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Contents

Language

The Sentence

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

Pronouns

The Comma

Apostrophe – Possession

Similes and Metaphors

Personification

Paragraphs

First, Second and Third Person

Conjunctions

Dictionary Use (and Thesaurus)

Articles and Demonstratives

Persuasive Language

Antonyms and Synonyms

Alliteration, Assonance and Onomatopoeia

Homonyms, Homographs and Homophones

Prepositions

Contractions

Direct and Indirect Speech

Sentence Improvement

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The Sentence

A sentence is a group of words containing: ONE complete thought. A sentence should make complete sense. (Read it aloud)A sentence may make a statement, ask a question or give a command.A sentence must have:

A capital letter to begin. Punctuation to end: either a full stop ( . ), or a question mark ( ? ), or an

exclamation mark ( ! ). A verb (doing word) A subject

Example: The old house is at the top of the hill.

In this sentence the word ‘is’ is the verb. When we ask, who or what is? Our answer is the house, so ‘house’ is the subject of the sentence. We have a capital to begin and a full stop at the end. The sentence makes sense by itself, so it is a complete sentence.

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. It needs more information.Example:

sliding down the ropeThis group of words does not have a subject. We need more information so it is a sentence fragment.

Punctuating the sentencePunctuation marks are used to make the meaning of writing as clear as possible. There are a number of different punctuation marks that are used in various ways to form sentences.

Full stop ( . )Exclamation mark ( ! )

Question mark ( ? )Full StopsA full stop ends a sentence.

It tells the reader where there should be a longer pause to make sure the meaning is clear. It indicates when a writer has said all he or she wishes to on a particular point. A full stop is also used when the writer wants a good pause for something to sink in.

Question MarksA question mark is used at the end of a sentence that asks a question. When you read a sentence that ends with a question mark, your voice naturally inflects or goes higher to indicate that a question is being asked. Example: Are you feeling ill?

Exclamation MarksAn exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence when you want to emphasise a feeling to the reader. It usually involves urgency, pain, sorrow, joy etc. It involves strong emotion. Example: What nonsense! Look out! How stupid! Stop that now!

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Sentence Fragments - Write a complete sentence from these sentence fragments.

When I left school________________________________________________________

As I looked up___________________________________________________________

Outside the house ________________________________________________________

Sentence Punctuation - Punctuate these sentences. i am going to canberra on tuesday

_______________________________________________________________________

is justin going to newport beach today

_______________________________________________________________________

stop the noise, now

_______________________________________________________________________

what is the time, please

_______________________________________________________________________

last september i visited the blue mountains

_______________________________________________________________________

on friday i visited dr smith at hornsby hospital

_______________________________________________________________________

help me please i’m drowning

_______________________________________________________________________

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Nouns

Nouns are ‘naming words’.Often we say a noun is the name of a person, place or thing.

Another way of defining a noun is to say they are words that name:

People – Places – Qualities – Objects - Things

There are four types of nouns: 1.Common 2.Proper 3.Collective 4.Abstract

1. Common nouns

Common nouns are words for things, places or objects. Example 1: Daniel is a boy who likes sport.You can see the words ‘boy’ and ‘sport’ are common nouns. They are non-specific words. Example 2: I could hear the bark of the dog above the noise of the wind.The words ‘bark’, ‘dog’, ‘noise’, and ‘wind’ are all common nouns. If a word has either the words ‘a’, ‘an’ or ‘the’ before it, it is usually a common noun.

2. Proper Nouns

There are many different Proper Nouns. They begin with a capital letter.Names of people – John BrownPeople’s titles – Doctor BrownFamily names - Uncle JohnTowns – CoomaCities - LondonStates or Counties or Provinces – Victoria, Kent, Quebec. Countries – FranceMountains – Mount Everest Rivers – Murray RiverStreets/Roads/Avenues/Highways etc – Grieve StreetSuburbs – Gosford

Special places – Niagara FallsPets names – FidoDays of the week – MondayMonths of the year – JanuarySpecial days – ChristmasNames of companies – ColesNames of churches – St Mary’s ChurchNames of schools – St Leo’s CollegeNames of religions – BuddhismReligious denominations – CatholicNationalities – AustralianLanguages – Japanese

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3. Collective Nouns

A collective noun is the name given to a number of persons, animals or things considered as a group or one entity. The persons, animals or things are similar or have something in common.

Examples of Collective NounPeople - A team of footballers, A crowd of spectators, A band of musiciansAnimals - A flock of sheep, A herd of cattle, A litter of puppies, A flock of birdsMiscellaneous - A bunch of grapes, A bouquet of flowers, A chain of mountains

4. Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns are the names given to ideas, feelings or qualities. They are things we cannot touch, hear, taste, smell or see. However, we can experience them – we can feel them in our hearts, or understand them in our minds. Abstract nouns name a quality, condition, action, feeling or a state of being.

Examples: I have an idea. I am in love. They have a fear of the dark. Her hunger drove her mad. His illness was caused by a virus.

The runner suffered exhaustion. We longed for peace. That painting shows great beauty. Obtaining wealth is not everything. We had fun at the disco.

Activities

Common Nouns – Find (circle) 20 common nouns in the following news report.

Students soaked up some local colour and left some behind when they visited the gardens recently.The students took part in a tree-planting session in the first weekend of winter. Their supervising teacher said the visit was part of Year 7 environmental program.“The students love to get outside the classroom and many of the students learn how to plant a young sapling and care for the bushland. They are also preparing a ‘green’ musical about tree fairies and loggers,” the teacher said.

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Proper Nouns and Punctuation – Correctly rewrite this passage.

my name is jane jones and i live at 27 lawn street, normanhurst my mother’s name is joan and my father’s is john i attend st leo’s catholic college at wahroonga with my sister janine i am thirteen years old and my birthday is next wednesday, 27th march when i will turn fourteen. i like playing netball and i am a member of the hornsby netball club next july i am going to visit paris in france where I will see the eiffel tower and the seine river_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract Nouns Circle the words that are Abstract nouns?

kindness, schoolbag, concern, thought, glass, container, truth, dream, vegetable, pleasure, computer, child, sad, anger, pride, generous, amuse, boldly, courage, disappointed, arrogance, compassion, film, teacher, deceit, enjoy, joy, obey, peace.

Read this character profile. Underline abstract nouns that show Juliet’s strengths and weaknesses.

Juliet’s love for Romeo showed an admirable strength and honesty. Her kindness was full of heart. However, she pursued her lover in secrecy and with haste. She did not tell her parents about her secret plot to marry Romeo and her rashness in seeking a priest to find a sleeping potion, combined with events beyond her control, turned her devotion into a disaster.

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Collective NounsResearch the collective nouns for the following:

Directors _________________________

Employees________________________

Singers___________________________

Actors___________________________

Soldiers__________________________

Jurors____________________________

Musicians________________________

Ants_____________________________

Wolves__________________________

Bees____________________________

Fish____________________________

Whales___________________________

Geese____________________________

Chickens_________________________

Stairs____________________________

Shoes____________________________

Books___________________________

Events___________________________

Golf clubs________________________

Ships____________________________

Bananas__________________________

Arrows___________________________

Taxis____________________________

Kangaroos________________________

Flowers__________________________

Trucks___________________________

Sheep____________________________

Puppies__________________________

People___________________________

Trees____________________________

Lions____________________________

Footballers________________________

Crows___________________________

Students__________________________

Spectators________________________

Grapes___________________________

Cattle____________________________

Mountains________________________

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Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes.Often adjectives are called describing words.

Adjectives are words that give us more information about nouns or pronouns. We say an adjective qualifies or modifies the word it describes. It can tell us ‘what kind’, ‘what colour’, or ‘how many’.

Hint – Firstly find the nouns in a sentence, and then look for other words that give you more information about them. Those words are adjectives.

‘What kind’ AdjectivesExample: It was a cloudy day.

In this sentence, the word ‘cloudy’ gives us more information about the noun ‘day’. It describes the noun. It tells us what kind of day. Therefore, cloudy is an adjective.

‘What colour’ AdjectivesExample: I am wearing a red shirt.

In this sentence, the word ‘red’ gives us more information about the noun ‘shirt’. It describes the noun. It tells us what colour the shirt is. Therefore, red is an adjective.

‘How many’ AdjectivesExample: There are three eggs in the nest.

In this sentence, the word ‘three’ gives us more information about the noun ‘eggs’. It describes the noun. It tells us how many eggs are in the nest. Therefore, three is an adjective.

Activities

Underline or circle the adjectives in the following passage.

Tourists travel to Kangaroo Island to see the impressive wildlife. It’s like visiting a huge natural zoo. Playful dolphins leap gracefully in front of the ferry as it pulls into the little harbour. A large colony of sea lions can be seen at Seal Bay. Many of the plump, lazy creatures lie on the broad expanse of the sandy beach. Sleek, grey shapes can also be seen surfing in the rolling waves.

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Construct interesting sentences by using adjectives formed from the following words.

Fame: Mel Gibson became a very famous actor after he left St Leo’s Catholic College where he had been a student. Circle: ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Beauty: ______________________________________________________________________________________________

Sympathy: ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Expense: _____________________________________________________________________________________________

Write a descriptive paragraph. Use adjectives where appropriate. Try to include: What Kind, What Colour and How Many adjectives. You may choose your own topic. (If you can’t think of a topic write on one of the following: beach scene, country scene, bushfire, rainforest, river, beautiful house)_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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We can vary the pictures we create by using different adjectives. A ‘thin’ man is different from a ‘burly’ man; a ‘sleek, affectionate cat’ is different from a ‘moulting, aloof cat’; an ‘energetic’ child is different from a ‘tired’ child or a ‘hungry’ child. When you change the adjective, you also change the impression you want to make about the person or thing which is being described.

