a review of educational assessment ... - ppbbk.unimed.ac.id

British Journal of Education

Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016

Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.ejournals.org) __________________________________________________________________________________

Page | 24

ISSN 2054-6351 (print), ISSN 2054-636X (online)

A REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT: RELIABILITY, VALIDITY

AND RELATIONSHIP WITH LEARNING—THE CASE OF NORTHERN

IRELAND (NI) TRANSFER TESTS POLICY AND PRACTICE

Md Shidur Rahman

A Doctoral Student at School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queen’s University Belfast, UK

ABSTRACT: Northern Ireland 11+ transfer tests policy is a long-standing debatable

issue. Presently, the transfer-tests are divided into two distinct test types and they are

colloquially known as the AQE (the Association of Quality Education) as well as the

GL (Granada Learning) tests which are non-statutory as the government removed the

NI transfer tests in 2008. But, previously these tests were called 11+ exams in which all

students took the same tests for grammar school admission. This study aims to evaluate

the current NI transfer test policy in light of its reliability, validity, and relationship

with learning. The analysis of NI transfer tests traces a number of complications and

dilemmas such as unfaithful scoring and grading systems as they contain a lack of

transparency. The tests policy also fosters a conflict between the sense of deprivation

and advantage. The policy also bewilders a group of pupils, and develops some

negative effects on learning. In a word, there are little positive outcomes of these testing

systems. Rather, a serious disastrous effect has been culminated in the absence of

government care. Henceforth, an alternative transfer testing procedure is essential to

be embedded in the NI education system which can fit well with all students in general.

KEYWORDS: validity, reliability, transfer test policy, learning

INTRODUCTION

Assessment is an influential aspect in education (Taras, 2008) though it is challenging

in a contemporary society (McDowell, 2010). Assessment is regarded as ‘of learning’,

‘for learning’ and ‘as learning’ (Black & Wiliam, 1998, 2009; Hume & Coll, 2009). Its

use is obvious in various forms, systems, and purposes at different levels and disciplines

of education. For example, an assessment process—termed as transfer test—exists in

Northern Ireland (NI) education system. Children take this test at the age of 11(Machin,

McNally & Wyness, 2013). The test is used in order to select the pupils who have ability

to study in grammar schools (Gallagher, 2015). This study wishes to evaluate the

current NI transfer test policy in light of its reliability, validity and relationship with

learning. The reasons lie in choosing to investigate these three imperative facets of the

NI transfer test policy are firstly that most of the researchers, such as Gallagher and

Smith (2000); Gardner and Cowan (2000, 2005); and Cowan (2007), studied validity

and reliability focusing on the context of old 11+ transfer test. However, a few

researchers, e.g. Elwood (2013), explored the current transfer tests’ validity and

reliability. Even, Elwood (2013) chiefly concentrated on the validity from an ethics

http://www.ejournals.org/


Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 25


viewpoint. Secondly, no study on the present NI transfer test system is so far conducted

in combination with validity, reliability and relationship with leaning. Therefore, there

exists a vacuum of research which is necessitated to address. Lastly, the study will yield

an understanding of the problems with the test system and possible solutions. The study

falls into two sections. The first section introduces the transfer test policy and its

context; and the second section presents the evaluation of the test system touching on

reliability, validity, and links and relationships with learning.

TRANSFER TEST POLICY AND ITS CONTEXT

Context

As already mentioned, this study focused on the transfer tests procedure (as an

assessment policy) in the context of NI education system. So, prior to presenting the

transfer test policy, there is a need to highlight the NI education system that has a

multiple features—particularly the primary, secondary and grammar school systems are

segregated on the basis of religion, sex, age, and pupils’ ability to be selected for the

grammar schools. Then, there are Catholic and Protestant schools. Along with these

religious schools, there are some integrated schools in which pupils of any religious

background can have access (Gallagher, Smith & Montgomery, 2003) and Irish

medium schools. The primary schools cater for pupils from Year 1 to Year 7, the

secondary schools from Year 8 to Year 12—although a minority takes pupils up to Year

14 (Gallagher & Smith, 2000), and the Grammar schools from Year 8 to Year 14

(Birrell & Heenan, 2013; Gallagher & Smith, 2000). The pupils from primary level are

actually selected for the grammar school level with an assessment system known as

transfer test.

Transfer Test Policy

The present NI transfer test seems to be a vexed issue. It was previously known as ‘11

plus exam’ in which all pupils took the same test in order to get admitted into the

grammar schools. But, the government eliminated this test system in 2008 with a view

to establishing a comprehensive education which was described as a “one size fits all

education system” (BBC, 2015; Elevenplusexams, 2015). However, there was a protest

against the government decision, and a new transfer procedure emerged in the NI

education system. Two different tests have been devised in the new system—the AQE

(Association of Quality Education) exams utilised by state/protestant schools; and the

GL (Granada Learning) assessment exams used by Catholic schools. The AQE test

resembles the old 11+ test though the science test is excluded. But, the GL test is

considerably different from the old 11+ system, particularly, with respect to test

construct and marking strategy. None of these testes are regulated by the government.

As a result, these tests are known as unofficial or unregulated AQE and GL test (Lloyd,

2013). In the AQE test, children sit three tests and the best two tests’ scores, out of

three, are aggregated, while children take two papers in GL test. The AQE test costs

£42, and marked by the experienced markers; by contrast, the GL test is free, and

machine-marked. The pupils in AQE test write their answers on the test booklets;

conversely, pupils in GL test store their answers on a mark-sheet. Then, the AQE test



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 26


follows the scoring system (based on the number) for the result; on the other hand, the

GL test adheres to the grading system (based on letters such as A, B1, B2, C1, C2, and

D). The children wishing to go to a Protestant school sit the AQE test, and those who

desire to go to a Catholic school sit the GL test; on the contrary, children can also sit

the both tests as some schools, though few, accept one and the other tests (AQE, 2015;

AQUINAS, 2015). The analytical discussion up to this point clarifies that the current

transfer test system is full of complications and confusions. Hence, there is a need to

evaluate the tests for further understanding.

EVALUATION OF NORTHERN IRELAND (NI) TRANSFER TEST POLICY

AND PRACTICE

The term ‘assessment’ needs to be defined as it is central to this study. Taras (2005, p.

467) said that, “Assessment refers to a judgement which can be justified according to

specific weighted set goals, yielding either comparative or numerical ratings.” Then

Stobart (2008, p. 1) argued, “Assessment, in the form of tests and examinations, is a

powerful activity which shapes how societies, groups and individuals understand

themselves.” Gipps (1994, p.vii) glossed that assessment entails—, “a wide range of

methods for evaluating pupil performance and attainment including formal testing and

examinations, practical and oral assessment, classroom based assessment carried out by

teachers and portfolios.” Having taken all these definitions into account, it seems that

assessment incorporates a multiple perspectives: judgement, various methods such as

tests, examinations, practical and oral assessment and so on. Sebatane (1998 cited in

Medland, 2014) described assessment as an overarching concept that incorporates

almost every prospect of education. Similarly, Elwood and Lundy (2010, p. 335) stated

that, “Assessment is a powerful umbrella term that incorporates a diverse range of

actions and process.”

In order to elucidate the definition further, types and purposes of assessment are in need

of investigation. First, assessment is of different types. These are summative assessment

(Assessment of learning): for example, GCSE, A-LEVEL, high-stakes test, national

exam; formative assessment (Assessment for learning): classroom based-assessment;

and so on (Gipps, 1994; McDowell, Wakelin, Montgomery & King, 2011; Black,

1998). Second, assessment may have various purposes such as to support the learning,

to report the achievements of individuals, and to satisfy the demands for public

accountability (Black, 1998). Rowntree (1987) mentioned six reasons of assessment

from Brian Klug’s (1974) thirty-two reasons for formal assessment. These are selection

by assessment, maintaining standards, motivation of students, feedback to students,

feedback to the teacher, and preparation for life. The selection by assessment—out of

these six—is considerably pertinent to the NI Transfer Tests, because the tests chiefly

select those pupils who are capable to study in grammar schools. Some also attempted

to designate the tests as achievement tests or selection tests. For example, Lloyd,

Devine and Robinson (2011) mentioned the test as the selection procedure and as the

11+ test.

However, many argued that it is a high-stakes test. Gardner and Cowan (2000), for

instance, classified the test as high-stakes because of its serious consequences to the



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 27


pupils who do not get a place at grammar school. Gardner and Cowan (2000) are

certainly right in characterising the test as high-stakes because the test results are

employed to qualify whether a pupil can get a place or not, and this decision to qualify

pupils is consequential due to its influences on students, teachers, schools,

communities, and so on (Madaus, 1988). Moreover, this test is likely to be considered,

from a wider viewpoint, as a summative assessment. That is to say, it is not a classroom

based test because it is not wholly related to what children do in the classrooms. The

study will next consider the reliability and validity of NI transfer test procedure.

Reliability and Validity of NI Transfer Test Policy

Reliability

The words such as score, mark, grade, and result are chiefly focused on when defining

and measuring reliability of assessment. William (1992, p.1) used the word ‘results’

while defining reliability as, “an assessment procedure would be reliable to the extent

that two identical students would get the same assessment results”; and Feldt and

Brennan (1989, p.106) claimed that, “It is almost impossible to deal with issues of

definition, quantification, and estimation of reliability without addressing the concept

of true score.” It seems from these definitions that reliability is basically about marking

or score or grade. This reliability issue merits further elaboration as other factors with

score or grade—such as errors in marking, variations in grading, inappropriate

interpretation of test results and scores, and wrong disclosure and fidelity of

assessment—can decline the reliability of assessment.

As in Northern Ireland transfer tests procedure, errors surrounding results are evident,

for example, thirty-four candidates received wrong results in 2014 (BBC, 2014), and

another student was given D grade unexpectedly with wrong marking in 2010 (Paddyq,

2010). Ricketts (2010) called it a false negative (those deemed to have failed when they

were actually qualified). This kind of error may generate negative public perceptions

about the test reliability, and seriously undermine their trust in the test system. QCA

(2003 cited in Gardner, 2013) took strong position against the error and declared that

grading error of any sort, for both the individual student and the system, is unacceptable.

Many writers, however, have challenged the QCA’s claim on the grounds that

assessment inaccuracy is inevitable—it is seldom possible to entirely eliminate the

error. No set of results ever be reliable (Newton, 2005a, 2005b), all assessment systems

are subject to error (Ricketts, 2010). Newton’s and Ricketts’s claims ring true when

Gardner (2013) indicated that educational assessment is a probabilistic process;

however, as the NI transfer test is a high takes test—so, errors in scoring are not

desirable. Haladyna and Downing (2004) stressed that a stronger assurance of score

accuracy is required in high stakes testing. Consequently, the test agencies (AQE and

GL) should be aware of the public’s unawareness of assessment inaccuracy, and should

expose the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment. In addition to this, the agencies

should take the culpability for the error and increase the transparency of grading system

in order that the public could trust the test (Newton, 2005b).

Unlike the overall assessment inaccuracy, some definite issues are necessitated to be

addressed. For example, the grading system does not seem to be reliable because the



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 28


problems of grade allocation as well as misclassification and misinterpretation of

candidates’ grades are the matter of a great concern in NI transfer test procedure

(Gardner & Cowan, 2000; Harlen, 2006). Cole and Zieky (2001) stated that the testing

data present individual variation, not group variation, and this is the major fairness

concern. Similarly, Cowan (2007) pointed out that the lack of technical fidelity makes

the test unreliable to the stakeholders: parents and students. That is to say, total score

or sub-score, and standard measurement errors or test information functions are not

reported to the stakeholders. In a nutshell, the information on the reliability of the test

are not made available to the public (Gardner & Cowan, 2000). All these evidence draw

an issue of having no trust and transparency in the test grading system, and ultimately

the blame goes on to the test agencies: AQE and GL. However, Newton (2005b)

contended that tests and examinations are deemed to be blunt, and assessment results

are thought of as estimates; therefore, it would be naive to criticise test agency only.

