet is more-straightforward than in the first, for he

immediately tells the reader that he is not ashamed of acting young although his hair has already turned whitet The imagery in this lines as well as in the following two liness is plainer than.that in the first stanza« Images such as painted bargef spring water, green willows, tower, and swing, which appear in the first stanza, suggest a richness and elegance appropriate to a mood of quiet melancholy2 The imagery in the second stanza, such as white hair and wine cup, is more ordinary and less elegant and is consistent with the mood of hearty and optimistic epicureanism expressed here^ This taste for pleasure and drink recalls the mood of the closing stanza of "Gathering Mulberries (l)!” The latter poem, however, is not as outspoken and boisterous as "Sand of the Washing Stream(H y,18

Such a transition from melancholy to optimism, as seen above, is evident in the following poem, but not to the same degreeo Both poems reveal a definite concern with time 6 The following Meter-is more autobiographical than the other selections and refers to a pavillion which 0u~yang built on the mountain Shu«kang while at Yang®ehou e

Marshalled in the CourtThe balustrade on Tranquil Mountain is shouldered by

a clear sky3 „Mountains rise through a misty void*

Before the pavillion, I planted weeping willows I Many a spring wind has blown since2

I was a learned prefectyAnd could dash off a thousand wordssOr drain countless wine eups^

Only youth can partake in jollity^ „(10Goblet in hand, I.view decaying age, approaching^The first two lines describe the external scene,

as seen by the poet after recalling it from his memory2 The description of the balustrade leaning out over the sky, and the mountains surrounded by a misty void, gives to this recollection'of the distant past an appropriately unreal quality, and the name given to the mountain, with its suggestion of serenity, contributes to this effect 2 In the third and fourth lines, the poet includes his own person in his description of the external scene2 The imagery of the third line becomes more concrete as the poet relates a specific act performed by him in the past, while the image of the willows gives to the line a faint melancholy due to the association of willows with partingi In this case, the parting has taken place on a temporal, as well as a spatial, plane, and the image of willows serves as a transition for the fourth line, which relates the past to the present 2 The use of the spring wind as a unit of measurement for time cleverly associates spring, and its suggestion of youth, with the past, thus giving the reader ' his first real indication of the central sentiment of the poem®

10% Ibid2, 131: 5a2

75In the second stanza the poet begins by speaking

of himself as he once appeared^ The somewhat pompoms self«evaluation counters the growing melancholy evident in the first stanzas as the imagery also undergoes a change I The dominant images in the first stanza, such as balustrade, mountains, misty void, pavillion, weeping willows, and spring wind, suggest a richness and elegance almost totally lacking in the last stanza I On the contrary, the first three lines of the second stanza contain imagessuch as prefect, words, and wine cupsi This difference

) ■

is appropriate to the different moods represented, and within these three lines the poet continues to speak of the external world, including himself1 However, in the fourth and fifth lines, he finally shifts his attention to the internal world and expresses the sentiment of a man of advanced years who, upon recalling to his mind an object from the past, is led on the road toward melancholy concerning his lost youths He rescues himself from this melancholy by drawing solace from his remembrance of the good times he has been able to enjoy when youngI The last two lines are again more melancholy but also display a tone of optimism which is expressed by the poet8s decision to meet old age with a wine glass in his hand^

CHAPTER V

COHCLHSIONS

Upon examining the ten poems translated above, it becomes evident that they usually begin by exploring the external scene of events and natural objects^ The poet8s observation of this external world generates a corresponding inner experienceZ Generally, he opens with a description of the external world and then progresses from the natural element to humanityZ From this point he advances one more step and explores the internal world of his own feelings* This three stage pattern is followed in all but two of the poems beginning in the external worldZ The two poems which introduce the human element before the natural element are MSand of the Washing Stream (II)” and "Waves Washing the Sand%" Nearly all of the poems opening in the external world are subjective in that they contain a clear expression of the poet8s own sentiments^ That is, they clearly explore the poet8s internal worldZ The only poem

f ‘ .

in which this is not entirely true is "Gathering Mulberries (l)," which is largely an exploration of the external scene! Here, any expression of the poet8s personal state of mind must be inferred from the imagery employed in describing this scene! In only two poems, "Altar of

76'

Sapphireand "Jade Tower in Springtime911 is the inner experience described first and followed by an account of the external world as viewed in the light of this experience The foregoing analyses of Ou^yang8 s Lyric Meters also reveal, the existence of a consistency between the inner experience and the external world, gained through the effective use of imagery and symbolism, which lends unity to each poem2

The analyses reveal Ou=»yang$s deep concern with such conventional themes as the passage of time and the contrast between man8s transient life and nature 2 Several poems display the attitude that nature is inspirational, another conventional theme% They are quite concerned with wine drinking and romance and, in this respect, differ markedly from most of his traditional poetry and prose, as a comparison with the prose«poem “The Sound of Autumn61

Lj,will indicateo These poems, although many are lively, romantic, and at times even sensuous, do not abound in detailed description^' The rather conventional imagery is generally allusive, suggestive, and refined* The suggestion of women, for instance, is implied through the mention of flowers or a swings Although the imagery is not startling or new, its manner of usage in most of the above selections allows it to be interpreted on several different levels of meaning, as has been shown, thus enriching the quality of each poemI ,

r

78Oia=?yang8 s Lyric Meterss as represented in the above

translations, disclose him as a talented poet with an interest in nature, time, and enjoyment of life2 Although the few poems selected for translation represent only a very small part of his total output, they reveal him to be much more than a reserved and aloof Gonfucian, as he is often pictured2 They illustrate the existence of considerable poetic talent within this multi-faceted man of the Sung dynasty2

\

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Bishop, John L , editor. Studies in Chinese Literature Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 19^5*(Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies. Vol. XXIJ)g & : a M * a sf at # . „„„g K.:Chung-hua Shu-chd, 19t>2 .

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80Hightower, James Topics in Chinese Literature:

Outlines and Bibliographies. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965., (Harvard- Yenching Institute Studies. V o l )

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& £ & . t W %% .Hong Kong: Wen-shih Ch'u-pan-she, 19^1J

^ 2 ^ , editor. & ^ 5 volumesjPeking: Chung-hua Shu-chtl, 1 9 6 5.

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