All the adjectives have been removed from the extracts below.

In the first extract choose appropriate adjectives to give the impression that the house is bright and cheerful. The house at the end of the street looked very _____________________________ from the outside.

The _____________________ trim on the gutters and walls was very _______________________ .

The roof seemed _____________________ and _______________________ areas surrounding the

base of the house. Inside, the walls were a __________________ , ________________ colour, and

__________________ curtains framed the __________________ windows. __________________

rugs covered the _____________________ floors and _____________________ chairs filled every

room. Everywhere we looked _____________________ paintings and _____________________ _

photographs covered the walls. _____________________ ornaments sat on every ledge. The house

made us feel _____________________ .

In the second extract choose appropriate adjectives to give the impression that the house is dark and gloomy. The house at the end of the street looked very _____________________________ from the outside.

The _____________________ trim on the gutters and walls was very _______________________ .

The roof seemed _____________________ and _______________________ areas surrounding the

base of the house. Inside, the walls were a __________________ , ________________ colour, and

__________________ curtains framed the __________________ windows. __________________

rugs covered the _____________________ floors and _____________________ chairs filled every

room. Everywhere we looked _____________________ paintings and _____________________ _

photographs covered the walls. _____________________ ornaments sat on every ledge. The house

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made us feel _____________________

Verbs

A verb is the doing word in a sentence. Verbs require somebody or something to do an action. We can describe verbs as action or doing words.Most verbs describe physical or mental actions.

As well as an action, verbs can also express a state of being, or ownership within a sentence. Remember all sentences must have at least one verb!

Action VerbsSimple action verbs are words like:walk talk write laugh speak catchExamples:He ran down the street.I comb my hair.

I drive a car.Come here!

State of being verbsVerbs also tell us about a state of being. They are words like:is are am was were be been beingExamples:He is sick today.I am a girl.They are my friends.

John was late for class.Donna and Anne were late for class.

Ownership VerbsVerbs can also indicate ownership or show possession. They are words like:have had hasExamples:I have brown hair. She had a pet rabbit. He has new shoes.

ActivitiesSee how many action verbs you can make using only the letters below. Each verb must be three or more letters long. You may use each letter only once in a word.

LS

OE

IP

AK

GR

BM

VY

TC

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_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Underline the VERBS in the following sentences.

1. Kahl tripped over yesterday and hurt his leg.

2. Come with me to the beach.

3. I have a new puppy. His name is Jack.

4. Ben ran in three races and won them all.

5. The pelicans soared gracefully in the sky.

6. He is the strongest man in the world.

7. Alana and Rhiannan built that sand castle themselves.

8. Ryan is my best friend.

9. The tall tree swayed in the wind.

10. Correct grammar helps me to write easily.

Choose the correct verb from the list to complete each sentence.

gokeeps

struck flew

find travelled

arrive rode

come told

ran burst

see said

1. Jae _____________ his bike into town.

2. Grandpa ____________ Ruby a lovely bedtime story.

3. Bryce and Ryan ___________ their kites in the strong breeze.

4. Emily ______________ overseas on a big ocean liner.

5. Alana may ____________ many stories in her library book.

6. The lightning ____________ the tall tree during the storm and it

7. _____________ into flame.

8. Rhiannan ____________ three dogs and a rabbit as pets.

9. _____________ with me now, and ______________ the new baby.

10. Jae’s mother ___________ he could _____________ .

11. When will they _______________ ?

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12. Ruby and Emily ________________ down the road to the shops.Underline the seven forms of the verb ‘to be’ in the following paragraph.

Whoosh! It was not a normal human being but a smelly, grotty monster who said his name was Caliban and that he wanted to escape. He told me to be his god but he sounded drunk and was wobbling as he tried to shake my hand. As he came closer to me, his eyes were fierce and devilish. Ho shouted, “I will be free!” I replied, “I cannot be your god of deliverance.” Then he vanished and I awoke from a dream.

In each pair of sentences, the italicised word is used once as a noun and once as a verb. Underline the word when it is used as a verb.

1. I will ask the jeweller to value my necklace.This necklace is of great value.

2. You will anger your brother if you keep teasing him like that.I laughed at my brother’s anger.

3. The army will rebel if the popular vote is ignored.A rebel has been captured.

4. I’ll heat some soup.I hate this heat.

5. What a fool you are!Must you always fool around?

6. I felt pity for his embarrassment.I pity him.

7. I notice that you are late again.Please put this notice on the wall.

Write a paragraph describing a very active activity. It must have lots of ‘action’. Try to include action verbs and also ‘to be’ verbs and ‘ownership’ verbs. You might like to describe a game (example – football, netball), or surfing, shopping or performing. Any topic that has plenty of action. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________________________________

Adverbs

An adverb gives us more information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

An adverb can tell us: ‘how’ something happened.

or ‘when’ something happened

or ‘where’ something happened

1. How adverbsExample:

Gregory ran quickly.Firstly find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘ran’. Then ask ‘ran’ how, when or where? Gregory ran ‘quickly’ so quickly is the adverb in this sentence.

How adverbs are words like: quickly, happily, easily, softly, slowly. Notice they often end with the letters ‘ly’.

2. When adverbsExample:

We are coming now.Again find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘are coming’. Then ask ‘are coming’, how, when or where? We are coming ‘now’ so now is the adverb in this sentence.

When adverbs are words like: now, then, tomorrow, soon, always.

3. Where adverbsExample:

I have been waiting here for half an hour.Again find the verb. In this sentence it is ‘have been waiting’. Then ask ‘have been waiting’, how, when or where? I have been waiting ‘here’ so here is the adverb in this sentence.

Where adverbs are words like: here, there, upstairs, inside, everywhere.

Note: Sometimes adverbs add meaning to an adjective or another adverb.Examples:The music was too loud.She is very happy with the result.

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ActivitiesChange the adjectives into adverbs.

AdjectiveQuickHappyWise

WearyPretty

Horrible

Adverb________________________________________________________________________________________________

AdjectiveBraveFeeble

ImpulsiveEasySharp

Attentive

Adverb________________________________________________________________________________________________

Underline the adverbs in these sentences.1. Alphonse sang romantically to the girl next door.

2. I nearly fainted when he signed an autograph for me.

3. The champion played poorly in the game.

4. He fought bravely and lost.

5. Gently the girl placed her small hand in her father’s coat pocket, looking determinedly for her surprise present.

6. I practised sluggishly tonight.

7. The teacher smiled tensely while the class attended slowly to her instruction.

8. The driver nearly missed the right turn.

Some adverbs tell us how something happened, when something happened or where something happened. Note that not all adverbs end with the suffix ‘ly’. Underline the adverbs in the sentences and then write how, when or where after each sentence.

1. The whole team played beautifully. ___________________

2. I’m not feeling well. It must be something I ate. ____________________

3. Sometimes after school I go to a mate’s house. _____________________

4. Whenever I do this card trick, someone always comes along and ruins it. _______________

5. He reluctantly accepted the gift. ____________________

6. At lunchtime I usually hang around with my friends. ___________________

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7. There were people everywhere on the beach. _____________________

8. Put the groceries there, please. _____________________Change the adjectives into adverbs by adding ‘ly’. Take care with the spelling. Use your dictionary when uncertain.

Satisfactory ____________________

Believable _____________________

Beautiful ______________________

Necessary _____________________

Romantic ______________________

Simple ________________________

Primary _______________________

Helpful _______________________

Considerable __________________

Careful _______________________

Close ________________________

Explain what is happening when you add ‘ly’ to a word like ‘angry’. _____________________________________________________________

Explain what is happening when you add ‘ly’ to a word like ‘critical’. ____________________________________________________________

Explain what is happening when you add ‘ly’ to a word like ‘changeable’._________________________________________________________

Write a paragraph describing the ‘action’ taking place during an activity of your choice. Some ideas are: a game of football, cricket, netball, hockey etc, a race, surfing, shopping.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Pronouns

A pronoun is a word we use in place of a noun. A pronoun has the same function as a noun and can reduce unnecessary repetition.

Pronouns can be divided into three main groups:Personal Pronouns, Possessive Pronouns and Relative Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns ‘stand in for’ nouns referring to persons. Personal pronouns can be used as the subject of the verb. A personal pronoun can be used to replace a noun if the person or persons it refers to has/have been identified either in the same sentence or paragraph. Personal pronouns include: Iyou

heshe

itwe

theyme

himher

themus

Examples:My name is Janene. I have brown hair. Tony is a good swimmer. He won three races.Julie, are you going on holiday?

You and I are able to go to the movies tomorrow.

Reflexive PronounsReflexive pronouns are a particular type of personal pronoun. They include:myselfyourself

himselfherself

itselfourselves

yourselvesthemselves

Examples:I am going to treat myself to an ice-cream.He hurt himself.Jackie cooked dinner all by herself.

We decided to build the fence ourselves.They designed the new house themselves.

2. Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns show ownership or possession. They include:mine yours his hers its ours theirsExamples:

Greg’s hair is longer than mine. The red cards are yours, the green ones are theirs and the blue ones are ours. The new sports car is his. That fantastic blue bike is hers. The dodo bird is known for its inability to fly.

Note of caution!Sometimes the following words are called ‘possessive pronouns’ however they are really ‘possessive adjectives’ as they modify nouns.my – my book

your- your car

his – his hat

her – her glasses

its – its button

our – our house

their – their dog

Examples: It is my hat.