In spite of believing that measurement inaccuracy is an inescapable feature of

measurement, there is an emphasis on grade descriptors, marking guides and exemplars

in order to increase the assessment transparency and to assist pupils’ understanding the

requirements and standards of assessment (Rust, Price & O’Donovan, 2003; Handley

& Williams, 2011). Otherwise, for example, the lack of certitude around grades may

fuel another debate among the public. For enhancing the reliability of the test, the AQE

and GL should arrange many more training programmes for the parents and the students

to clarify the test procedure. The study of Bell, Mladenovic and Price (2013) found that

developing students’ understanding of assessment practice means enhancing their

learning.

In addition, the above measurement errors, as threats to providing true or reliable score

to students (which is argued earlier in this section of study), appear from different

sources. Firstly, individual variation: one test taker’s health, anxiety, motivation level,

concentration, forgetfulness, mental efficiency, carelessness, and subjectivity may vary

from others. Secondly, situational factors such as working environment of examinees,

non-standardised administration, and classroom setting can narrow the reliability

(Gipps, 1994). Thirdly, there are unbalanced items in the test.

The discussion about reliability so far indicates that reliability appears to be the

problematic issue of the test itself and its markers. Regardless the problems, the NI

transfer tests procedure leaves an opportunity for parents to dispute the grades and to

remark the test paper if they are unhappy with the test results (AQE, 2015a).

Validity

Another most important and debated concept in educational measurement is validity

(Goldstein, 2015) in which an assessment or a testing instrument is considered fit, to

what degree, for the purpose. According to Cole and Zieky (2001), “Validity is not

dichotomous; it is a matter of degree.” Stobart (2001) presented that validity is, “the

extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure.” This is a conventional

definition of validity. However, the NI transfer tests stated what is to be measured.

AQE (2015b), for example, specified that, “The Common Entrance Assessment (CEA)

has been developed to meet international test standards. It assesses pupils on their



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 29


English and Mathematics ability.” This means a student with the score of 112 will

perform better in grammar school than a student with the score of 90. Measuring the

ability is perceived to be the pupil’s performance. Nevertheless, ability is used in the

sense of possibility for performance. Wallace (2008) illustrated that a student with

having high ability may perform poor, or a student with low ability may perform well.

She also argued that one’s innate ability is not evident or indeed whether it exists at all

till late in one’s school career. Therefore, agreeing with Wallace’s (2008) view, it could

be commented that it is not merely certain that NI transfer tests measure what they

purport to measure.

The current transfer tests’ ability measurement is found to be affected when we consider

the construct validity of the tests. But prior to moving forward to the construct validity,

there is a need to look at that a robust debate prevails between content validity (Cureton,

1951) and construct validity (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Lissitz and Samuelsen (2007)

argued very strongly that validity is about the test contents, not about the test constructs.

They claimed that content is relevant to validity as it is internal; whereas constructs are

external—so they can be addressed in other test development system. However,

Mesick’s (1989) suggestion is not to combine different constructs or paradigms into a

single measure albeit they are increasingly interlinked. Evidently, in the NI transfer

tests, the AQE (2015a) declared that there is an opportunity, for pupils, of sitting for

three tests. It is only mandatory to attend two of these tests. Each test is composed with

English and Maths (two separate constructs). There are 32 marks for English and 32

marks for Maths. The test, ostensibly, does not estimate the single construct—each

paper is a combination of scores in two subject areas. This is to say, test score is treated

as a single measure (Gardner & Cowan, 2005). As a consequence, it is difficult to

construe the ability with these combining scores, and the AQE did not provide any

statement for how they will infer the ability. By contrast, GL assessment assesses two

papers (English and Mathematics) separately—the first paper assesses English; the

second paper assesses Mathematics (NICCY, 2010). So, the evidence highlights that

the transfer tests are not generally valid concerning the test constructs.

However, Stobart (2001) disputed this conventional approach of test validity and

claimed that it is a backdated validity concept that considers validity as a property of a

test—but validity is not any more regarded as a fixed property of an assessment

(Stobart, 2006). Rather, validity is the property of a test score as the use of a test scores

needs to be validated, not the test itself (AERA, 2014 in Sireci & Faulkner-Bond, 2015).

This claim may not be entirely accepted because Newton (2012) suggested that validity

ought to be evaluated by the interpretation of those who use the test as well as those

who publish it. This is not to say that validity is not linked to the test scores at all. As

such one-third of grammar schools in 2011 admitted the pupils who achieved even the

lowest grade (The Belfast Telegraph, 2011, 23).

Recently, the validity has been viewed more broadly. According to Messick (1989,

p.19), “For a fully unified view of validity, it must also be recognised that the

appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of score-based inferences depend as

well on the social consequences of the testing. Therefore, social values and social

consequences cannot be ignored in considerations of validity.” This new approach to

validity has given a new understanding of consequential validity.



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 30


Many subscribe to Messick’s (1989: 19) unitary position to validity of this kind—for

instance: Elwood and Murphy (2002, P. 395):, “The social consequences of assessment

also impact substantially on the validity of assessment”; Linn (1997); Shaperd (1997):

construct validity; crook, et al, (1996); Gipps (1994); and William (1993). By contrast,

Popham (1997) and Mehrens (1997) differed with Messick’s framework by arguing that

social consequences cannot be amalgamated with validity issues. In addition,

Borsboom, Mellenbergh and van Heerden (2004) opposed Messick’s (1989) position

stating that the unified validity concept is not needed as we believe there is nothing to

unify. All this leads to comment that the researchers are profoundly divided, and the

validity paradigms are seen to have shifted from one to other. But it should be kept in

mind that validity is a fluid and relative issue. Any unfamiliar point in question may

arise in a new test situation. Gorin (2007) contended that making validation and validity

is a continuous process – “Validity is not a box to be checked yes or no.”

Messick (1989) is true to say that social values and consequences should not be ignored

in respect with test validity. If we take a look back at the transfer test policy section in

this study, some equality and ethical issues of NI transfer test may come out which have

significant social consequences. For example, the AQE test is mostly aligned with the

old 11+ test and the practice booklets are available, so the AQE test takers are familiar

with the test procedure, while the GL test procedure is unfamiliar to the pupils. Then,

the parents have to pay for the AQE test, but the GL test is free of cost. These sorts of

uneven arrangements provoke fairness concerns among people. Furthermore, the study

of Elwood (2013) highlighted some potential social impacts, for example, the form of

these tests indicates that one group of pupils may be more benefited than others such as

boys may do well in GL test rather than their counterpart because boys do better on

multiple choice questions. Again in relation to the AQE test, girls may be more

advantaged than their counterpart as they are good at long responses. Another important

aspect is that the GL test may be easier than the AQE’s. Additionally, as is noted both

tests are non-statutory, it seems the tests are vulnerable and unstable. Therefore, these

situations may form a concept that the tests may not sustain longer. This test procedure

also influences the children as well as parents when they observe the lack of

transparency about how the decisions are taken; become confused of what test to sit;

come accross the difficulties of taking the both tests, and so on. All this evidence

suggests that the existing NI test procedure has an adverse effect on the students and

other stakeholders because the social and cultural experience the students and teachers

bring to the test situation is a part of the tapestry of the assessment tasks and outcomes

(Elwood & Murphy, 2015). Gardner and Cowan (2005), for instance, stated that the

students who do not get a place in grammar school, a sense of failure adds them to a

personal disappointment. However, it could be argued that the current test system is

rather valid comparing to the old 11+ transfer test because the decision-making of

pupils’ place allocation in the current test system is conducted based on the two tests

scores (yet the GL test is different), but as in the 11+ transfer test the single test score

was used to decide the place. It has been suggested, however, that the predecessor was

more stable than the present system, and the children prefer a new common test, not

necessarily as the old version (Elwood, 2013).



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 31


Links between reliability and validity

A nexus is noticed between validity and reliability if we take a closer look at the validity

definition of Messick (1989:19) that subsumes reliability (test scores and

consequences). Furthermore, evidently reliability and validity overlap; assessment

result confidence depends upon both validity and reliability; reliability is a part of

validity, not a separate issue—it is subsumed into validity (Black & William, 2006;

Black, 1998; Storbat, 2008; Feldt & Brennan, 1989; and Wiliam & Black, 1996). All

these arguments indicate that many agree that a strong link exists between validity and

reliability. On the other hand, others are not aligned with the view that there is a link

between validity and reliability, for example, Hogan (2007) argued that a test

performance may have reliability—nevertheless it may not be valid or may have limited

validity. Reliability is objective – validity is subjective. However, reliability is linked

to validity as Messick’s (1989) unitary concepts of validity incorporate reliability such

as highlighting appropriateness of scores. Beyond this, reliability issue may affect the

validity issue for instance publishing wrong grades or the lack of clarity of the test

process can hamper the purpose of the test. The NI transfer test procedure is an example

of this kind. The NI transfer test agencies such as AQE (2015) just contended that they

are maintaining the validity and reliability of the test. But, so far, neither the AQE nor

the GL has published any study, as a response to the public, specifying the issues of

validity and reliability and outcomes of the tests.

NI transfer test and learning: links and relationships

Having outlined the two key concepts, reliability and validity, of educational testing

and assessment—the NI Transfer Tests, this section underscores the links between the

tests and learning. Many researchers have conceded that educational assessment has a

strong link with learning. Medland (2014), for example, stated that assessment is a key

to student learning and achievement as the primary beneficiary of assessment should be

students (Hatzipanagos & Rochon, 2010). Dann (2014) expressed that assessment and

learning become inextricably intertwine. Like Dann (2014), Brown, Bull & Pendlebury

(2013) said, “Assessment is the cash nexus of learning.” Furthermore, the categories

of assessment at the very outset of this study have showed that the assessment has links

with learning such as formative assessment or assessment for learning, and summative

assessment or assessment of learning. Among these assessments, classroom based

assessments, in other words formative assessments, are more effective (Hargreaves,

Earl & Schmidt, 2002) as they prompt student learning (Stiggins, 1991). But, Elwood

(2006) argued that formative assessment is confused theoretically and conceptually. In

order to prepare the children for the NI Transfer Test, for instance, extra teaching time

and preparation are usually provided by the schools, and it was in a greater extent with

the old transfer test (11+) though (Gallagher & Smith, 2000). However, since the current

test is unofficial, the Department of education has warned the primary schools not to

prepare the children (Black, 2015). Moreover, many parents send their children to the

coaching centres for extra lessons (Smith, Birthistle & Farrell, 2000). This means the

schools and parents drive the students for learning from the classroom in order to cut a

good figure in the tests. Besides, during the preparation at school or private coaching



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 32


centre, the children can learn from the feedback given by the teachers as the teacher’s

feedback to students provides a stronger link with learning (Gipps, 1999).

In looking to the NI Transfer Tests in connection with learning, the tests seem to serve

as triggers for learning when the students realise that to be placed in a grammar school

gives them a sense of social standing rather than to be placed in a general secondary

school (Remedios, Ritchie & Lieberman, 2005). To summarise, the NI transfer tests are

deemed to be involved in learning as students are highly engaged with the tests. Black,

Harrison, Hodgen, Marshall and Serret (2010) also pointed out that summative

assessment should be a positive part of learning process because students’ intense

involvement in the test procedure can help them to be benefited rather than to be

cheated.

Despite the links above, some researchers found that assessment limits the learning

opportunities instead of supporting it, for example—High-stakes tests narrow the

curricular content to the tested subject; disintegrate subject knowledge into test oriented

parts; and drive teaching to be teacher-centred (Au, 2007). High-stakes tests focus on

basic skills rather than on extended tasks (Linn, 1993). For the NI transfer tests, the

items in English and Mathematics taught by the teachers in respective schools are

specific. The teachers employ different techniques to maximise the learning of facts

essential for the pupils to secure the place at grammar schools (Johnston & McClune,

2000). That is, the current transfer tests procedure narrow the learning items down from

wide to test-specific.

Then, this test procedure has a serious negative effect on learning of students who fail

to achieve a place at a grammar school or even those who cannot enter the test or those

who opt out of the test. These students are to struggle to build up the self-esteem in the

society (Osborne, 2006). Furthermore, the study of Remedios, Ritchie and Lieberman

(2005) found that the external pressures such as pressures from the parents can decline

the pupils’ interests in the subjects. It is also noted that many students lose their interests

for learning after passing the transfer test.

Afterwards, the purpose of the tests as presented earlier is to select or to qualify the

children for grammar schools. So the purpose indicates that the tests are not concerned

with the pupil learning, but with the pupil selection. Accompanying with the purpose,

the test structure, too, affects student’s learning. As already identified, the NI Transfer

Procedure consists of two distinct tests with two separate formats. The AQE is a written

test; while the GL is a multiple-choice test. The former is open, though not entirely; but

the later is closed. The pupils, who wish to take both tests, are in dilemma to preparing

for the tests.

Following the consequences of the tests purpose and structure, the political stalemate

surrounding the tests also impinges upon students’ learning. Both the tests are

administered unofficially, and therein lies anxiety among the teachers and parents who

consider the current tests system as chaotic (Birrell & Heenan, 2013). This sort of unrest

atmosphere problematizes the student’s learning. Lastly, the discussion around the

learning, test links and relationships suggests that the NI transfer test policy seems not

to sit well alongside learning although many researchers illustrated the links between



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 33


testing and learning. Nevertheless, at the one extreme, the overall discussion so far tells

us that the tests do not sit well with the NI education system. At the other extreme, it

may be better to have these tests in existence rather than to have no test at all because

the political deadlock left the test procedure vacuum. This is not to suggest, however,

that the existing NI transfer tests policy is outstanding.

The analysis of NI transfer tests reliability, validity, and relationship with learning

renders a number of complications and dilemmas such as unfaithful scoring and grading

systems as they contain a lack of transparency. The tests policy also fosters a conflict

between the sense of deprivation and advantage. The policy also bewilders a group of

pupils, and develops some negative effects on learning. In a word, there are little

positive outcomes of this testing system. Rather, a serious disastrous effect has been

culminated in the absence of government care. Henceforth, an alternative transfer

testing procedure is essential to be embedded in the NI education system which can fit

well with all students in general. In order to make it happen, all political parties should

come forward to take effective measures for negotiations with parents, educators, and

community leaders.

CONCLUSION

This study wished to judge the ongoing NI transfer tests procedure in regard to

reliability, validity and relationship with learning. The study has been able to uncover

the pros and cons of this tests procedure in relation to the three influential aspects of

assessment. A wider range of limitations of the tests policy emerged: obscurity in

marking and scoring, and a sense of uncertainty works associated with the tests due to

be unregulated by the government. Most important positive side is that the children are

engaged in learning process. However, the strength of this study is that it has underlined

the problems and attracted the attentions of the stakeholders. It has also located the

dangerous effects of the tests process on the learning. So, this study has apprised the

concerned authority to construct a new test policy or to amend the existing policy of

transfer tests. Concurrently, some limitations of this study are noticeable. Since it is a

small-scale research, the issues of three areas have not been possible to focus

extensively. Additionally, this is a secondary research. So, further research needs to be

undertaken in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: A big thank you to Professor Jannette Elwood (School of

Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queens University Belfast, UK) for her

useful support, guidance and feedback

REFERENCES

AQE (2015a). Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from:

https://aqetest.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/gs-15-18-faq-english.pdf.

AQE (2015b). The Assessments. Retrieved from: http://aqe.org.uk/the-test/.

AQUINAS (2015). PPTC FAQs 2015-16: Post Primary Transfer Consortium.

Retrieved from: http://aquinasgrammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/PPTC-

FAQs-2015-16.pdf.


https://aqetest.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/gs-15-18-faq-english.pdf

http://aqe.org.uk/the-test/

http://aquinasgrammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/PPTC-FAQs-2015-16.pdf

http://aquinasgrammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/PPTC-FAQs-2015-16.pdf


Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 34


Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative meta-

synthesis. Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258-267

BBC (2015). Transfer tests: Thousands of NI children receive results. The BBC

Northern Ireland. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-

ireland-31068725.

BBC (2014). Rainey Endowed pupils in test marks mix-up get correct results. The BBC

Northern Ireland. Retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk- northern-

ireland-26008237.

Bell, A., Mladenovic, R., & Price, M. (2013). Students’ perceptions of the usefulness

of marking guides, grade descriptors and annotated exemplars. Assessment &

Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(7), 769-788.

Benett, Y. (1999). The Validity and Reliabilioty of Assessment and Self-assessments of

Work-based Learning. In Murphy, P. (Ed.), Learners, Learning & Assessment (Pp.

277-289). London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.

Birrell, D., & Heenan, D. (2013). Policy Style and Governing without Consensus:

Devolution and Education Policy in Northern Ireland. Social Policy &

Administration, 47(7), 765-782. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/spol.12000

Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (2006). The Reliability of Assessments. In J. Gardner (Ed.),

Assessment and Learning (pp.119-130). London: SAGE.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment.

Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability (formerly: Journal of

Personnel Evaluation in Education), 21(1), 5-31.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in

education, 5(1), 7-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102

Black, P. (1998). Testing: Friend or Foe? Theory and Practice of Assessment and

Testing, London: Falmer Press.

Black, R. (2015). Transfer test: Warning letters to Northern Ireland schools over

coaching sparks new row. The Belfast Telegraph. Retrieved from:

http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/transfer-test-warning-

letters-to-northern-ireland-schools-over-coaching-sparks-new-row-

30949506.html.

Black, P., Harrison, C., Hodgen, J., Marshall, B., & Serret, N. (2010). Validity in

teachers’ summative assessments. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy &

Practice, 17(2), 215-232.

Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G., & van Heerden, J. (2004). The concept of validity.

Psychological Review, 111(4), 1061–1071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-

295X.111.4.1061

Breslin, G., Brennan, D., Rafferty, R., Gallagher, A. M., & Hanna, D. (2012). The effect

of a healthy lifestyle programme on 8–9 year olds from social disadvantage.

Archives of disease in childhood, archdischild-2011.

Brown, G. T., & Hirschfeld, G. H. (2008). Students’ conceptions of assessment: Links

to outcomes. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice,15(1), 3-17.

Cole, N. S., & Zieky, M. J. (2001). The new faces of fairness. Journal of Educational

Measurement, 38(4), 369-382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-

3984.2001.tb01132.x


http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-%20ireland-31068725

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-%20ireland-31068725

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-%20northern-ireland-26008237

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-%20northern-ireland-26008237

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/spol.12000

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102

http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/transfer-test-warning-letters-to-northern-ireland-schools-over-coaching-sparks-new-row-30949506.html



http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.4.1061

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.111.4.1061

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.2001.tb01132.x



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 35


Cowan, P. (2007). Using cat for 11-plus testing in Northern Ireland: what are the issues?

IN: Khandia, F. (ed.). 11th CAA International Computer Assisted Conference:

Proceedings of the Conference on 10th & 11th July 2007 at Loughborough

University, Loughborough, pp. 129-136.

Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests.

Psychological bulletin, 52(4), 281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0040957

Crooks, T. J., Kane, M. T., & Cohen, A. S. (1996). Threats to the valid use of

assessments. Assessment in education, 3(3), 265-286.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594960030302

Cureton, E. E. (1951). Validity. In E. F. Lindquist (Ed.), Educational measurement (pp.

621 -694). Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Dann, R. (2014). Assessment as learning: blurring the boundaries of assessment and

learning for theory, policy and practice. Assessment in Education: Principles,

Policy & Practice, 21(2), 149-166.

Elevenplusexams (2015). 11 Plus in Northern Ireland. Retrieved from:

http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/schools/regions/northern-ireland-11-plus.

Accessed on 07/11/2015.

Elwood, J., & Murphy, P. (2015). Assessment systems as cultural scripts: a Socio-

cultural theoretical lens on assessment practice and products. Assessment in

Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 22(2), 182-192.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2015.1021568

Elwood, J. (2013). Educational assessment policy and practice: a matter of ethics.

Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 20(2), 205-220.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2013.765384

Elwood, J., & Lundy, L. (2010). Revisioning assessment through a children’s rights

approach: Implications for policy, process and practice. Research Papers in

Education, 25(3), 335-353.

Elwood, J. (2006). Formative assessment: Possibilities, boundaries and limitations.

Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 13(2), 215-232.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09695940600708653

Elwood, J., & Murphy, P. (2002). Tests, tiers and achievement: gender and performance

at 16 and 14 in England. European Journal of Education, 37(4), 395-416.

Feldt, L. S. and Brennan, R. L. (1989). Reliability. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational

Measurement (pp. 105-146). New York: American Council on

Education/Macmillan.

Gallagher, T. (2015). Northern Ireland: An Overview. In Colin Brock (Ed.), Education

in the United Kingdom (Pp. 255-278). London: Bloomsbury.

Gallagher, T., Smith, A., & Montgomery, A. (2003). Integrated Education in Northern

Ireland. Participation, Profile and Performance.

Gallagher, T., & Smith, A. (2000). The Effects Of The Selective System Of Secondary

Education In Northern Ireland. Main Report.

Gardner, J. (2013). The public understanding of error in educational assessment. Oxford

Review of Education, 39(1), 72-92.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2012.760290

Gardner, J., & Cowan, P. (2005). The fallibility of high stakes ‘11‐plus’ testing in

Northern Ireland. Assessment in Education, 12(2), 145-165.


http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0040957

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594960030302

http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/schools/regions/northern-ireland-11-plus.%20Accessed%20on%2007/11/2015

http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/schools/regions/northern-ireland-11-plus.%20Accessed%20on%2007/11/2015

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2015.1021568

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2013.765384

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09695940600708653

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2012.760290


Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 36


Gardner, J. and Cowan, P. (2000). Testing The Test: A Study of the Reliability and

Validity of the Northern Ireland Transfer Procedure Test in Enabling the Selection

of Pupils for Grammar School Places. The Queen’s University Belfast: Graduate

School of Education.

Gipps, C. (1999). Socio-cultural aspects of assessment. Review of Research

inEducation, 24, 355-392. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1167274

Gipps, C. (1994). Beyond Testing: Towards a theory of educational assessment. New

York: Routledge Falmer.

Gipps, C. (1994). Developments in Educational Assessment: what makes a good test?

Assessment in education, 1(3), 283-292.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594940010304

Goldstein, H. (2015). Validity, science and educational measurement. Assessment in

Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 22(2), 193-201.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2015.1015402

Gorin, J. S. (2007). Reconsidering issues in validity theory. Educational Researcher,

36(8), 456-462. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07311607

Haladyna, T. M., & Downing, S. M. (2004). Construct‐irrelevant variance in high‐stakes testing. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 23(1), 17-27.

Handley, K., & Williams, L. (2011). From copying to learning: Using exemplars to

engage students with assessment criteria and feedback. Assessment & Evaluation

in Higher Education, 36(1), 95-108.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602930903201669

Harlen, W. (2006). The Role of Assessment in Developing Motivation for learning. In

J. Gardner (Ed.), Assessment and Learning (Pp.61-80), London: SAGE.

Hargreaves, A., Earl, L., & Schmidt, M. (2002). Perspectives on alternative assessment

reform. American Educational Research Journal, 39(1), 69-95.

http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00028312039001069

Hatzipanagos, S. & Rochon, R. (2010). Editorial, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher

Education, 35:5, 491-492, DOI: 10.1080/02602938.2010.493700.

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Educational Assessment: A Practical Introduction. USA: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hume, A., & Coll, R. K. (2009). Assessment of learning, for learning, and as learning:

New Zealand case studies. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy &

Practice, 16(3), 269-290. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09695940903319661

Johnston, J., & McClune, W. (2000). Pupil motivation and attitudes: Self-esteem, locus

of control, learning disposition and the impact of selection on teaching and

learning. The effects of the selective system of secondary education in Northern

Ireland: Main report (Vol. SEL 5.1). Department of Education in Northern Ireland

(DENI).

Linn, R. L. (1993). Educational assessment: Expanded expectations and

challenges. Educational evaluation and policy analysis, 15(1), 1-16.

http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1164248

Linn, R. L. (1997). Evaluating the validity of assessments: The consequences of

use. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 16(2), 14-16.



http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1167274

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594940010304

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2015.1015402

http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07311607

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602930903201669

http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00028312039001069

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09695940903319661

http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1164248



Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 37


Lissitz, R. W., & Samuelsen, K. (2007). A suggested change in terminology and

emphasis regarding validity and education. Educational researcher, 36(8), 437-

448. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07311286

Lloyd, K., Devine, P., & Robinson, G. (2011). Happiest days of our lives. Belfast: ARK.

http://www. ark. ac. uk/publications/updates/update73. pdf. Accessed September,

5, 2011.