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3. Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns refer to a noun or pronoun used in another place in the same sentence, or sometimes, in a different sentence. They introduce clauses and relate them back to the noun to which they apply. They include: who, whose, whom, (relates to people) and which, that, whose (relates to animals, objects, things and abstract ideas). Examples:There is the man who owns the black dog.There is the man whose dog is black.There is the man to whom a black dog was given.There is the black dog which belongs to the man.

There is the black dog that is owned by the man.Note: When referring to people, always use ‘who’ or ‘whom’. Either pronoun ‘which’ or ‘that’ may be used. They are interchangeable.

ActivitiesChoose the correct personal pronoun (you may use them more than once) to fill each space from the following list:I You He She It We They Him Her Them Us Me

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1. Last week the girls decided __________ would go fishing.

2. Greg will win if __________ keeps in front.

3. Did I give it back to __________ ?

4. Elizabeth said __________ could help us.

5. I haven’t got a pen. I gave __________ back to Janet.

6. Where is Paul? I haven’t seen __________ since last week.

7. Thomas gave all his pencils to ___________ .

8. Are __________ coming to the social?

9. The boys said __________ would play football.

10. I gave it back to __________ .

11. Are you coming with __________?

12. __________ will be there later.

13. __________ am wearing my new clothes to school.

14. She gave the lollies to __________ .

15. Carmel will top the class if __________ works hard.

16. The dog is in the kennel. ___________ is not feeling well.

17. ___________ tore his shirt.

18. Her case had been unopened since __________ arrival.Write in the correct possessive pronouns or possessive adjectives. Note: Correct ‘person’ – 1st, 2nd or 3rd. Correct number – singular or plural. Correct gender – masculine or feminine.

1. That is __________ magazine. (1st person singular)

2. That surfer broke __________ board on the first wave. (3rd person masculine)

3. It’s always been a goal of __________ to win this series. (3rd person feminine)

4. Go to the website to register __________ opinion. (2nd person)

5. That camera is __________ . (3rd person feminine)

Write in the correct relative pronoun.

1. This is the horse __________ won the Melbourne Cup.

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2. My brother, with __________ I go to the football, always barracks for Parramatta.

3. The cattle, __________ pasture had been destroyed by the drought, were slowly starving.

4. The jacket, __________ I lost at hockey practice, was brand new.

5. She said the boy _________ had painted that mural was only eleven years old.

Something is wrong with these sentences. Rewrite them to make the meaning clear.

1. If you try to load that game on your computer, it will crash.

_________________________________________________

2. Jemima was best friends with Lisa until she changed schools.

_________________________________________________

3. Ali and David talked about his passion for fantasy novels.

_________________________________________________

4. Wei took his little cousins to the movies and bought them some plastic cartoon characters. They were really cool.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________

The CommaThe comma is used to indicate a short pause in a sentence to help make the meaning clear. It helps to make your writing make sense.

1. Letters When you open and close personal letters. These are sometimes called the salutation and the complementary close.Examples:

Dear Tran, Your friend, John

2. The Date When you are writing the date, particularly in personal letters and hand written correspondence, a comma can be placed between the day of the month and the year. It can also be placed between the month and the year when the day is written first.

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Examples:January 10th, 2006 10th January, 2006

3. Series of items A comma or commas should be used when separating three or more items.Example:

We saw seals, whales, sharks and dolphins at Sea World.

Note: We do not need to use a comma before ‘and’ for the last item.

4. Separating Place Names A comma is used to separate place names such as:

A suburb from a city – Allan lives in St Kilda, Melbourne.A suburb from a state – Hillary lives in St Lucia, Queensland.A city from a state – I live in Sydney, New South Wales.A city from a country – Anna lives in Galway, Ireland.A state from a country – We enjoyed our visit to California, USA.

5. Clauses and Phrases Clauses and phrases give added information to the sentence. Sometimes a comma separates one part of a sentence from another to make the meaning clearer.

Often there is a natural pause.Example:

Before we have dinner, we must try to finish unpacking the boxes.

Insertion into the sentence to give added or incidental information.Example:

John, who owns the red bike, is coming to the party.My only brother, Doug, is very tall for his age.

To avoid confusion. Without the comma the meaning may change.Example:

While Emma was washing, Neil was drying the dishes.6. Direct Speech (The actual words spoken)

We use commas in direct speech.Example 1:

“I am going home now,” said Dad.The words spoken by Dad were, “I am going home now,” – therefore they should be enclosed by quotation marks, and a comma is placed at the end of the actual words spoken, before adding said Dad.

Example 2:“I think I can do it,” said Dad, “but I will need some help.”

Note again the use of the comma at the end of the actual words spoken – after the word ‘it’. Note also the comma after the word ‘Dad’ as it separates who is talking from the next section of direct speech.

Example 3:David replied, “I am very well, thank you.”

In this example a comma is used to introduce direct speech.

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7. Some other uses of the comma:

Use a comma after introductory or connecting words that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Example:However , they were not late for the school bus.

Here are some words or phrases that can be used in this way:Yes No FurthermoreNevertheless

HoweverIn additionThereforeIn fact

Of courseLookNowWell

To mark off a person spoken to:Example:

“Ben, please come here.”

To separate adjectives and adverbs used together in a sentence:Examples:

Patricia was an intelligent, beautiful, blue-eyed, long-haired girl.She spoke clearly, concisely, effortlessly throughout the speech.

Used after a colon when specific items belonging to a group or theme are listed.Example:

Barbara was active in several sports: tennis, golf, squash, swimming and cycling.

ActivitiesPunctuate with commas to show the list of items in each sentence.

1. The hiker carefully checked her backpack for a water bottle jacket snack compass and map.2. The student dreamt about his holidays of sun swimming surfing sleep-ins and no homework.3. To make this stir-fry you need beef strips rice noodles mixed stir-fry vegetables roasted peanuts

and chilli jam.4. For the examination you will need writing paper pens and pencils a rubber a pencil sharpener a

compass and a calculator.

Punctuate with commas to separate non-essential information in these sentences.1. Smoking a dirty habit is prohibited in public buildings.2. The elderly man who was sitting down looked as if he had had a terrible fright.3. Sean Tan the author of The Arrival is a highly original artist.4. Brisbane the capital of Queensland is a vibrant and sophisticated city.

Punctuate the direct speech with commas.

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1. She called back to her friend “Thanks for playing today.”2. “Nicodemus come into my cave “ invited the hermit.3. “Can you cut up these onions “ Mum asked “and then fry them in a little butter?”

Insert commas where appropriate.1. I ate an apple a sandwich a cheese-stick and a pie for lunch.2. My brother Tom is older than me.3. The river is broad deep and fast flowing.4. We looked in the garden near the trees behind the shed and in the house but couldn’t find it.5. It is an old dilapidated broken-down vehicle.6. Our teacher Ms Mackenzie is not coming today.7. I missed the bus yesterday so I caught a train today.8. Ian is a bright happy carefree student.9. The locust a type of insect eats the foliage of trees.10. John chased the fox across the paddock over the channel into the den but he could not catch it.11. Jason had a bike a surfboard a skateboard and a tricycle.12. The novel Storm Boy was written by Colin Thele.13. I was going to play but I felt too ill.14. The workers loaded oats wheat barley rice and sorghum onto the ship.15. I saw our neighbour Mr Lim buy some eggs flour bacon milk and bread.16. Matthew who has just had his tenth birthday is showing me his present tonight.17. Mr Umble peered into a big murky weird bowl full of soft shimmering salty sea-green water.18. A small red jellyfish at the bottom of the bowl was moving here there and everywhere.19. “I don’t think I’ll go for a bike ride after all “ said Mandy.20. The teacher shouted “And make sure those assignments are on my desk in the morning.”21. I stopped in my tracks when I saw what was on the road in front of me but there was nothing for

it I had to pass it somehow.22. “You’re mistaken if you think I’ll let you stay up to watch that movie tonight “ said Mum.23. “I would like one ham and cheese one tomato and one salad sandwich please “ requested Bob.24. Even though Tariq had asked his parents not to watch his performance they had secretly bought

tickets.25. Michael Clarke who lives in Sydney is a great cricketer.

Apostrophe - Possession

The use of an apostrophe - ’ – in nouns indicates ownership or possession. It shows that something belongs to a person or a thing.

1. In the singular (one of something) the apostrophe of possession is shown by ’s:

Example:The boy’s bike fell over.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the bike?’ our answer is ‘the boy’. That is only one boy. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘boy’ and before the ‘s’. – boy’s

2. In the plural (more than one of something) and when the plural ends in s, es, or ies, the apostrophe is shown by s’:

Example:All the girls’ heads nodded in agreement.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the heads?’ our answer is ‘all the girls’. That is more than one girl. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘girls’ as it was all their heads that were nodding. – girls’

3. In the plural (more than one of something) when the plural does not end in ‘s’. Plural words like children or collective nouns like crowd.

Examples:The children’s toys were wrapped up for Christmas.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the toys?’ our answer is ‘the children’. That is all the children. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘children’ as the toys belonged to them. – children’s

The crowd’s cheering could be heard.

In this sentence if we ask, ‘Who owns the cheering?’ our answer is ‘the crowd’. That is the entire crowd. Therefore the apostrophe goes immediately after the word ‘crowd’ as the cheering belonged to them or was made by them. – crowd’s

Note: The apostrophe always comes after who owns something.

Activities

Insert the apostrophe of possession in the correct places in these sentences.

1. The childs clothes were lost in the house move.

2. Rosss money had disappeared from his account.

3. The mens jackets were no longer in the cloakroom.

4. We have to pass our principals house on the way to school.

5. The childrens bikes were left outside all night.

Rewrite these sentences in two ways: first with a singular noun as owner and then with a plural noun as owner.Example: The boys tents were soaked from the flooding.Answer 1: The boy’s tents were soaked from the flooding. (singular – The tents owned by one boy.)Answer 2: The boys’ tents were soaked from the flooding. (plural – The tents owned by a group of boys.)

The teachers notes were kept in the staffroom.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

The girls lunch wrappers littered the playground.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

What happened to the neighbours pets?

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

The ships sails were hoisted.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________

It is the students responsibility to wear the uniform correctly.

Answer 1:___________________________________________Answer 2:___________________________________________Rewrite this passage inserting the apostrophe for possession where appropriate in this description of a famous mansion in California once owned by a super-wealthy man called Randolph Hearst.

You must drive the winding roads five kilometres before you first glimpse Hearsts Castle. The multimillionaires outdoor pool was once a favourite recreation for Hollywoods movie stars who were invited to summer parties. As a generous host, Hearst provided almost everything, thus keeping the guests luggage to a minimum.__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Explain what is strange (unlikely) about this sentence.

‘The teams’ football was missing.’

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Give two examples of using the apostrophe of possession correctly. The first when one person(singular) owns something. The second when more than one person (plural) owns something. Eg books

1. ____________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

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Figurative Language - Similes and MetaphorsA writer may choose to express ideas in a simple and direct fashion. This is using language in its literal sense. However, figurative language employs techniques which enable the reader to visualise the richness of the writer’s thoughts. When used in writing similes and metaphors intensify the visual images created by the writer.

SimilesA simile is where we make an imaginative comparison between two completely different or unlike things. To form a simile we use the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ to compare two things. Some similes have become part of our everyday speech. Sometimes they become over-used, and are now what we call a clichés.Examples of similes that have become cliché

as black as night as cool as a cucumber as good as gold like a bat out of hell like a cat on a hot tin roof like a house on fire like water off a duck’s back

It is much better that you create your own similes. You can make your writing more meaningful and interesting by using your imagination. A simile easily conveys a difficult concept by showing a simple comparison.Examples:

Her hair was as soft as silk. Her moods are like a roller–coaster. The gases bubbled and whirled and erupted until the surface of the liquid appeared much

like a milk shake.The simile assists us to enhance and clarify an image created by our own imagination.

The angry politician’s speech sounded empty, like burnt out ashes rising from a roaring fire.

He smells like a swamp. The sun felt as hot as a furnace. This old car is as slow as a tortoise.

MetaphorA metaphor is also a comparison. However, it is a stronger comparison than a simile. Instead of saying one thing is “like” something else, it actually becomes that object. A characteristic that it is not literally true is assigned to a person or an object. It is more direct and powerful.Examples:

The boys, the wolves of the playground, sat in a circle gulping their cake.A metaphor vividly conveys an emphatic comparison, which powerfully denotes the writer’s concept.

The teacher’s red pen was a sword, slashing words and leaving a trail of blood across my assignment.

The massive, heavily laden ship ploughed through the turbulent waters. The mischievous boy was a little monkey when no one was watching. Gregory is a raging bull when he plays football.

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ActivitiesUse the most appropriate word to complete the similes.

Question 1a house lightning diamonds a leaf

His eyes sparkled like ____________Question 2a house lightning diamonds a leaf

Sara ran like _________________Question 3a house lightning diamonds a leaf

The gift was as big as _____________Question 4a house lightning diamonds a leaf

The frightened boy was shaking like ______Question 5lead peas bee mule

The twins are alike as two __________Question 6lead peas bee mule My brother can be as stubborn as a

__________about lending me his stereo.

Question 7 lead peas bee mule

The crate was as heavy as ___________Question 8lead peas bee mule

My mother has been as busy as a _______Question 9tomb tortoise sugar arrow

The ball went as straight as an ________Question 10tomb tortoise sugar arrow

These grapes are as sweet as _________Question 11

tomb tortoise sugar arrow

The room was like a _____________Question 12tomb tortoise sugar arrow

Our old car is as slow as a __________.

Question 13cucumber bone clockwork featherIt has not rained in outback Australia and the

ground is as dry as a _____________Question 14cucumber bone clockwork feather

This new coat is as light as a _________Question 15cucumber bone clockwork feather Although Tony was nervous before making the speech everyone said he looked as cool as a

_______________ when making it.

Question 16cucumber bone clockwork feather Everything at the concert ran as regular as

____________

What two things are being ‘compared’ in these metaphors?Question 17The lion has muscles of steel.

_______________________

Question 18Our car is a rocket, shooting along the freeway.

_______________________

Question 19The moon is a tarnished coin.

_______________________

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Question 20Fires are savage beasts, gobbling up the bush.

_______________________

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.Write similes to complete the following sentences. Try not to use ‘worn-out’ images.

1. The alien’s eyes were as _________________________ as _____________________________

2. The vampire’s eyes were as _____________________ as ______________________________

3. The disgusting food was like _____________________________________________________

4. The huge ogre roared like _______________________________________________________

Use the most appropriate words to complete the metaphors.1.

a mass of fur a white blanket a burning ball a piece of crystal

This revolting carpet is ______________________________________

2.a mass of fur a white blanket a burning ball a piece of crystal

To the lost explorers the sun is ________________providing despair but no guidance.

3.a mass of fur a white blanket a burning ball a piece of crystal After a night of blizzard and frigid temperatures the scene was transformed. The snow was

___________________________________to snuggle into and enjoy.

4.a mass of fur a white blanket a burning ball a piece of crystal The young child was enthralled with the beauty of the storm. She excitedly exclaimed, “The raindrop

is _________________________________________!”

5.a winding snake fluffy balls of wool a ferocious storm a waving child

The Nile River is ___________________________through much of Africa.

6.a winding snake fluffy balls of wool a ferocious storm a waving child

We lay down and looked to the sky. The clouds were _______________________ floating in a sea of blue.

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7.a winding snake fluffy balls of wool a ferocious storm a waving child While rock fishing knee deep in water we heard a noise behind us. A shark was

____________________________trying to desperately return to deep water.8.

a winding snake fluffy balls of wool a ferocious storm a waving child The sun was low in the sky and the sea breeze was gently cooling our sunburnt backs. A tree was

________________________ encouraging us to have one last swim for the day.

Complete the sentences below with a metaphor.

1. The principal was ____________________________ when furious.

2. The monster’s ears were ________________________________on the side of his head.

3. Dracula’s teeth were __________________________________as they sank into her neck.

Write a descriptive passage using both similes and metaphors. Try for at least three of each.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Figurative Language - Personification

Personification is a figure of speech in which animals, inanimate objects or abstract ideas are referred to as if they were persons (with human qualities). The use of personification enlivens the concept the writer presents to us.Examples:• Truth is a valued companion; she is always by your side and gives you strength.• The tree’s old bark slipped from her trunk as she discarded a gown no longer fashionable.• The sun strolled casually through the heavens.

Activities

Explain how personification is used in each of these sentences.

1. The wind has been in a rage all night.

_________________________________________________

2. The tree flings off its leafy clothes.

_________________________________________________

3. The creek chuckles and babbles merrily.

_________________________________________________

Poetry often uses personification. Explain its use in this extract from Keats’ ode ‘To Autumn’.

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun; Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Try and write some sentences using personification.

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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Paragraphs

Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need paragraphs. Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way.

A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph. The paragraphs have different functions, but all develop an idea - that is, they add information, explanation, examples and illustrations to the central theme or idea until the theme is fully developed.

This main idea of each paragraph is usually expressed somewhere in the paragraph by one sentence (the main or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round the main theme is supported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and examples), and by argument.

Use these methods to make your paragraphs more cohesive:

Make the topic sentence the one idea to control the whole paragraph. It should be developed in the rest of the paragraph.

The details should be relevant and presented in logical order and be arranged in a number of supporting or explanatory sentences.

Paragraphs should finish with a concluding sentence that summarises the main idea. A well written paragraph has a clear link with other paragraphs. Use connecting words – conjunctions. Repeat key words and use reference words (like this, it, these, etc.).

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph:• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph. • To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.

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• When your readers need a pause. Breaks in paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing to be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex. • When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Remember paragraphs should have:1. Topic Sentence2. Several explanatory and supporting sentences3. Concluding sentence

Note: To indicate a paragraph you can ‘leave a line’. In print, the first word of a paragraph is usually indented. Paragraphs can vary in length: a basic guideline is from 25 to 250 words, or 1 to 10 sentences.

Activities

Read this run-on text carefully and indicate where it needs to be divided into two paragraphs. Use ‘//’ mark to indicate. Also underline the ‘topic sentences’ for each paragraph.

Love or hate it, sport is a very popular pursuit in Australia. Millions of Australians compete in a huge variety of sports from football to aerobics. Others prefer just to be spectators so they can cheer on participants from the stands or on their television lounges. Michael Clark is one of the most popular Australian sports stars. He is a fine batsman in the Australian cricket team. We will enjoy watching him make many more runs for Australia as he is one of the best players in the world.

Write a paragraph about young people joining or being more involved in Anzac Day ceremonies. The topic sentence has been done for you however you need to write two or three supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. Don’t forget to use correct punctuation.

Topic Sentence: It makes sense that we should be allowed to get more involved in Anzac Day ceremonies as young people in schools find out about the reasons for having Anzac Day. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Read the example paragraph below. Identify, underline the following paragraph features: topic sentence (underline in blue), explanatory sentences (underline in red), concluding sentence (underline in pencil or black).