Lloyd, K. (2013). Happiness and well-being of young carers: extent, nature and

correlates of caring among 10 and 11 year old school children. Journal of

Happiness Studies, 14(1), 67-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9316-0

Machin, S., McNally, S., & Wyness, G. (2013). Educational attainment across the UK

nations: performance, inequality and evidence. Educational Research, 55(2), 139-

164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2013.801242

Madaus, G. F. (1988). The distortion of teaching and testing: High‐stakes testing and

instruction. Peabody Journal of Education, 65(3), 29-46.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01619568809538611

McDowell, L. (2010). Challenging assessment?, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher

Education, 35:3, 263-264, DOI: 10.1080/02602931003690819.

McDowell, L., Wakelin, D., Montgomery, C., & King, S. (2011). Does assessment for

learning make a difference? The development of a questionnaire to explore the

student response. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(7), 749-765.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.488792

Medland, E. (2014). Assessment in higher education: drivers, barriers and directions

for change in the UK. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, (ahead-of-

print), 1-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.982072

Mehrens, W. A. (1997). The consequences of consequential validity. Educational

Measurement: Issues and Practice, 16(2), 16-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-

3992.1997.tb00588.x

Messick, S. (1980). Test validity and the ethics of assessment. American psychologist,

35(11), 1012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.11.1012

Messick, S. (1989). Validity. In R. L. Linn (Ed.), Educational Measurement (pp. 13-

103). New York: American Council on Education/Macmillan.

Newton, P. E. (2005a). Threats to the professional understanding of assessment error.

Journal of Education Policy, 20(4), 457-483.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680930500132288

Newton, P. E. (2005b). The public understanding of measurement inaccuracy. British

Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 419-442.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01411920500148648

Newton, P. (2012). Clarifying the consensus definition of validity. Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge Assessment.

Northern Ireland Commissioner for Children and Young People (NICCY). (2010).

Talking transfer. Belfast: NICCY.

Osborne, R. D. (2006). Access to and participation in Higher Education in Northern

Ireland. Higher Education Quarterly, 60(4), 333-348.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2006.00327.x

Paddyq (2010, February 9). Unexpected D result in GL exam [Msg 1]. Message posted

to http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/forum/11plus/viewtopic.php?t=13503.


http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07311286

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9316-0

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2013.801242

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01619568809538611

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.488792

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2014.982072



http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.11.1012

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680930500132288

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01411920500148648

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2273.2006.00327.x

http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/forum/11plus/viewtopic.php?f=23&t=13503

http://www.elevenplusexams.co.uk/forum/11plus/viewtopic.php?t=13503


Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 38


Popham, W. J. (1997). Consequential validity: Right Concern‐Wrong Concept.

Educational measurement: Issues and practice, 16(2), 9-13.


Ricketts, C. (2010). A new look at resits: are they simply a second chance? Assessment

& Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(4), 351-356.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602931003763954

Brown, G. A., Bull, J., & Pendlebury, M. (2013). Assessing student learning in higher

education. Routledge.

Rowntree, D. (1987). Assessing Students: How shall we know them? London: Kogan

Page.

Remedios, R., Ritchie, K., & Lieberman, D. A. (2005). I used to like it but now I don't:

The effect of the transfer test in Northern Ireland on pupils' intrinsic motivation.

British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(3), 435-452.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709904X24771

Rust, C., M. Price, & B. O’Donovan. (2003). Improving students’ learning by

developing their understanding of assessment criteria and processes. Assessment &

Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(2), 147–64.

Shepard, L. A. (1997). The centrality of test use and consequences for test

validity. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 16(2), 5-24.


Sireci, S. G., & Faulkner-Bond, M. (2015). Promoting Validity in the Assessment of

English Learners. Review of Research in Education, 39(1), 215-252.

http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0091732X14557003

Stiggins, R. J. (1991). Assessment Literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(7), 534-39.

Smith, A., Birthistle, U., & Farrell, S. (2000). Teachers and selection in Northern

Ireland. In T. Gallagher, A. Smith (Eds.), The effects of the selective system of

secondary education in Northern Ireland: Main report (Vol. SEL 6.1). Department

of Education in Northern Ireland (DENI).

Stobart, G. (2008). Testing Times: The uses and abuses of assessment. London and New

York: Routledge.

Stobart, G. (2006). The Validity of Formative Assessment. In J. Gardner (Ed.),

Assessment and Learning (pp.133-146). London: SAGE.

Stobart, G. (2001). The validity of national curriculum assessment. British Journal of

Educational Studies, 49(1), 26-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-

00161

Taras, M. (2005). Assessment–summative and formative–some theoretical reflections.

British Journal of Educational Studies, 53(4), 466-478.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2005.00307.x

The Belfast Telegraph (2011, November 23). Even the lowest grade can get you into

grammar school: Two out of three took pupils who performed poorly in entrance

tests. Retrieved from: http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/even-

the-lowest-grade-can-get-you-into-grammar-school-28683932.html.

Wallace, S. (2008). Oxford Dictionary of Education. New York: Oxford University

Press.

Wiliam, D. (1992). Some Technical Issue in Assessment: a user’s guide. British Journal

of Curriculum and Assessment, 2 (3), 11-21.



http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02602931003763954

http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709904X24771


http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0091732X14557003

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00161

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8527.t01-1-00161

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8527.2005.00307.x

http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/even-the-lowest-grade-can-get-you-into-grammar-school-28683932.html

http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/education/even-the-lowest-grade-can-get-you-into-grammar-school-28683932.html


Vol. 4, No. 11, pp. 24-34, October 2016


Page | 39


Wiliam, D. (1993). Validity, dependability and reliability in national curriculum

assessment. The Curriculum Journal, 4(3), 335-350.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0958517930040303

Wiliam, D., & Black, P. (1996). Meanings and consequences: a basis for distinguishing

formative and summative functions of assessment? British Educational Research

Journal, 22(5), 537-548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141192960220502


http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0958517930040303

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141192960220502


Vol.4, No.11, pp.1-10, October 2016

Published by European Centre for Research Training and Development UK (www.eajournals.org)

1 ISSN 2054-6351 (print), ISSN 2054-636X (online)

ORAL LITERATURE AS A SPRING-BOARD FOR VALUE INCULCATION TO

CHILDREN

Dr. (Mrs) Nwigwe Nwakaego

Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education

Ebonyi State University

Abakaliki.

ABSTRACT: It has been observed that societal ills and vices abound in every nooks and crannies

of this country and all over the world. The rate at which the youths are involved in immoral

behaviour is a thing of concern to everyone. Many people are of the opinion that the disregard for

and loss of our rich indigenous cultural values that encourage morality and good behaviour which

the children and youths of the past were known for are responsible for these ugly situations in the

country today. Many children and youths do not speak their indigenous language (mother tongue)

neither do they understand the culture and traditions of their people. This is not surprising as

culture and tradition go hand in hand with language. This paper supports that the only way out is

for us to return to our cultural tradition which the people of the past used in entertaining and

educating their children and youths. The paper is of the view that oral literature (folktale), when

used to lay solid foundation in upbringing and education of the youths, will go a long way in

inculcating moral values to them. The paper also advises that parents and teachers should serve

as the mirror or model through which the children imitate and imbibe the societal values and aid

in curbing immoral behaviour in the society. It also aims proffering a teaching model by which

Igbo folktale can serve as a tool for inculcating core values to children and youths.

KEYWORDS: Oral literature, folktales, value inculcation, culture, tradition, children

INTRODUCTION

Oral literature means oral works of high merit which are products of the creative use of imagination

by the artist of the spoken words in pre-literate communities. Such works are composed mentally

by the illiterate raconteur; Stored in the memory and then spoken, recited, chanted or sung on

specific occasions (Ikwubuzo, 1993). It consists of both prose, verse, narratives, poems, songs,

myths, rituals and dramas, proverbs, folktales and riddles.Values on the other hand is the collection

of guiding principles; what one deems to be correct and desirable in life, especially regarding

personal conduct. They are beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is important in life

(Hornby, 2005). Ogunbameru and Rotimi (2006) observed that "values are all inclusive, deeply

internalized personal feeling that direct actions". Thus, values may not be seen, but are recognized

in the behaviour of the child. As leaders of tomorrow, the young ones are given the basic spiritual

and cultural training to enable them take over the adult responsibilities in order to maintain and

sustain the societal development. The use of Igbo oral literature (Folktale) as a tool for value

inculcation to children and youths is the concern of this paper. The emphasis is on Igbo folktales.

http://www.eajournals.org/





Historical Background to Value Inculcation to Children and Youths

Prior to the introduction of modern education, it was the oral tradition that parents in the past used

to express their ideas, values, norms, beliefs and culture and to pass them unto their children orally

using their native language (mother tongue), and through the active participation in and passive

observation of both formal and customary socio- religious, cultural and political institutions and

events (Fafunwa, 1991). A family supplements for any deficiency that any elder family members

discover in children's values and characters through the use of folktales, folksongs, proverbs and

riddles as pedagogic tools. Parents, especially the mothers in the traditional families could be seen

in their use of folktales, folksongs and riddles. Children sometimes stay with their parents

especially in the night to hear folktales, proverbs and riddles centering on some of the legendary

animals, for instance, tortoise, elephant or ants and the grasshoppers. These folktales, folksongs,

proverbs and riddles and their interpretations are based on how the people perceive and construe

their world. This may enhance the teaching of values which enable children to perceive and think

of how to behave at any given time and situation. "This may create fertile ground for the children

to develop the ability to understand the do’s and don’t’s in the society and may enhance peace and

harmony in the society" (Fiakpa, 2004).

In oral tradition, parental influence starts from the day a child is born. Mothers starts the training

of the child in Igbo core values through folksongs (Lullaby). From then, the child begin to imbibe

the values which are embedded in the song. Oral literature transmit important cultural and societal

values, knowledge and behaviours. Most children grow up hearing folktales from their

grandparents or parents and this rich oral tradition is instrumental in shaping their personality in

their formative stages of life. It has the role of creating value-based, socially responsible and civil

individuals. Similarly, oral literature have played a big role in preserving our culture and in doing

so people do not make concerted efforts; they do it by merely living their daily life. Any action,

work or participation in daily life is equivalent to living the culture and more so the transmission

of the culture and values to the younger generations. Thus, parents, grandparents and elders are

the mirror or models through which the children imitate the right moral values. This is corroborated

by Oladele (1991) when he says that a child's behaviour is often a reflection of his home training

and emulation of both parents and teachers, hence these adults should be alive to their

responsibilities and practise what they preach. This is also in line with Onwuka (1991) as he noted

that one of the best ways to teach anything is to present a concrete example of it because young

people of today are quick to spot adults who say one thing and do another. This advice is for

parents and teachers in their dealings with children and youths whether in their families (homes)

or in the classes (school).

Brief Survey of the Present Situations:

With the present status of Nigeria families, there seems to be a cultural evolution which has

influenced parent-child interactions. Most parents appear not to have the continuous contact with

their children because of their absence in search of means of livelihood (Mgboro, 2003). A

situation whereby some parents leave for work in the early hour of the day only to come back late

at night when the children must have gone to sleep is not healthy for proper development of the

child in terms of character formation which traditional system of education emphasized. Many






children and youths do not speak or understand their mother tongue (Igbo) forgetting that mother

tongue is a value by itself. Since language is a means of transmitting the cultural traditions of

ethnic groups, it then means that their inability to speak and understand their local language has

also denied them the opportunity of understanding their culture and traditions. This is because

culture and traditions essentially go hand in hand with language. It was observed that in some

schools teachers use English in teaching Igbo folktales. This is absolutely wrong as Igbo

cultural values cannot be properly explained using a foreign language.

In the same vein Ibli (2000) observes that in the modern societies, literature has become distanced

from the daily life of most people. Many Nigerian youths and children have lost touch with their

ethnic folklore. These days it is not common-place to find people gathered around a raconteur

eagerly listening to fables, folktales, proverbs and riddles and other form of traditional literature

which are reeled out by his sonorous voice". These days too, traditional festivals and ceremonies

which created avenues for the enactment of the histrionics and renditions of songs associated with

dramatic forms of traditional literature are becoming rare. Even when they are organized, one

easily observes intrusions of varied manifestations of western culture.

Villages (the habitat and bedrock of African cultures and civilizations) are gradually all becoming

urban layouts in which people do not choose their neighbours and children do not mix freely. There

is no time for moonlight plays, games, and storytelling through which children learn the right

attitude to life. The resultant effect is that children and youths are fast losing the values of Igbo

culture and traditions. Little wonder, there are rising cases of juvenile delinquency, disruptive or

anti-social behaviour, disobedience, dishonesty, stealing and other defiant behaviour that are

generally associated with anti-social vices among youths. This ravaging phenomenon is the cause

of some of the major problems faced by the Igbo (African) child today.

Ojukwu and Esimone (2014) observed that even "the power of religion is beginning to seem

ineffective in fighting moral decadence in the society as the religious institutions themselves have

indulged more in the pursuance of materialistic gains". The question then is, what is the way out?

Where do we go from here? It is the position of this paper that one way to get rid of these societal

vices is to return to the good old days core values of our ancestors, which must be used to lay the

basic foundation for the education of our children. As mentioned earlier, these core values are

embedded in our oral literature (folktales/folksongs). Since our fore fathers used them to educate

their young ones and it worked for them, there is no reason why we cannot use it again today in

our various families (homes) and in the classes (school system), to educate and entertain our

children and youths so as to inculcate traditional values in them. This inculcation can be achieved

through the performance and teaching of Igbo oral literature (folktales) at home and in the

classroom so that the rich Igbo cultural heritage will not go into extinction. Parents and teachers

should wake up to their responsibilities and act while the sun shines.

Using Igbo Folktales in Home Environment (Family)

Hornby defines folktales as a very old traditional story from a particular place that was originally

passed on to people in a spoken form. The term however is usually extended to include stories by






known authors which after they were printed, were adopted and transmitted orally by the people.

As mentioned earlier, the Igbo nuclear or extended family functions as a school where

grandparents,. Parents, elders and other family member educate and prepare children for their adult

life through folktales. One notable writer and a poet Schiller wrote "Deeper meaning reside in the

fairy tales told to me in my childhood than in any truth that is taught in life".

Story telling is a very important way of spending leisure and pastime among the Igbos both young

and old. The .practice of storytelling has drastically changed and many children and young people

are ignorant of the folktales their people used to instruct and entertain children in the past. Many

of these folktales are accompanied with melodious songs or refrains which children find interesting

and entertaining. They can be taught the songs and they can' participate in the performance by

singing along or by simply repeating the chorus as the mother, father or grandparent tells the story.

The choruses are intended to make everybody take part in the story and also for keeping

children/people awake when stories are told around the house hold fires. As they enjoy the story,

they also imbibe the core values of the Igbo people which are embedded in the story. Stories should

be told and performed in the children's ethnic language (Igbo) so that they can learn to appreciate

and speak the language. The beauty, rhythms, sounds and tonal inflections of the language will

create permanent impressions in the minds of the young ones. By so doing, the cultural traditions

of the Igbos are being transmitted to the younger, generations through the language in storytelling.

This is line with the advice by Natasha Post that "the great and the most powerful gift a parent can

give their children is to pass their language and culture to him/her". This can be achieved through

story telling in Igbo language.

Igbo folktales, apart from the amusement they give, are very useful for they are mostly didactic.

Stories used to educate and entertain younger children must be carefully selected and must be

appropriate for their age and level of understanding in terms of subject matter. The aim is to choose

stories that inculcate in children such core values as love, courage, obedience, kindness, patience,

sincerity, hard work, tolerance and forgiveness. As Okoye (2000) rightly observes that the

"didactic purpose of oral literature (folktales) is achieved through a careful selection of themes

(mainly involving an exhibition of some vices or wickedness) and manipulation of the story or

songs in such a way as to result in the punishment of vice or the reward of virtue". For example, a

typical character in most Igbo folktales is the tortoise (Mbe). He is usually presented as a crafty,

greedy and unfaithful character who suffers at the end of his mischief. Several tales are told of this

crafty animal. At one time he stole his in-law's pottage, and ended up losing the hair on his head.

He also craftily took the elephant captive by pretending to be leading the elephant to his (the

elephants's) installation as king. The elephant later fell into a hole concealed under the kings

throne. Tortoise (Mbe) also tricked the dog into running a race

against him, which he won through his craftiness, etc. Anyone listening to such stories are expected

to learn to change one's negative attitude and character in the society.

The stories (Folktales) told to children have the following advantages according to Abatan (2014):

a. They sensitize children to their immediate environment.

b. They help the children to develop self-confidence.






c. They also sharpen the children's survival instinct.

d. Folktales increase the children's patriotism.

e. They enhance moral development.

Below are some examples of Igbo folktales/folksongs for value inculcation and their English

translation, and moral implications. This story is taken from Omalinze a Book of Igbo folktale.

Title: Anụ Tụrụ Agwa ga-alụ Ọnalụ (only the spotted animal will marry Ọnalụ)

Once upon a time, there lived a rich pregnant woman. Although she was very rich, the only thing

she desired so much to eat was the caterpillar that usually fell from the tree near her house. All the

animals including tortoise, leopard, goat etc use to gather there in search of the caterpillar. Because

of the woman's pregnancy, she could not struggle with the animals in picking the caterpillar. She

pleaded with them to allow her pick caterpillar. All of them refused except the animal called Ọgịnị

that had compassion on the woman, gave her caterpillar and from that day promised to be

supplying the woman with caterpillar until she delivers her baby. This woman was very pleased

with the kindness shown to her by Ọgịnị. That explains why when she deliver her baby called

Ọnalụ, she gave her in marriage to Ọgịnị instead of the other animals that were very rude to her in

time of need.

This story is accompanied with a melodious song. The first animal to knock at the woman's door

to ask for Ọnalụ hand in marriage was the goat.

Kpam! Kpaml Kpam! - kparanụma

Ole anụ na-akụ n’ụzọ? - kparanụma


O bu ewu na-akụ n’ụzọ - kparanụma

Wụwụrụ gị chighaa azụ - kparanụma

I nyere m egu ọna? - kparanụma

Oge m di ime Ọnalụ - kparanụma

Ọnalụ akụ ego e e - kparanụma

Anụ tụrụ agwa ga-alụ Ọnalụ - kparanụma

Through this chorus, goat's request was turned down. Other animals, leopard,

monkey, tortoise etc, took their turn to knock at the woman's door to ask for Ọnalụ’s

hand in marriage but their requests were rejected one after the other.

Translation 1 Refrain

Knock! Knock! Knock! - kparanụma

Which animal is knocking at the door? - kparanụma


Goat is knocking at the door - kparanụma

You goatee go back - kparanụma

Did you give me caterpillar? - kparanụma

When I was pregnant of Ọnalụ - kparanụma






Ọnalụ is for wealth - kparanụma

Only the spotted animal will marry Ọnalụ - kparanụma

When it was the turn of Ọgịnị to knock at the door. The song was different:-

(2) Kpam! Kpam! Kpam! kparanụma



Ọ bụ gịnị na-akụ n’ụzọ - kparanụma

Gịgịrị gị batawa o o - kparanụma

I nyere m egu ọna o o - kparanụma

Oge m di ime . Ọnalụ o o - kparanụma

Ọ nalụ akụ nwa - kparanụma

Ọ bu gị ga-alụ Ọnalụ - kparanụma

Translation 2 Refrain

Knock! Knock! Knock! Knock! - kparanụma



Ọgịnị is knocking at the door - kparanụma

Gịgịrị you come inside 0 0 - kparanụma

You gave me caterpillar to eat - kparanụma

When I was pregnant of Ọnalụ - kparanụma

Ọnalụ is a child for wealth 0 - kparanụma

You are the one to marry Ọnalụ 0 - kparanụma

And they lived happily ever

Moral lesson from the story: devotion to kindness. Children will imbibe the virtue of being kind

to their parents, siblings, elderly ones and to everyone in the society.

It pays to do good. Other Igbo folktale/folksongs include:

(2) Omaraugo

Theme: Pride goes before a fall. Moral lesson: This story teaches humility, obedience, respect for

elders, diligent to duty and that there is always retribution for every evil act.

(3). Nwa Enwe Nne na Ukwu Udara (The motherless child and the Apple Tree):

Theme:- Perseverance and hard work are virtues.

Moral lessonr- The story teaches that hard work does not kill, instead there is reward for hard

work. The story condemns wickedness injustice and laziness.

Using Igbo folktales in our School System

Value inculcation to our children using folktales should also be extended to our youths in schools.

The story telling techniques should be worked into the school curricula at all level of education

sector especially at the primary and secondary school levels. The stories told at this level may also

be more complex and touch on every subject relevant to the Igbo philosophy, world view and






tradition. Ghost stories, fantasy, the supernatural and stories emanating from myths, legend and

history are suitable for the up bringing of the youths. Proverbs and riddles should be made available

to the youth. The art of conversation and the application of proverbs and riddles should be taught

as well.

However, it has been observed that during the period of literature in Igbo language in the school-

time table for example, the teachers sees it as a "time to rest" due to their lack of understanding of

the important role of literature to the lives of the children and youths. Teachers usually tell the

students to go outside and tell stories which the teacher will not even be there to supervise. The

problem is that the teachers cannot give what they don't have. They were teaching the same way

they were taught.

Oral literature especially folktales, proverbs, riddles supposed to be handled by a competent

teacher who has the knowledge of story-telling art/techniques. The teachers must use Igbo

language in teaching and she/he should desist from using English Language in telling Igbo stories.

As mentioned earlier, Igbo culture and traditions which are embedded in the folktales cannot be

properly explained using a foreign language.

The work of moulding and re moulding the minds of the youths with the core values abundantly

found in our folklore is the primary duty of every parent and teachers in our school today. And

teachers are advised to use the model suggested below for effective teaching of folktale that will

result in the inculcation of our core values to our children and youths in order to have a crime

free and better society.






Below is a suggested teaching model for teachers of folklore (folktale) for value inculcation

to children and youths

A diagrammatical representation of the teaching model for inculcating values to children

and youths.

(1) For oral tales, students should be made to narrate home-learnt folktales in their classes, and

they should be lectured less. Teacher or a class volunteer who knows the story could then narrate

it, while the rest of the class joins in singing any accompanying songs or refrains. The story should

not be taught, rather, students should be rather made to enjoy, focusing on value inculcation

through entertainment, not on examination. This is corroborated by Ohiri- Aniche (1991) where

she advised that "no matter the genre that is being dealt with, discussion and critical analysis should

be kept at a low ebb". As the students enjoy the story, they also imbibe the core values of Igbo

people which are embedded in the form and. content of the story. Stories should be told and

performed in Igbo language so that children/students could learn to appreciate and speak Igbo.

Teachers must ensure that only Igbo language is used in narrating Igbo folktales.

(2) For written stories as contained in, perhaps, class reader, teacher could give students time to

read silently before discussion takes place. After reading, or narration, the next step is to ensure

Folktale/Story-Telling

Oral tales

Narrating stories

(Student or teacher)

repeating, singing and

clapping the

refrains/choruses

Written Tales

Teacher or student read

the story

Questions/answers

Lesson learnt and

value inculcation

Questions/answers

Lesson learnt and

value inculcation

Activities

Dramatization, role

play, miming,

mimicry, clapping

and dancing

Collection of

artifacts,

costumes and

moulded objects

Debating,

discussions and

sharing thoughts

Lesson learnt and

value inculcation






that everybody has understood the story.

(3) The teacher tried to find out if they understood the lesson through questioning technique -

who did or said what and to whom? Where and when did such and such take place? The teacher

also explains the meaning of words and structures, while culturally significant details and moral

values are pointed out.

(4) Using some higher order questions, the teacher could lead the students to go beyond literal

comprehension and gain useful insight about themselves, other people and the entire society. The

teacher could ask the students on the elements they found interesting in the story and why? He

could ask them their opinion on certain events and characters and the moral lessons they learnt

from the story.