John Marsden is one of Australia’s most successful writers for teenagers. Marsden was born in Melbourne in 1950 and finished his schooling in New South Wales in 1968. After a string of jobs ranging from fruit picking to motorcycle courier, he completed teaching qualifications and taught English in secondary schools. So Much to Tell You was published in 1987 and won the CBC Australian Children’s Book of the Year in 1988. Marsden has written many controversial novels on contemporary issues affecting teenagers such as Letters From the Inside and Dear Miffy. He is renowned for his gripping Tomorrow series, which included Tomorrow When the War Began, The Dead of Night and The Third Day the Frost. Recently, he founded his own secondary school in country Victoria. Regardless of genre, Marsden has consistently entertained and challenged his readers.

There are five basic paragraph types. Each paragraph type provides the building block for different types of essays.

1. Descriptive paragraphs focus on character, setting or action, and incorporate descriptive techniques such as the use of adjectives, adverbs and figures of speech. These paragraphs appear most commonly in creative writing such as novels, short stories and poems, but also appear in advertisements.

2. Informative paragraphs describe and explain information on a particular topic, and incorporate facts and examples about the topic. These paragraphs appear in reference books such as encyclopaedias, dictionaries and non-fiction books.

3. Instructional paragraphs give information, explanations and actions about how to do, achieve or make something, and incorporate short command sentences, verbs such as ‘do’ and ‘use’ and, occasionally, lists in bullet points or numbered steps. These are found, for example, in cookbooks and ‘How to….’ Guides.

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4. Persuasive paragraphs present a point of view on a controversial issue. They incorporate a clear point of view, supporting arguments and, usually, persuasive techniques such as emotive language. These are often found in the Letters to the Editor and Opinion pages of newspapers.

5. Narrative (story) paragraphs tell or summarise a story – fiction or non-fiction – and incorporate clear structure and linking words to indicate a sequence of actions.

Activity

Use the facts below to write an Informative paragraph about sharks. Your paragraph must include a topic sentence, explanatory or supporting sentences in logical order and a concluding sentence. Carefully consider the organisation of the facts.

Fact list: grey, leathery skin with denticles (soft miniature teeth); 368 species; 5 to 7 gills behind head; rigid dorsal fin and tail; rows of teeth; acute sense of smell; types – whale shark (biggest – 15 metres), tiger shark, great white shark, hammerhead shark (most aggressive); fast swimming; live in tropical or subtropical waters; limited vision; scavenge and hunt for food.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Compose an orientation (introductory) paragraph for a narrative. Remember it should ‘set the scene’ of your story. It should create a visual picture of the setting, atmosphere and time of the story. Characters are introduced and sometimes clues are set in place for the coming complication.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

First, Second and Third Person

All forms of writing can be described as being written in the first, second or third person. This refers to the ‘voice’ of a piece of writing. A person is either:

Doing the speaking (First person) Being spoken to (Second person) Being spoken about (Third person)

First Person (Doing the speaking)Texts written in the first person use the personal pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. ‘I’ writing is personal. Also ‘we’ is often used collectively as well. First person writing is very immediate but can be more difficult than 3rd person writing as sometimes the writer can overdo direct speech.Examples:I attend Mass every Sunday. I go with my family and we always sit in the same pew.

Second Person (Being spoken to)Texts written in the second person use the personal pronoun ‘you’. This is both singular and plural. In second person writing the writer will talk directly to the reader using ‘you’ language. The second person is used extensively in advertising and also to provide information. It is very rarely used in narratives.Examples:You are going to regret your behaviour tonight. You have disgraced yourselves. You will be delighted with this product.

Third Person (Being spoken about)Third person writing uses the personal pronouns: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’ and ‘they’. The 3rd person is the most used. Reports are always in the 3rd person. Most narratives are written using the 3rd person. It is easier to use. The writer tells or recounts what happened but the writer is not part of the action.Examples:He decided to spoil his wife and book a holiday to the Gold Coast, where they could relax. John and Anne walked slowly into the house. They were feeling scared but also excited.

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Point of ViewIn a third person narrative the narrator may be omniscient (all seeing) and relate the entire story leaving the reader to make sense of what is happening. Alternatively the author may comment ot interpret as the story progresses. At times writers move the narrative voice from one character to another, so there are a number of points of view.Narratives can be told in the first person from the point of view of one of the characters involved in the action, making it become more intimate. Skilful writers help readers identify with the protagonist and follow his or her expeiences with interest.

Activities

1. Rewrite the following text in the first person.Samantha seriously regrets her decision to start ballet lessons. Her teacher is bossy, impatient and far too strict for her liking. She doesn’t like the other students and feels as though she doesn’t fit in. She thinks they are all significantly more talented than she is and laugh behind her back. She has been attending for a month, but it’s unlikely that she’ll continue for much longer.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. This letter is a dreadful mixture of the first, second and third person. Decide in which person the letter should be written and correct it where appropriate.

Dear Mrs Tabernacke,

We is (_____) writing to complain about the quality of education you are offering our son. They (______) carefully investigated all local primary schools and they (_____) decided The Whippersnapper School for Boys was the best option for their (______) son Pontius. The last few months, however, have made them (______) doubt the correctness of their (_______) choice. Twelve times, over the past three months, Pontius have (______) arrived home distraught and in tears because I (______) felt my (_______) needs was (______) not being met. On one occasion, Pontius explained, their (_______) teacher incorrectly admonished us (_______) for not sharing painting equipment. I

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(______) am (______) a bright and vivacious child who needs to be encouraged in my (_______) endeavours, but rather than enjoy my (_______) educational experience, I (______) am (______) constantly unhappy and frustrated.

You (______) trust that this letter will result in an increase in Pontius’ happiness. Otherwise you (______) will have to consider withdrawing him from our (_______) institution.

Yours sincerely,Mr and Mrs Pimpernel

ConjunctionsConjunctions are words that join words, phrases and clauses. They are commonly known as ‘joining words’.There are two main types of conjunctions:

1. Conjunctions that join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value.2. Conjunctions that join main clauses to dependent clauses.

1. Conjunctions that join similar parts of speech and clauses of equal value. and both but for therefore or either–or neither-norExamples:He received books and tools for his birthday.Sam is asleep but Emma is wide awake.I’ll go by plane or by ship.

It was raining therefore the roads were slippery.Neither Simone nor Kylie wants to go to the party.

2. Conjunctions that join main clauses to dependent clauses. Conjunctions of time

after before now since until till when whenever whileExamples:Make hay while the sun shines.After the door was open, the children stormed in.

I like to have a cup of coffee before I begin work.Since I met her, we have become friends.

. Conjunctions of place

where wherein wherever whenceExamples:That is the school where my mother went. The criminal must be found wherever he is

Conjunctions of cause or reasonas because lest since whereas whyExamples:The baby cried because she was hungry. As I missed the bus, I was late for school.

Conjunctions of concessionalthough even if however though whether while

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Examples:Although it was raining, we played outside. Just as I began to study, however, the phone rang.

Conjunctions of conditionas except if unlessExamples:Julian will not make his bed unless he is forced. Let me know if you wish to go to the performance.

Conjunctions of manner or degreeas as - as as – if as that as though how so as thatExample:The politician speaks as if she knows all about the problem.

Conjunctions of purposeIn order that Lest So that thatExample:I sent him a letter so that he would know about the delay.

Conjunctions of consequenceas so so that thatExample:He called loudly so that the searchers would find him.

Activities

Identify and underline all conjunctions in the following sentences.1. Mike is not tired, as he slept in.2. Would you prefer tea or coffee?3. If the train is on time, we should arrive before dark.4. The ship set sail before the tide had fully turned.5. He was not guilty, yet he was in gaol.6. Although John had not seen his cousin for twenty years, he recognised him at

once.7. We stayed outside until it became dark.8. Exhausted but elated, the mountain climbers reach the summit.9. My dog goes berserk whenever he hears a fire-engine.10.Unless you have made other plans, we will meet you tomorrow.

Using the conjunctions below, complete the following sentences. afteror

whereverbecause

althoughand

wheneveruntil

whensince

.1. Please buy some apples, oranges __________________ bananas from the market.2. __________________ John knew the way, he was made the leader.

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3. Do you walk _________________ ride to school?4. _________________ they were very tired, Mark and Tom refused to sleep.5. Would you turn off the lights _________________ you are ready to leave?6. Run for cover ________________ you hear the siren.7. _________________ conducting a successful experiment, the scientists published

their results in a major journal.8. You can choose whatever you like ________________ it is your birthday.9. The audience applauded __________________ the actors left the stage.10.He planted a rose bush _________________ the garden looked bare.

Using a variety of conjunctions write at least three paragraphs using a number of compound or complex sentences. You can include more than one conjunction in a sentence. The topic is free choice however ‘report’ on a recent activity is a suggestion. Examples: holiday, sporting event, family gathering, last weekend, last night, recent visit to a place of interest etc.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Dictionary Use

The dictionary is a most valuable tool. It can help you to understand the meaning of words. It can improve your vocabulary. Having a good vocabulary means you are able to express yourself well, both in writing and talking. It will also improve your understanding of what you read. The dictionary is in alphabetical order. You need to know your alphabet to use the dictionary quickly and efficiently.

The 26 LETTERS of the alphabet are: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Using the dictionaryThe dictionary begins with words that start with the letter ‘A’ and continues to the letter ‘Z’.Example:• arrow comes before bridge• homework comes before school

Words starting with the same letter are sorted by where the second letter appears in the alphabet. If the first two letters are the same the words are sorted by the third letter. If the first three letters are the same the words are sorted by the fourth letter and so on.Examples:• bake comes before bow• concrete comes before court• bachelor comes before back• internet comes before interval

Finding Words Begin by looking for words that begin with the same letter as the word you are looking for. Estimate where in the dictionary that word may be. If the word begins with the letter ‘m’ it would be about half way through the dictionary.At the top of each page in a dictionary are two words. These are called index or guide words. The word on the left shows the first word for that page. The word on the right shows the last word on that page.Example:go gobletThe word ‘go’ would be the first word on that page and the word ‘goblet’ would be the last word on that page.

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Information Dictionaries give a great deal of valuable information. For any given word (see below for examples) the dictionary supplies information about:

All variations in its spelling How to pronounce it – International Phonetic Alphabet – see below. Its grammatical function – Mention can be a noun and a verb, a transitive

verb or even an adjective if ‘able’ is added. Its part of speech – 1.n. (noun) 2. v.t. (verb transitive) The history of the word – [Old French from Latin mento-onis] What language it came from originally – [Latin – the root of mens mind] How it has developed – Old French from Latin How to form its plural Most importantly, what the word means (can be more than one meaning).

Thesaurus

The thesaurus is a reference for words and their meanings, ideas and uses. It can be a very valuable tool when writing. You can use it when you have a word or meaning already but you wish to improve the quality of your expression.Example: Fear – dread, terror, horror

You can use the thesaurus to find a synonym (word similar in meaning). Choose carefully the word or expression that is most appropriate to your requirements. Roget’s Thesaurus is well known. There are online thesauruses and others that can be a valuable reference and help you to write and speak effective and precise English

Activities

In the sentence below write down what you think ‘decimated’ means.

The army was decimated in the desert.

My meaning: ________________________________________________________________________________

Are you sure you know its meaning? Look up the meaning in your dictionary and check if your answer is correct.

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Dictionary meaning: ________________________________________________________________________________

Use a dictionary to find out the precise meanings of these words. You should then learn their meanings and use them in a sentence.

1. pugnacious: _________________________________________________________________________

Sentence: _______________________________________________________________________________

2. parsimonious: _________________________________________________________________________

Sentence: _______________________________________________________________________________

3. radical: _________________________________________________________________________

Sentence: _______________________________________________________________________________

4. conservative: ________________________________________________________________________

Sentence: _______________________________________________________________________________

5. honourable:________________________________________________________________

Sentence: ________________________________________________________________________________

6. formidable:________________________________________________________________

Sentence: ________________________________________________________________________________

7. personnel:_________________________________________________________________

Sentence: ________________________________________________________________________________

8. wrath:____________________________________________________________________

Sentence: ________________________________________________________________________________

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Articles and Demonstratives

Definite Article – ‘the’The definite article is expressed by using the word ‘the’. It comes before a noun which has already been referred to, or which is about to be identified in some way. We use ‘the’ when we are speaking of a particular one (singular) or ones (plural).Examples:Here is the book I was telling you about. The tree growing by the fence has a bird in it.

Indefinite Article – ‘a’ and ‘an’The indefinite article is expressed by using the words ‘a’ or ‘an’. These words refer to someone or something without specifically identifying the person or thing. Examples:There is a girl eating an apple. Can we buy a dog?

Note: We usually use ‘a’ before words beginning with a consonant sound: a book a house a man a cup Also use ‘a’ before words beginning with the letter ‘u’, when it sounded with a long vowel as in:a union a unit a unicorn a university Use ‘an’ before words beginning with a vowel sound – ‘a’, ‘e’, ‘i’, ‘o’ as in: an apple an egg an idea an orange Use ‘an’ before words beginning with the letter ‘u’ if they have a short ‘u’ vowel sound as in:an uncle an understanding an unusual an upward Use ‘an’ before words beginning with a silent ‘h’ as in: an hour an honest an heir

When nouns occur in an unspecified plural number, we do not use an article.

Demonstratives

Demonstratives are the words ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’. They are used to point out specific people or things, and can act as either adjectives or pronouns.

Examples:

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Those apples are very sweet. (Adjective)Is this bag yours? (Adjective)That is my place. (Pronoun)These are the flowers I planted. (Pronoun)

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Activities

Choose the correct article to use. (circle the correct answer)

1. (An, The) horse is in the stable.2. I ate (a, an) orange for lunch.3. We saw (a, an) elephant at the zoo.4. Put (an, the) box on the table.5. The rotting potatoes give off (a, an) smell.6. My father is (an, a) expert cook.7. I’ll be there in (an, a) instant.8. She made (a, an) official complaint.9. We saw (an, the) cattle at the sale-yard.10.She dropped all (an, the) eggs.11.(A, An) radish is a vegetable.12.Is this (a, an) general rule?13.(An, A) shop assistant carried my groceries14.(An, A) ostrich is a large bird.15.Tom is (a, an) incompetent batsman.16.Did you see (an, the) comet?

Use the following articles and demonstratives in sentences as indicated.

1. Use the definite article ‘the’ in a sentence.

_________________________________________________

2. Use the indefinite article ‘a’ in a sentence._________________________________________________

3. Use the indefinite article ‘an’ in a sentence._________________________________________________

4. Use the demonstrative ‘this’ as an adjective in a sentence._________________________________________________

5. Use the demonstrative ‘this’ as a pronoun in a sentence._________________________________________________

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Persuasive LanguageAlmost without being aware of it, we are bombarded with persuasion every day. You cannot watch television, listen to the radio or read a magazine without advertisements. Advertisements are trying to get you to choose a particular product or service. In fact, you can’t drive down the road without seeing advertisements.

But there are other ways people use persuasion. Your friends at school may try to persuade you to join them in a game. Another student may try to persuade you that he or she is the best person to represent your class at the Student Representative Council. These people are trying to persuade you to think in a particular way. They are trying to influence your thinking.

Persuasive writing has some special features. It tries to attract the reader’s attention. It may use a mixture of logical and emotive language. It sounds convincing. (as if the writer is an expert!) It may contain a slogan and a concluding statement. It often appears to address the reader or listener in a personal way.

In written texts some features of persuasive language may be: Use of synonyms and antonyms to clearly make a point. Conjunctions create cohesion and express cause and effect and reasons for action, eg because,

therefore, so, however, similarly, mainly, etc Use of abstract nouns like happiness, fear, pride etc Use of some technical or scientific words to imply the writer is an expert. Action words like ‘jump’, saying words like ‘beg’, words that appeal to thinking or mental

features like ‘challenge’, words that have thinking or emotive features like ‘hope’, model words that imply urgency like ‘must’ and relating verbs are used like ‘it is vital’.

Emotive words are used. Eg ‘The overuse of our resources will destroy the land.’ Evaluative language using a voice of authority. Eg ‘It is most important that all people……’ Often use of group terms like ‘citizens’, ‘Australians’, ‘patriots’, etc Use of phrases that indicate a majority view or that support of others for the writers view. Generally, the text is written in the present tense but may change to past tense for recounted

events or historical evidence. It may be written in the future tense if predictions are being made. The beginning focus of clauses is changed from active to passive voice, eg We must recycle …

Recycling has been…; I am afraid…. Fear has been expressed that….. New information at the end of one sentence is often picked up as the focus of the following one. Use of figurative language, particularly similes and metaphors. Use of exaggeration (hyperbole) to make a point. Use of adjectives and adverbs to be descriptive and engaging. Words like woman and child are neutral words as no feelings arise about them. Other words

like burglar, hero, baby and fanatic have people respond by feeling angry, pleased, frightened or contemptuous.

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ActivitiesWrite a persuasive letter to a newspaper in which you express your point of view about an issue. Remember to use at least some of the features detailed on the previous page. You can choose your own topic. If you cannot think of a topic you can write either for or against action on global warming.__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

A Challenge!In the novel ‘Hitler’s Daughter’ you learn a little about the German dictator Adolf Hitler and his behaviour during the Second World War. Hitler was an evil man but he convinced many Germans to support him. He was very persuasive! Do some research and find out how he did this.__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________________________________

Antonyms and Synonyms

AntonymsAn antonym is a word or word group with a meaning opposite to that of another word or word group.Examples:hot – cold go away – come back smooth – roughAn antonym must be the same part of speech as its antonym, a noun, adjective, adverb or verb.Antonyms can be formed by:

1. a completely new word Examples:ancient – modern (adjectives)public – private (adjectives)

arrival – departure (noun)poverty – wealth (noun)

2. adding a prefix to the word Examples:agree – disagreeload – unload

accurate – inaccurateresponsible - irresponsible

3. changing the prefix of a word Examples:export – importascend – descend

increase – decreaseminimum – maximum

4. changing the suffix of the word Examples:harmful – harmlesslively – lifeless

employer – employeesensible - senseless

SynonymsA synonym is a word or word group with the same or similar meaning as another word or word group. Examples:want – desire go away – leave unusual – strange near - closeThe synonym must be the same part of speech as its synonym either a noun, adjective, adverb or verb.Examples:behaviour – conduct (noun)angry – irate (adjective)acquire – obtain (verb)certainly – surely (adverb)

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Note: A thesaurus can be a very valuable tool. Its use can provide your writing with that extra ‘punch’. You can use the thesaurus to find a synonym or antonym for most words or phrases. A good dictionary is also a valuable tool to find synonyms.

ActivitiesChoose a word from the list below and write it beside the synonym below. Use a dictionary or thesaurus if you need to do so.

fakeadvisesailorpersuade

wanderpeculiarbraveryfragment

swampmoistureobstinateshrine

immensedeceiveastonishfriendly

notify ______________

coax _______________

roam _______________

mariner _____________

tomb _______________

marsh ______________

strange _____________

cheat _______________

false _______________

dampness ___________

large _______________

valour ______________

scrap _______________

surprise _____________

stubborn _____________

cordial ______________

Write an antonym for each of the following words. There is more than one correct answer for each.

exit _______________

shorten ____________

genuine ___________

deceitful ___________

educated ___________

occupied ___________

polite _____________

accept _____________

prohibit ____________

purchase ___________

commence _________

foe _______________

modern ______________

private ______________

detest _______________

vomit _______________

Improve this text by writing one synonym for each word in italics. Check that your choice of synonym fits the meaning of the sentence.