(5) Teacher should also introduce these other activities that makes for an interesting

literature class:

(a) Dramatization, role- play, mimicry or mime. In these activities, students will learn to

put themselves in the position of those characters they read in the stories. Teacher should create

situation in the classroom that provide opportunities for students to take the role of any of the

characters in the story.

(b) Students should be involved in collecting or creating relevant artifacts, costumes and

moulded objects.

(c) Debating, discussing and sharing thoughts and feelings on issues raised in the story.

(d) Students should sing and dance the folksongs. As they learn the traditional lyrics and

tunes, as they dance the traditional steps, they are participating in the Igbo cultural heritage.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The paper therefore recommends the following:

(a) Parents should endeavour to expose their children to the folktales of their community

from their early stages even after they have been exposed to formal education (schooling).

(b) The teacher training programme should prepare teachers to cope effectively with the

use of folktales/story/telling in the classroom situations.

CONCLUSION

In this paper, effort has been made to show how we can teach our children and youths the core

values embedded in Igbo oral literature (folktales) in the families (home environment) and in the

classes (schools). Parents and teachers are advised to wake up to their responsibilities of

inculcating moral values to their children and youths so as to curb immoral behaviour that are

prevalent in the society. Finally, a story-telling teaching model for inculcating values to children

and youths is suggested for teachers. Finally, Igbos (Africans) themselves must cease to regard our

oral literature as primitive.






REFERENCES

Abatan O.L. (2013). The Folklorist as Teacher. Towards the use of Story- Telling Pedagogy.

Depart of Language College of Humanities, Tai Solarin University of Education.

Omalinze: A Book oflgbo Folktales (1977). In E.N Emenanjo (Edtj.Ibadan.Oxford University

Press.

Fafunwa, A.B (1991) History of Education in Nigeria. NPS Educational Publishers Limited

Onitsha.

Fiakpa, S. (2004). School Discipline and Value re- orientation. Journal of Society for Educational

Psychologists,S (5) 120-127.

Hornby, A.S (2005). Oxford Advanced learner's University Press. Dictionary of Current English.

Oxford University Press.

Ibli, E.U (2000). Literature and National Development: In Bisong J.O (Edt) Obudu Journal of

Languages. Vol. 2 (1).

Ikwubuzo, I. (1993). "Towards A Classification of Igbo Riddles". In Ihafa, Journal of African

Studies Department of African Language and Literature University of Lagos.

Mgboro C.U (2003). Parental acceptance/rejection as correlates of creativity among Primary

School Pupils. An Unpublished Ph. D Thesis University of Nigeria. Nsukka.

Ogunbameru, K.A and Rotimi, W.R (2006). Man and his social environment: a textbook of

sociology. Ibadan. Spectrum Books Ltd. Pp 120-132.

Ojukwu, E.V and Esimone, C.C (2014. Inculcating morals in Adolescents through the

Igbo Folk music. The West East Institute 2014.

ladele, J. 0 (1991) Fundamentals of Psychological Foundation of Education John' s- Lad Publishers

Ltd. Lagos.

Onwuka, U. (1991). Curriculum Developmentfor Africa. Onitsha: Africana-Fep Publishers Ltd pp.

19.

Okoye, H.C. (2000). "Aspect of Igbo culture and National Development". In Bisong J.O (Edt.)

Obudu Journal of Languages. Vol2 (1).

Ohiri-Aniche, C. (1991). Teaching Igbo Mother Tongue in the Secondary School. In Theory and

Practice of Educational Adeyoyin (edt.) Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.

Ugonna, N. (1980). Abu na egwuregwu Odinaala Igbo. Longman Nigeria Ltd. Ikeja



Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


43


ADULT LEARNERS’ PREFERENCES IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING: A

CASE OF AFRICA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY (AIU), KENYA

Francisca Wavinya Ngala

Quality Assurance Officer/Assistant Lecturer, Education Department

Africa International University

Box 24686 - 00502, Karen, Nairobi

ABSTRACT: The adult learner emerges in the education system as a new breed of learner that

the traditional education system had not anticipated. This poses challenges to the traditional

education system as student preferences of various learning styles may shift depending on the

learning situation. This paper is a call for lecturers in institutions of higher learning to develop

teaching strategies that match the learning preferences of post-graduate students for enhanced

learning. Descriptive survey design which used the cross-sectional approach to data collection

was adopted. The population constituted all the 397 post-graduate students at Africa

International University out of which a sample of 199 participants from the post-graduate

Diploma, Masters’ level and Doctoral programmes was obtained. Data collection was done

using a questionnaire guide and analysed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). A

modified version of the Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales (GRSLSS) was used to

measure the learning preferences. The findings revealed that majority of the students preferred

participant, both independent and dependent and collaborative learning. Learning preferences

vary according to the learning situation and the teachers’ style. The paper recommends exposure

to various learning strategies by lecturers.

KEYWORDS: Adult Learning, Post-graduate, Learner Preferences, GRSLSS.

INTRODUCTION

The training experience of teachers has not prepared them as may require for one to engage in

teaching of post-graduate students. Vella (1995) asserted that most educators recognize that they

teach in the same way as they were taught. Unless their training provides them with a new

experience of education, as teachers they will revert to their known framework, their familiar

model. The implication is that lecturers need to be specifically trained to handle adult learners, as

their earlier training had not considered adult learners as unique and in need of different

pedagogical strategies. In most cases, if the lecturers were not treated as adults by their trainers

they may also not treat their students as adults.

This inquiry was birthed by Brookfield’s (1986) observation that we should be careful about

generalization of studies on adult learning derived from white Americans when we know so little

about learning styles of other races such as Asians and Africans and bearing in mindthat learning

takes place in context. The study also expounded on the findings by Bowen (1984) and

Buconyori (1991) on the learning styles of African students.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


44


LITERATURE UNDERPINNING

Learning Preferences

Keefe (1979) defines learning styles as characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological

behaviours that serve as the relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with

and respond to the environment. This definition suggests that the learning style is a broader

concept which not only includes cognitive styles but also includes affective and physiological

styles. It is therefore a major misconception to use cognitive style as a synonym for learning

styles since it covers only one aspect of learning style. Messick (1979) defines cognitive style as

information processing habits presenting the learner’s typical mode of perceiving, thinking,

problem solving and remembering. This definition excludes other aspects of learning style

namely affective and physiological which are crucial as the three domains are necessary in any

learning process. From the above definitions, cognitive styles and learning styles are not

synonymous and should not be used as such.

Interest in learning preferences “grew out of humanistic psychology and learning theory which

places greatest emphasis on leaner as a person” (Yount, 1999, p.176). This is in recognition of

individual differences in the learners which is a very important aspect in learning. It should be

acknowledged that the learners are unique and this influences the ways they prefer to learn. An

understanding of how learners prefer to learn in turn may influence how the instructors design

courses and instructional methods to match the preferences of their learners. Research has shown

that matching student’s learning preferences with the teaching preferences improves

performance. Learning preferences of students come to mind whenever there is a discussion on

individual differences among students. To realize that students are unique even in the ways they

prefer to learn is a major step towards improving instructional practice. Learning preferences of

university students need to be identified so as to provide teaching strategies that match those

preferences for improved performance (Claxton & Murrel, 1987).

The Grasha -Riechmann learning style which uses the Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning

Styles Scale (GRSLSS) to determine learning preferences was used. This instrument is more

appropriate as it was specifically developed for adult learners though in a different context and

culture from the present study context. What determines how adult students prefer to learn is the

question, thus this paper establishes some of the factors that influence the student preferences of

the style of learning.

METHODOLOGY

Africa International University was the institution of focus. All 397 post-graduate students

enrolled in three post-graduate level (Doctoral, Masters and Post-graduate Diploma)

programmes. The students were enrolled in two broad academic disciplines classified as

Humanities and Social Sciences and Professional and Applied Sciences. The population entailed

both male and female students in their young and middle adulthood. Samples of students from all

post-graduate programmes at the university were drawn using stratified and systematic random

sampling.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


45


Nachmias and Nachmias (1996, p. 188) and Mugenda and Mugenda (2003, p. 49) observe that

stratified sampling produces more inclusive samples as they incorporate subgroups of small

populations which would have been completely left out if other sampling methods were used.

Within each stratum, systematic random sampling was done to obtain a random sample. A

random sample implies that each person in the target population had an equal chance of being

selected. Systematic random sampling was done by first dividing the total population of each

programme by the sample sizes obtained for the programmes. A sample size of 50 percent of the

target population was used. Questionnaires were used to collect data. .

The factors which formed the independent variables included: age, gender and the academic

discipline of the learners. The learning preferences were the dependent variables and they

included: dependent/independent, avoidant/participant, and competitive/collaborative learning

preferences. The Likert scale which asks for the extent of agreement with an item was used in the

questionnaire. The scales were planned on a 5-point scale with responses ranging from strongly

disagree to strongly agree (Gall et al., 2003, p. 229; Nachmias & Nachmias 1996, P. 114). On the

five-point Likert scale provided, participants were expected to choose from five attitude

responses ranging from extremely negative (strongly disagree) to extremely positive (strongly

agree). In three dimensions, the first set of questions investigated the dependent/independent

mode of the GRSLSS, the second section was designed to investigate the avoidant/participant

dimensions of the GRSLSS and the third was designed to investigate the

competitive/collaborative dimensions of the GRSLSS. The benchmarks for deciding the learning

preferences of the respondents were set on these three dimensions. This was because the

questionnaire was designed in such a way that a very strong independent, participant and

collaborative respondent was likely to choose strongly agree which was rated 5.The Likert scale

was appropriate for this study as it was measuring attitude in terms of learning preferences.

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data and regression

techniques were used for correlation to establish relationships and the magnitude of those

relationships.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Academic Programmes

To identify the academic disciplines of the student participants, table 1 below depicts the

responses. Majority (73.5%) of the respondents belonged to the Humanities and Social Sciences.

This was probably due to the fact that the majority of post-graduate students in the university

take religion-related courses. Professional and Applied Sciences category was represented by

26.5% of the respondents. The Natural and Formal Science category was unsurprisingly not

represented because such courses were not offered at the university. Table 1 gives a summary of

the academic discipline representation.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


46


Table 1: Respondents’ academic discipline

Academic discipline Frequency Percent Valid

Percent

Humanities and Social

Sciences

122 72.2 73.5

Professional and Applied

Sciences

44 26.0 26.5

Natural and Formal Sciences 0 0 0

Total 166 98.2 100.0

No response 3 1.8

Total 169 100.0

The Humanities and Social Sciences academic discipline is the most popular programme among

the post-graduate students. Further multivariate analysis was done on different factors to

establish the students’ preferences based on dependent/independent, avoidant/participant, and

competitive/collaborative learning style preferences. The key below is for the various

abbreviations adopted by the author.

Key YAMH&S-Young adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences

YAFH&S- Young adult females of Humanities and Social Sciences

MAMH&S- Middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences

MAFH&S- Middle-aged females of Humanities and Social Sciences

YAMP&A-Young adult males of Professional and Applied Sciences

YAFP&A- Young adult females of Professional and Applied Sciences

MAMP&A-Middle-aged males of Professional and Applied Sciences

MAFP&A- Middle-aged females of Professional and Applied Sciences

Independent/ dependent Dimension

Preference to work alone

Table 2: Multiple variables and preference to work alone Disagree Undecided Agree Total

Count Count Count Count

YAMH&S 20 25.4% - 0% 59 74.6% 79 100%

YAFH&S 15 36.6% - 0% 26 63.4% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - 0% 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - 0% - 0% - 0% - -

YAMP&A 6 30% 1 5% 13 65% 20 100%

YAFP&A 3 18.8% 0 0% 13 81.2% 16 100%

MAMP&A 0 0% - 0% 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A 0 0% - 0% 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded 5

Total 45 1 118 169

R=.125 R2=.016 critical value =.497 df =14 Confidence level = 0.05


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


47


Table 2 is a multivariate analysis on preferences of work alone out of which, majority of young

adult males and females were likely to prefer independent learning, in doing assignments. Young

adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences represented 74.6% while 63.4% represented

females of the same category who agreed with the assertion that they prefer to work alone. The

middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed equally

between independent and dependent learning preferences in doing assignments. They were

represented by 50% agreement and 50% disagreement with the assertion.