I cannot wait to get a brand-new iPod for Christmas. I want one with the capacity for 1000 songs. Inside the iPod is a longer-lasting battery, so I will be able to play it whenever I’m not in class. I just hope Santa knows how desperately I need this gift.

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Alliteration, Assonance, OnomatopoeiaHow Language ‘Sounds’

When we ‘hear’ language we notice the sound it makes. Sounds are generated by the type of words used and the letters that are used. There are three figures of speech that are concerned with sound. They are: Alliteration, Assonance and Onomatopoeia.

AlliterationAlliteration is used when we write a series of words that begin with the same letter or the same sound. Most often it is the repeating of consonant sounds in word strings. They begin with the same letter or same sound.Tongue twisters are good examples of alliteration.• Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers• She sells sea shells on the seashore• Patience persistence perseverance paves the path to permanent prosperityAlliteration can be used in poetry, in slogans and jingles, in advertising to gain attention, to reinforce a thought or a feeling, to link related words, to suggest a mood or tone, or to add to a sense of design or pattern.Examples: The night breeze bathed the room and brought its soothing balm. The soldiers fired a volley of short, sharp shots.

AssonanceAssonance is the effect achieved by repeating the same or similar vowel sounds. It is a literary device used to create an effect of atmosphere as well as the picture the words convey.Example:boom – doom clean – dream drown – crown hall – wall ride – side sound - ground Read the following example aloud, and listen to the repetition of the short vowel sound “i” which creates the effect of speed and tension. Example: With deliberate intent and evil insight, Jim fixed the missile for maximum injury.

In the following example, listen to the repeated “er” sound which echoes the actual noise the girl heard.Example: The girl heard the early murmur of the earth as the first tremors began.

OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia occurs when the sound of the word actually echoes the sense or meaning of the word. It is possible to convey clear images of what is happening when using these types of words. You can use onomatopoeia words to intensify atmosphere and help to sustain imagery. The following are examples of words considered to be onomatopoeic: crackpuffbanggrunt

swishclapplopwhisper

purrgrowlsplashmurmur

hisstwitterbuzzwarble

swishingbashclankbeep

Onomatopoeia can be used quite effective in descriptive writing, narrative and poetry.Examples: The tinder–dry leaves crunched beneath my feet.

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The fur sizzled as the branding iron seared the cow’s hide.

Activities

Underline the alliteration in each of these poems. Remember that the repetition of the consonant sounds does not always have to come at the beginning of words.

From London Snow by Robert Bridges

When men were all asleep the snow came flying,In large white flakes falling on the city brown,Stealthily and perpetually settling and loosely lying,Hushing the latest traffic of the drowsy town.

From Spring by Gerard Manley Hopkins

Nothing is so beautiful as spring – When weeds, in wheels, shoot long and lovely and lush;Thrush’s eggs look little low heavens, and thrushThrough the echoing timber does so rinse and wringThe ear, it strikes like lightning to hear him sing.

Underline the assonance in each of these poems.

From The Lotos-Eaters by Alfred Lord Tennyson

All day the wind breathesLow with the mellower toneThrough every hollow caveAnd alley lone….

From Summer Full Moon by James Kirkup

The cloud tonightIs like a white Persian cat – It lies among the starsWith eyes almost shutLapping the milk from The moon’s brimming dish.

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Underline the onomatopoeia in this poem.

From Breakfast in Bed by William Rutherford

Click, clatter, bustling movement, scuff, crinkle,Wrestle, bang, tinkle,Enter aroma, sweet, sweet aroma.The rasping of toast being spread with butter, And the sweet smelling aroma,It started with a high note, singing down the scaleUntil the cup was full, then the aroma,My stomach juices move in anticipation,Water from the tapDrippingShe enters, softly, a gleam of light enters with her,She smiles at me and places the source of activity next to me,Music floats to my ears and oh, the sweet, sweet aroma.Quick sharp crackle of newspaper, and oh, the sweet, Sweet aroma.

1. Write a paragraph or a poem that includes at least two examples of Alliteration. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Write a paragraph or a poem that includes at least two examples of Assonance.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Write a short poem that includes at least two examples of Onomatopoeia.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Homonyms, Homographs and Homophones1. Homonyms

Homonyms are two or more words that have the same sound (pronunciation), the same spelling but different meanings. Example:

The general gave the order to retreat.In this sentence the word ‘order’ is used as a command.

The students were placed in order from shortest to tallest.In this sentence the word ‘order’ is used as an arrangement.

More Examples of Homonymsfinedear

kindtrip

barkbat

downexact

gravepeak

soundwave

2. Homophones Homophones are two or more words that have the same sound (pronunciation), but different spelling and different meanings.Example:

I have weak eyesight.In this sentence the word ‘weak’ means a lack of strength.

I will leave for London next week.In this sentence the word ‘week’ means a period of seven days.

More Examples of Homophonesair – heirbuy – by – byecereal – serial

bare – bearfeet – feathere – hear

know – nopair – pearrain – reign

road – rowed their – there to – two – too

vain – vein missed – mistson - sun

3. Homographs Homographs are two or more words that have different sounds (pronunciations), but the same spelling and different meanings.Example:

The wind was blowing from the south-east.In this sentence the word ‘wind’ means moving air.

The spring in the old wind-up clock was broken.In this sentence the word ‘wind’ means a form of coil.

More Examples of Homographsdesert abuse dingy accent

Word UsageHomonymsHomophonesHomographs

Same PronunciationYESYESNO

Same SpellingYESNOYES

Same MeaningNONONO

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Activities

Choose the correct word and write it in the space.

1. They tried to _____________ from the burning house. (flee, flea)

2. A rich ____________ of gold ran through the rock. (vain, vein)

3. It is unwise to ____________ in affairs of others. (medal, meddle)

4. My sister began to ______________ my hair. (braid, brayed)

5. The _____________ was left waiting in the hall. (guessed, guest)

6. I decided to _____________ the shirt a blue colour. (dye, die)

7. In autumn the ______________ of the maple trees is beautiful. (hew, hue)

8. I pulled the rope ______________ . (taught, taut)

9. Daniel was the ____________ student to get to the final from our school. (sole, soul)

10. Are you going to _____________ your golf swing today? (practise, practice)

11. We painted the ______________ of the house a white colour. (ceiling, sealing)

12. The sandpaper is extremely ______________ . (course, coarse)

13. The ______________ of water is in the refrigerator. (picture, pitcher)

14. The thunder and ____________ scared the baby animals. (lightning, lightening)

15. This old house has a ____________ to store wine. (seller, cellar)

16. Which ____________ are you going to follow when you go to Sydney? (route, root)

17. The ____________ was too difficult for the student to calculate. (sum, some)

18. Annie did not ____________ when her mother called. (hear, here)

19. The ____________ prayed in the chapel. (nun, none)

20. I ate a ___________ for lunch. (pare, pear)

21. How can you ____________ that loud music? (bear, bare)

22. Remember to __________ your _________ before boarding the train. (by, buy, bye) (fare, fair)

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Use each of these words twice in different sentences showing the different meanings.

Post

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Vault

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Seal

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Prune

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Bay

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Palm

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Pupil

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

Stern

1. ______________________________________________2. _____________________________________________________________________________

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Write sentences using ‘there, their, they’re’ correctly.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Write sentences using ‘to, two, too’ correctly.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Write sentences using ‘hear, here’ correctly.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Write sentences using ‘pair, pare, pear’ correctly.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Write sentences using ‘sum, some’ correctly.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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PrepositionsA preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relationship to some other word in the sentence. It introduces a phrase. Put another way a preposition begins an adverbial phrase or an adjectival phrase (indicating: time, place, manner, causality).Using the common noun ‘house’ as an example:

in the house near the house under the house against the house

The words ‘in’, ‘near’, ‘under’ and ‘against’ are all prepositions showing a relationship of something with the house.

Here are some example sentences showing prepositions beginning phrases: The children splashed in the puddles . Heavy rain beat against the window . We drove along the highway . He talked to the teacher about the test . They ran across the road , under the bridge and onto the beach . The boy on the bicycle gazed at the children on the tandem . She went into the schoolyard early in the morning .

Examples of common prepositions are listed below.inonatbytoupofoffforoutintowithupondownontonearfrom

overunderamongaboutbeforebelowafterabovealongduringinsideacrossbesideoutsideagainstwithouttowards

amongstthroughbetweenamidaroundbehindbeneathbeyondexceptroundsincetillunderneathuntilwithinwithout

Activities

Underline all the prepositions you can find in the following sentences.1. John walked under the bridge that is near our house.2. We ran briskly across the hot sand towards the ocean.3. Without any thought for his safety the lifesaver dived into the raging sea.4. The car rolled slowly down the hill.5. Samantha placed the ladder under the landing and then scrambled onto it.6. Jeffrey strolled along the beach until he stopped beside the surf club.7. We excitedly moved inside the theatre.8. The teacher said he wished to speak to me about my homework.9. The class was noisy and running around the room during the lesson.10.Against my wishes John had taken my CD with him.

Insert the appropriate preposition.in, under, before, during, along, on, amongst, onto, against, across.

1. “Please do your homework ________________ watching TV,” Mum insisted.