Majority (65%) males and (81.2%) females of the young adults in the Professional and Applied

Sciences discipline were likely to prefer independent learning, in doing assignments. The

middle-aged adults (100%) males and 100%, for the only female respectively in this discipline

most likely preferred independent learning. In testing the hypothesis, the statistical analysis

revealed an R value of .125, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14 df required to

reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of .016, which

implies that all the variables combined can explain only 1.6% of the variance in preference to

work alone, which is a negligible relationship. The hypotheses were not rejected but rather

affirmed that there is no difference, statistically between the combined variables and preference

to study alone.

Confidence to learn without assistance

Table 3: Multiple variables and confidence to learn without assistance Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 26 33.4% 1 1.3% 51 65.4% 78 100%

YAFH&S 15 36.6% 0 - 26 63.4% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 4 19% - - 17 81% 21 100%

YAFP&A 3 18.7% - - 13 81.3% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded 5

Total 49 1 84 169


Table 3 indicates that majority (65.4% and 63.4%) of young adult males and females

respectively in the Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer independent learning, in

relation to confidence in learning. They showed confidence about their ability to learn on their

own. The middle-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed

equally between dependent and independent learning preferences, in relation to confidence in

learning. They were represented by 50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.

In the Professional and Applied Sciences, majority (81% and 81.3%) of young adult males and

females respectively were likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to confidence in

learning. The middle-aged adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were found to prefer


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


48


independent learning, in relation to confidence in learning. They were represented by 100%

agreement with the assertion for all the males and the only female.

The statistical analysis revealed an R value of .209, which was smaller than the critical value of

.497 at 14 df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2

value of .044, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 4.4% of the

variance in confidence in learning alone, which is a negligible relationship. The author therefore

did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there was no difference, statistically,

between the combined variables and confidence in learning.

Developing own ideas about course content

Table 4: Multiple variables and developing own ideas about course content Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 27 35% 4 5.2% 46 59.8% 77 100%

YAFH&S 15 36.6% 6 14.6% 20 48.8% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%

YAMP&A 6 28.5% 0 0% 15 71.5% 21 100%

YAFP&A 1 6.3% 2 12.5% 3 81.2% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded 6

Total 50 12 101 169


Table 4 reveals that in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 59.8% of young adult males were

likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a course, as they

affirmed the assertion that they like to develop their own ideas about course content. The middle

-aged males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to be distributed equally between

dependent and independent learning preferences, in relation to developing own ideas about a

course. They were represented by 50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.

In the Professional and Applied Sciences 71.5% of young adult males and 81.2% of young adult

females were likely to prefer independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a

course. This was shown by their agreement with the statement that they like to develop own

ideas about course content. The middle-aged adults in this discipline were all likely to prefer

independent learning, in relation to developing own ideas about a course, as demonstrated by

100% agreement with the assertion that they like to develop own ideas about course content for

all the males and the only female.



value of .078, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 7.8 % of the

variance in developing own ideas about course content, which is a negligible relationship. The


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


49


author therefore did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there was no difference,

statistically, between the combined variables and developing own ideas about course content.

Non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important

Table 5: Multiple variables and non-reliance on teachers to tell me what is important to learn Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 43 54.5% 2 2.5% 34 43% 79 100%

YAFH&S 20 48.8% 1 2.4% 20 48.8% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%

YAMP&A 11 52.3% - - 10 47.6% 21 100%

YAFP&A 5 31.2% - - 11 68.7% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% - 100%

MAFP&A 1 100% - - - - 1 100%

Discarded 4

Total 81 3 81 165


Table 5 indicates that young adult males of Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer

dependent learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important. This is

depicted by 54.5% disagreement with the assertion that they did not rely on teachers to tell them

what is important for them to learn. The middle age males of Humanities and Social Sciences

were likely to be distributed equally between dependent and independent learning preferences,

with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important. They were represented by

50% disagreement and 50% agreement with the assertion.

In the Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males were likely to prefer dependent

learning as shown by shown by 52.3% disagreement with the assertion. 68.7% of females in this

category agreed with the assertion, which suggested likely independent preferences. All the

middle-aged males in Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer independent

learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important, as demonstrated by

100% agreement with the assertion. On the other hand the only middle-aged female was likely to

prefer dependent learning, with reference to non-reliance on teachers to tell what is important, as

shown by 100% disagreement with the assertion.




variance in non-reliance on teachers to tell them what is important, which is a negligible

relationship. The author therefore did not reject all the hypotheses but rather affirmed that there

was no difference, statistically, between the combined variables and non-reliance on teachers to

tell what is important.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


50


Participant/ Avoidant Dimension

Participation in all aspects of the course

Table 6Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and participating in all aspects of a course Variables Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 3 3.8% 1 1.3% 75 94.9% 79 100%

YAFH&S 4 9.7% - - 37 90.5% 41 100%

MAMH&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 2 9.6% - - 19 90.4% 21 100%

YAFP&A 3 18.7% 1 6.3% 12 75% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

5

Total 12

2 150 169


The multivariate analysis in relation to participating in all aspects of a course as seen in Table 6

revealed no significant differences between the young adult males and females of Humanities

and Social Sciences. Majority (94.9% and 90.3%) of males and females respectively were likely

to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a course. This was

suggested by males and females in this category, who responded favourably with the assertion

that they participate in all aspects of a course.

The middle-aged adult males (100%) in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer

participant learning in relation to participating in all aspects of a course. In the Professional and

Applied Sciences, majority (90.4% and 75%) of young adult males and females respectively

were likely to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a course.

The middle-aged (100%) adults in the Professional and Applied Science discipline were

overwhelmingly likely to prefer participant learning, in relation to participating in all aspects of a

course.




variance in participating in all aspects of a course, which is a negligible relationship. There was

no significant difference, statistically, between the combined variables and participating in all

aspects of a course.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


51


Table 7 Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and positive attitude to attendance of class

sessions

Variable

Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 5 6.3% 0 0% 74 93.7% 79 100%

YAFH&S 4 9.8% 1 2.4% 36 87.8% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 3 14.3% - - 18 85.7% 21 100%

YAFP&A 5 31.3% - - 11 68.7% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

4

Total 18

1 146 169


In relation to positive attitude to attendance of class sessions, it was found out thattheyoung adult

males and females were likely to prefer participant learning. This is demonstrated by 93.2% and

87.8% of young adult males and females respectively who agreed with the assertion that class

sessions are worth attending. The middle-aged adult males were likely to be equally distributed

between participant and avoidant learning preferences depicting a 50% agreement and 50%

disagreement. In Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males and females showing

85.7% and 68.7% respectively were likely to prefer participant learning. All (100%) middle-age

adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were in agreement with the assertion.




variance in positive attitude to attendance of class sessions, which is a negligible relationship.

Table 8: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and preference to study for tests with other

students

Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 19 24.1% 2 2.5% 58 73.4% 79 100%

YAFH&S 6 15.8% 2 5.3% 30 78.9% 38 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 4 19% 1 4.8% 16 76.2% 21 100%

YAFP&A 8 50% - - 8 50% 16 100%

MAMP&A 3 60% - - 2 40% 5 100 %

MAFP&A

- - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

7

Total 41

5 116 169



Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


52


Table 8 shows that majority (73.4% and 78.9%) of young adult males and females respectively

in the Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer participant learning with reference to

studying for tests with other students. The middle-aged adult males were likely to be equally

distributed between participant and avoidant learning preferences, with reference to studying for

tests with other students. 50% of the respondents in this category agreed and 50% disagreed with

the statement. In Professional and Applied Sciences the young adult males were likely to prefer

participant learning, with reference to studying for tests with other students. 76.2% of young

adult males agreed with the assertion. The middle-aged adult males of Professional and Applied

Sciences were likely to prefer avoidant learning, as 60% did not affirm the assertion. The only

middle-aged adult female of Professional and Applied Sciences was likely to prefer participant

learning with reference to studying for tests with other students, as she affirmed the assertion.




variance in studying for tests with other students, which is a negligible relationship. It was thus

affirmed that there was no difference, statistically, between the combined variables and studying

for tests with other students.

Table 9: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and not finding it difficult to pay attention Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 5 6.3% 2 2.5% 72 91.2% 79 100%

YAFH&S 4 9.8% 3 7.3% 34 82.9% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 3 14.3% - - 18 85.7% 21 100%

YAFP&A 4 25% - - 12 75% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

4

Total 17

5 143 169


The multivariate analysis in relation to not finding it difficult to pay attention, as reported in

Table9, revealed that the majority of young adult males and females in Humanities and Social

Sciences were likely to prefer participant learning, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay

attention as represented by 91.2% and 82.9% males and females respectively. The middle-aged

adult males were likely to be equally distributed between participant and avoidant learning

preferences, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay attention. 50% of the respondents in

this category agreed and 50% disagreed with the statement.

In the Professional and Applied Sciences, the young adult most (85.7% and 75%) males and

females were likely to prefer participant learning with reference to not finding it difficult to pay


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


53


attention. All (100%) middle-age adults in the Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to

prefer participant learning, with reference to not finding it difficult to pay attention.




variance in not finding it difficult to pay attention, which is a negligible relationship.

Collaborative/ Competitive Dimension

Table 10:Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and willingness to help other students Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 3 4.1% - - 70 95.9% 73 100%

YAFH&S 2 4.9% - - 39 95.1% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 1 4.8% - - 20 95.2% 21 100%

YAFP&A 2 12.5% - - 14 87.4% 16 100%

MAMP&S - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

10

Total 9

150 169


According to Table 10it was found that majority (95.9% and 95.1%) of young adult males and

females respectively in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative

learning, with reference willingness to help other students. The middle-aged males were equally

distributed between likely collaborative and likely competitive learning preferences, with

reference willingness to help other students showing 50% agreement and 50% disagreement with

the assertion.

In Professional and Applied Sciences, the majority (95.2% and 87.4%) of young adult males and

females respectively were likely to prefer collaborative learning. All (100%) middle-aged males

and the only female in Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative

learning, with reference willingness to help other students.

The analysis revealed an R value of .066, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14

df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of

.004, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 0.4% of the variance in

willingness to help other students, which is a negligible relationship.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


54


Table 11: Multivariate analysis: Discipline and team learning in class sessions Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 4 5.1% - - 74 94.9% 78 100%

YAFH&S 4 9.7% - - 37 90.3% 41 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&S - - - - 21 100% 21 100%

YAFP&S 2 12.4% 1 6.2% 14 87.4% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

5

Total 11

153 169


Table 11 in relation to team learning in class sessions, shows majority (94.9% and 90.3%) of

young adult males and females respectively in Humanities and Social Sciences being likely to

prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning. of young adult males and females,

respectively agreed with the assertion that class sessions help them feel like part of a team, where

people help each other to learn. The middle-aged males were equally distributed between likely

collaborative and likely competitive learning preferences, with reference to team learning. 50%

of the respondents agreed and 50% disagreed with the assertion.

In the Professional and Applied Sciences, majority (100% and 87.4%) of the males and females

respectively were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning. All

(100%) the middle-aged males and the only female in the Professional and Applied Sciences

were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to team learning.




variance in team learning in class sessions, which is a negligible relationship.

Table 12: Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and sharing ideas with each other Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total


YAMH&S 2 2.6% - - 76 97.4% 78 100%

YAFH&S 3 7.5% - - 37 93.5% 40 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - -

YAMP&A 0 - - - 21 100% 21 100%

YAFP&S 2 12.5% - - 14 87.5% 16 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&S - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

6

Total 8

155 169



Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


55


According to Table12, which reports on multiple variables and sharing ideas with each other, it

was found that majority (97.4% and 93.5%) of young adult males and females in Humanities and

Social Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to sharing ideas with

each other. of young adult males and females, respectively agreed with the assertion that students

should be encouraged to share their ideas with each other.

The middle-aged males were equally distributed between likely collaborative and likely

competitive learning preferences, with reference to sharing ideas with each other. 50% of the

respondents agreed and 50% disagreed with the assertion. In the Professional and Applied

Sciences the majority (100% and 87.5%) of the young adult males and females respectively were

likely to prefer collaborative learning. All (100%) middle-aged adults of Professional and

Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to sharing ideas

with each other.



value of .025, which implies that all the variables combined can explain only 2.5 % of the

variance in sharing ideas with each other, which is a negligible relationship.