2. I looked ____________ my bed, ____________ the table, ____________ the cupboard, and still didn’t find my watch ______________ the mess.

3. It must have been _________ the game that young Steven ran ________ the road.

4. I pushed ___________ the rubbish bin to move it ____________ the lawn.

5. Simon and Kylie walked hand in hand ___________ the path.

Give directions, using prepositions, to explain how to travel from either your house to school, or your house to the closest shops. Make sure your directions are accurate and complete.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Contractions

When we are speaking or writing, we often use contractions. Contractions are formed when we shorten two words into one. Using contractions is fine in day to day conversation. It is also correct to use them when using direct speech in our writing or in informal writing. However we should try to avoid using them in formal writing. To form a contraction we leave out one or more letters of the second word, and replace it/them with an apostrophe ( ’ ).

To form contractions of words using the word ‘have’. The contracted form is ( ’ve ).Examples:I have - I’vethey have – they’veyou have – you’vewe have – we’ve

might have – might’vewould have – would’vecould have – could’veshould have – should’ve

To form contractions of words using the word ‘will’. The contracted form is ( ’ll ).Examples:I will – I’llwe will – we’ll

he will – he’llshe will – she’ll

they will – they’llyou will – you’ll

To form contractions of words using the words ‘would’ and ‘had’. The contracted forms are ( ’d ).Examples:he had – he’dshe had – she’d

they had – they’dhe would – he’d

she would – she’dthey would – they’d

To form contractions of words using the word ‘are’. The contracted form is ( ’re ).Example:we are – we’re you are – you’re they are – they’re

To form contractions of words using the words ‘is’, ‘has’ and ‘us’. The contracted forms are ( ’s ).Example:it is – it’she is – he’s

she is – she’sit has – it’s

he has – he’sshe has – she’s

let us – let’swho is – who’s

To form contractions of words using the word ‘not’. The contracted form is ( n’t ).Examples:could not – couldn’t have not – haven’t did not – didn’t do not – don’t

Note: There are a few irregular contractions which do not follow the above rules. Examples:cannot – can’twill not – won’t

shall not – shan’tI am – I’m

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ActivitiesForm contractions, where appropriate, in the following sentences.

1. I will be late for dinner. _________________________________________________________

2. You have worked very well. _____________________________________________________

3. I would do the same thing. ______________________________________________________

4. John will not stay out late. ______________________________________________________

5. The teacher said we cannot use calculators. _________________________________________

Form contractions from the following words.

he has ______________

we are ______________

let us _______________

they will ____________

we have ____________

he would ____________

it is ________________

they are _____________

has not _____________

is not _______________

had not _____________

would not ___________

do not ______________

did not _____________

are not ______________

have not ____________

Write the following contractions in full.

it’d ________________

we’ve ______________

he’s _______________

you’ve ______________

they’d ______________

who’ll ______________

they’ll ______________

I’ll _________________

we’re _______________

you’re ______________

she’d _______________

what’s ______________

Write an ‘informal’ email message to a friend about what you plan to do next weekend. Try and use some of the contractions above.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Direct and Indirect Speech

Use of quotation marks in direct speechDirect speech refers to words that are actually spoken by someone. The words spoken are indicated by the use of quotation marks. “ ”Quotation marks are sometimes referred to as: “inverted commas”, “talking marks”, or “speech marks”. However they all have the same meaning.

1. Actual Words SpokenWhen the characters in a novel or short story speak, quotation marks are needed to enclose the actual words of the speaker. Capital letters are required for the first word inside the quotation marks.Examples:• “I would like to go with you,” said Michael.• “Would someone please help me with the dishes,” called John, “otherwise we will be late for the movies!”• Dad asked, “Does anyone want to go shopping with me?”• “Yes please,” said the old man. “I’m trying to find out where my relatives live. I understand you might know where they are.”

In the examples above, the quotation marks are only placed around the actual words spoken. The actual words spoken are in bold. In the last example, notice that there are no quotation marks after the word ‘live’ – they are not placed at the beginning of the next sentence either. This is because the actual words spoken are not interrupted by, he said or they replied, for example.

Note 1: Sometimes single quotation marks ‘ ’ are used for direct speech.Example:‘Tom, write down the players’ scores,’ the captain requested.However, single quotation marks may appear confusing to read when apostrophes (players’) are used, so we recommend using double quotation marks. Generally, double quotation marks make direct speech easier to read.Note 2: Quotation marks normally enclose all other punctuation marks.

2. Introduction of another speakerQuotation marks are also used when another speaker enters the conversation.Example:“It’s a good day for fishing,” said Richard.“Yes, but it’s an even better day for golf,” replied his friend.“Well, we could do both if we leave early enough,” said Richard.Note: A new line is used when another speaker is introduced. This makes it so much easier to identify each speaker.

Indirect or Reported SpeechSpeech in a text that reports what someone has said and gives the content of the speech BUT without repeating the exact words is indirect or reported speech. It does not require quotation marks.Example:

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The teacher said that John could go home now. The exact words the teacher used are not given.

Activities

Add the quotation marks and other punctuation marks where they are needed:

1. It’s my turn now stated the boy waiting next in line.

2. Those who want to go, raise your hands said the teacher. If you don’t go, you will be given additional study, he said.

3. Excuse me sir said the flight attendant, I believe you have the wrong seat.

4. Hurry up Samantha called or you will miss your bus.

5. What time is it asked Alistair.

6. Your dinner is ready yelled Hayley.

7. Please let me come pleaded the little girl.

8. Matt has more apples than me grumbled Jean.

9. What a stormy night exclaimed Joel.

10.Come here Brodie Let’s hide behind this bush whispered Brendan.

11.Why is the baby crying so loudly inquired Brooke.

12.Get down commanded the sergeant.

13.Christopher said I may be late tonight.

14.Annie asked who owns this dear little puppy?

15.Do you often watch television asked Nathan.

16.In a loud voice the father demanded who used up the hot water?

17.James, who knew the way asked does the Genie live here?

18.Putting the bottle down on the table Olivia gasped I just can’t drink anymore!

19.Going up to her mother the small girl whispered please Mummy can I have that dress?

20.Simon heard peals of laughter, then some cries saying Surprise Surprise

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Rewrite the following sentences, inserting all necessary quotation marks and taking a new line when needed.

1. We need to make sure that we are going the right way, said the scoutmaster. I have a compass, said the junior leader. That’s good, replied the scoutmaster.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. It’s my turn! Exclaimed the girl. No, it’s not! Retorted her sister. That’s enough arguing, called their mother.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Is anyone home? called out Roger. Yes, come in, replied Mr Davidson. Sorry I’m late, said Roger. My car broke down.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Use direct speech and correct all punctuation where required.4. the teacher asked the students what they would like to do when they left school sarah answered

i would like to be a nurse Jonathon said i think im best suited to being a politician or a used car salesman ross joined in id like to be a driver i think said lara that id like to be a dancer

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sentence ImprovementWe have talked about joining short simple sentences by using conjunctions to improve the variety in your writing. In this sheet we continue this process. We continue to expand the length of some sentences, but this time we focus on being more expressive and detailed.

We do this by again using conjunctions but also by using adjectives, adverbs, phrases and clauses. This can be called sentence expansion.A simple sentence can be progressively expanded over stages. This should be done when you are editing your work. Example:

The eagle soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared on uplifting

thermals in ever increasing circles. The majestic, wedge-tailed eagle, whose dominion was the sky, effortlessly soared on uplifting

thermals in ever increasing circles, with eyes intently focused on the earth below.

Adjectivesmajesticwedge-tailedincreasinguplifting

Adverbseffortlesslyintentlybelowever

Phrases & Clausesin ever increasing circles - on uplifting thermalswith eyes intently focused - on the earth belowwith eyes intently focused - on the earth belowwhose dominion was the sky

While all writing benefits from using a variety of expression, it is particularly relevant in imaginative and descriptive writing. Narratives and expositions can be improved significantly by the use of appropriate adjectives, adverbs, phrases and clauses.

Noun phrases create detailed, accurate atmospheric descriptions. Adjectives, adjectival phrases and adjectival clauses give characters, whether human, animal or

things, an identifying appearance, mannerism or personality. Adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses indicate when, where and how the particular

events or incidents take place. Descriptive and figurative language can be used to improve your writing. See lessons on:

Symbolism, Personification, Alliteration, Simile, Metaphor and Onomatopoeia.

Your task, as a writer, is to communicate effectively with the reader. Always keep in mind that you are writing for an audience. Choose the format and style most appropriate for the audience you are writing for. Command your reader’s attention by expressing yourself with fluency, variety, and avoidance of any repetitious words, phrases and ideas. Good writing needs to be clear, interesting, concise and accurate. Use a good dictionary and a good thesaurus to assist you in using the vocabulary that is specific to the meaning you wish to convey.

Editing your sentences

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Don’t be satisfied with your first effort. Treat it as your first draft. Sometimes, to achieve your very best, you may need to edit your sentences a number of times. Even in exams, leave time to quickly edit your work so your answers express your thoughts in the best possible way.

ActivitiesExpand these simple sentences into compound or complex sentences using conjunctions or relative pronouns. Also use adjectives, adverbs, phrases & clauses. Think about including figurative language as well. Be imaginative but be careful not to write ‘run-on sentences’. (A run-on sentence is one that is added to another when it really should be kept separate. Don’t write a whole ‘story’ in one sentence.)

1. The children played.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Kevin Rudd is coming to our school.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The sun shone.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4. She came to dinner.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

5. The police came.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

6. John travelled by train.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

7. The power went off.

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____________________________________________________________________________________________

8. The whale appeared.

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