Table13: .Multivariate analysis: Multiple variables and dislike for competition with other

students Variable Disagree Undecided Agree Total

Count Count Count Coun

t

YAMH&S 39 50% 2 2.6% 37 47.4% 78 100%

YAFH&S 27 69.2% 2 5.1% 10 25.7% 39 100%

MAMH&S 1 50% - - 1 50% 2 100%

MAFH&S - - - - - - - 100%

YAMP&A 7 35% 1 5% 12 60% 20 100%

YAFP&A 5 33.4% 1 6.6% 9 60% 15 100%

MAMP&A - - - - 5 100% 5 100%

MAFP&A - - - - 1 100% 1 100%

Discarded

9

Total 79

6 75 169


Table 13, in relation to multiple variables and dislike for competition with other students,

revealed that majority of young adult females in Humanities and Social Sciences were likely to

prefer competitive learning, with reference to dislike for competition. 69.2% of the females

disagreed with the assertion that they did not like competing with other students for good grades.

The middle-aged males were likely to be equally distributed between likely collaborative and

likely competitive learning preferences with reference to dislike for competition depicting a

50% agreement and 50% disagreement.

In Professional and Applied Sciences the majority of young adult males and females were likely

to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to dislike for competition. 60% of both young


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


56


adult males and females agreed with the assertion. The middle-age males and female in

Professional and Applied Sciences were likely to prefer collaborative learning, with reference to

dislike for competition, as demonstrated by 100% agreement with the assertion.

The analysis revealed an R value of .350, which was smaller than the critical value of .497 at 14

df required to reject the hypotheses of no relationship. The analysis also gave an R2 value of

.122, which implies that all the variables combined can explain 12.2% of the variance in dislike

for competition with other students, which is not a strong relationship.

IMPLICATION TO RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

The unique learning requirements for adult learners are essentially a policy issue for colleges and

universities. As institutions of higher learning modify their existing programs and services

geared for adult learners, they must also develop strategies that will advance understanding in

regard to the adult learner by the administrative and instructional staff. This paper identifies the

adult learner preferences in institutions of higher learning. Therefore, institutions of higher

learning will consider based on these findings to develop a critically reflective staff and

instructors who show a willingness to modify existing programs and develop new practices

geared to their adult populations.

CONCLUSION

The respondents predominantly preferred participative learning in the participant /avoidant

category with a few cases of preference for avoidant learning for this category. In the

independent/dependent category, the students showed preference for both independent and

dependent learning in an equal proportion. The classroom is treasured by most students as that is

where they interact with the authorities and colleagues, to enjoy teamwork and group activities.

Although not by a big margin, the collaborative preference recorded majority responses in the

collaborative/competitive category. The inability to decide on learning preferences by some of

the respondents was noted. This indicated that the respondents either did not find the questions

clear enough or may have lacked self-awareness in relation to learning preferences. Preferences

for particular styles show that people are different and that different learning situations may call

for particular styles necessitating a switch in style, depending on the structure of the lesson, the

method or content. This does not suggest in any way that that some styles are better than others.

Results displayed a lot of switching between styles for the independent /dependent and

collaborative/competitive learning preferences among the post-graduate students.

Post-graduate students in institutions of higher learning (Africa International University) were

likely to prefer participant, both independent and dependent and collaborative learning. It was

found out that there was switching between the styles, and inferences were made that this

depended on the learning situation for independence/dependent and the collaborative/competitive

dimensions. This indicates that learning preferences’ are not permanent but may change

according to the learning situation. This is supported by Grasha’s (1972) assertion that students

prefer all the six styles to some degree, but the styles are not adopted exclusively but they vary in


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


57


strengths of preference for the styles. He also found out that the preferred styles vary according

to how a teacher has structured the class. That is to say that the teaching methods, content and

assignments influence the learning preference.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Post-graduate students may be inclined to participative, both independent and dependent

and collaborative learning preferences and therefore teaching strategies, such as group

discussion, class participation, class assignments, class presentations, individual

assignments, guided projects and lectures may be encouraged.

2. The number of respondents who preferred participant learning shows the value attached

to the traditional classroom. As the world moves to newer modes of learning such as E-

learning, a lot of effort will be required to change the mind-set of the learners who are

more comfortable in the classroom.

3. There is need to sensitize learners about developing self-awareness as far as learning

strategies are concerned. This follows evidence of a small fraction of learners who either

did not understand some questions or were totally unaware of their learning preferences,

4. Since learning styles are not permanent predispositions, learners should not be labelled

or stereotyped but should be exposed to various learning strategies as their preferences

will shift based on the particular learning situation.

Future Research This paper identifies various learner preferences. Future studies should be done to investigate the

design and development of instructional strategies to meet the diverse learning styles and needs

of adult learners.

REFERENCES Bowen, D. N. (1984).Cognitive Styles of African theological students and the implications of these styles for

bibliographic instruction. PhD Dissertation. Florida State University.

Brookfield, S.D. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers.

Buconyori, E. (1991). Cognitive styles and the development of reasoning among younger African students in

Christian higher education. PhD Dissertation. Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. Deerfield, Illinois:

U.M.I

Claxton, C.S., & Murrel, P.H. (1987). Learning styles: Implications for improving education practices. ASHE-ERIC

Higher education report No. 4 Washington D.C.: Association for the study of Higher Education Gall, M.,

Joyce, P. G. & Walter, R. B. (2003). Educational research: An introduction. Boston: Pearson.

Grasha, A. F. (1972). Observation on reading teaching goals to student response styles and classroom methods.

American Psychologist 27,144 – 47.

Keefe, J. W. (1979). Student learning styles: Diagnosing and prescribing programmes. InStudent learning styles and

brain behaviour. Reston, Virginia: National Association of secondary Principals.

Messick, S. (ed.) (1979). Individuality in learning. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Mugenda, O. M. &Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Nairobi:

Acts Press.

Nachmias, C. F. &Nachmias, D. (1996).Research methods in the social sciences 5th

edition. New York: St. Martins

Press.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 43-58, October 2016


58


Vella, J. (1995) Training through dialogue: Promoting effective learning and change with adults. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Yount, W. (1999). Called to teach. An introduction to the ministry of teaching. Nashville Tennessee: Broadman and

Holman Publishers.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



RURAL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS MOTIVATION AND ITS EFFECT ON

THEIR RETENTION

Akwasi Yeboah and Dickson Adom

Department of General Art Studies, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,

Kumasi, Ghana

ABSTRACT: This paper presents both qualitative and quantitative studies on the motivation for

teachers teaching in Senior High School located in rural areas and its effects on their

willingness to continue staying in those areas in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Two public Senior

High Schools in the rural areas of Afigya-Kwabre West district comprising two Headmasters

and 120 teachers was selected by the use of purposive and simple random sampling techniques

for the study. The study focused on primary data through interview, questionnaire and

observation. It was revealed that the significant retention factors are the provision and

administration of financial bonuses which include retention/professional allowance and Parents

and Teachers Association motivational allowance. On the other hand, the teachers were very

unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for selecting award

winners during speech and prize giving days. Therefore, governments and policy makers need to

put in place strategies and also implement policies that will serve to improve the working

conditions of teachers teaching in rural areas in order to serve as motivation for their retention.

KEYWORDS: Motivation, Rural Area, Teacher Motivation, Retention, Administration

INTRODUCTION

The sole aim of every organization, whether private or public, is to be able to achieve its goals or

to maximize profit (Riley, 2012). However, this cannot be possible without the help of very

hardworking, skilled, dedicated and highly motivated workers who are willing to support the

management in the attainment of those objectives. As a result, one major concern of employers is

to attract and retain qualified and dedicated workforce that is willing to release its latent energy

and creativity in the service of the enterprise (Cole as cited in Lamptey, Boateng & Antwi,

2013). However, this cannot be possible unless the management of every organization provide a

conducive and an enabling environment for employees to perform their duties. Employers‟

responsibility in creating the enabling environment is to meet the needs of the employees to

serve as motivation for productivity. However, in spite of the numerous investments and

attempts by educational stakeholders to help in the development of education all over the world,

teachers are still refusing rural postings due to concerns about the quality of accommodation,

classroom facilities, school resources, access to leisure activities and health facilities

(Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002). Other concerns include the perception that living in rural areas

involves a greater risk of disease and less access to health care (Towse, Kent, Osaki, Funja,

Kirua & Noah, 2002). The problem is further exacerbated with the majority of student teachers

coming from different backgrounds. Teachers in Ghana tend to come from a higher socio-

economic background than average for the country as a whole (Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002).

Their reluctance to accept rural posting stems from a profound fear among newly trained


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



teachers with a modern individualistic outlook that if you spend too much time in an isolated

village without access to further education, you become „a village man‟ (Hedges, 2002). Those

who even accept seldom stay there longer than 2-3 years (Dankwa, 2011).

Nevertheless, the absolute level of weekly or monthly earnings determines the standard of living

of the recipient, and will therefore be the most important consideration for most employees

(Wabu as cited in Donkoh, 2011). As such employees are very particular and would always want

to see an increase in their earnings. Unfortunately, in spite of the introduction of the single spine

salary structure which was intended to help upgrade the standard of living of public sector

workers, the monthly earnings of teachers is nothing good to write home about as compared to

that of other professionals coupled with the current economic hardship and frequent increase in

prices without a corresponding increase in teacher‟s salary. However, prior studies which used

equity theory as a measure to assess teacher retention in developed economies shows that if

employees see a discrepancy between the outcome they receive from their input as compared to

other employees; those employees would be motivated to do more or less work (or leave work).

An employee's view of fair monetary and non-monetary compensation is obviously subjective,

yet it is a critical factor in determining his or her behaviour.

There is also the proposed 20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas which is

yet to be implemented (Adu-Gyamerah, 2011).Unfortunately, allowances that have been paid to

teacher trainees in Ghana since the 1960s (Opoku-Asare, 2000) with the aim of attracting more

youth into the teaching profession has recently been withdrawn with the justification by

President Mahama that Ghana does not have the financial capacity to maintain the allowance

(The Chronicle report, 2013). This creates suspicion as to when the 20% allowance promised for

teachers will start operating to motivate teachers to stay in rural areas.

Rural Areas

According to Adedeji and Olaniyan (2011), there is no universally accepted definition of a rural

area, however; there may be a common understanding. Nevertheless, the UN Food and

Agricultural Organization, FAO, as cited in Atchoarena and Sedel, (2003) indicates that, rural

areas are generally open areas, with low settled population densities, and a high proportion of the

unsettled land area used for primary production such as agriculture, livestock, forestry, and

fisheries. Kashaa (2012) also describes rural areas as being deprived of facilities such as potable

water, electricity, good roads, school infrastructure, toilet facilities and social services like

internet, telecommunication, TV transmissions and others which deny the people access to

valuable information. Lack of housing, lack of health care and lack of schools for children is

quoted internationally as reasons why many professionals fail to accept rural postings, although

rural settings have the ability of providing family-oriented settings, lower crime rates,

recreational access, fresh air, and an enhanced quality of life (Amoako, 2011).

According to the National Statistical Service of Ghana (2000), a rural area in Ghana is a locality

which is either far or not too far from an urban area, has a pastoral landscape, unique

demographic structures and settlement patterns, isolation, extractive economic activities and a

population less than 5,000 people. In this regard, Amoako cites the two most commonly

mentioned disadvantages of rural settings as professional isolation and lack of opportunity for


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



professional development. However, recent advancements in telecommunications and interactive

networking through the Internet may decrease feelings of isolation and improve rural job

satisfaction levels in the future. In spite of these, enrollment has increased more rapidly in urban

areas than in rural areas, and increasingly, the majority of African children out of school are rural

children. This has come about as a result of the disparities between rural areas and urban centres.

Teaching in Rural Areas

Rural populations in Africa are expected to increase by 147 million and keep rising until 2040

(United Nations Development Planning, 2009). The report further indicates that by 2050, Africa

will have 0.8 billion rural inhabitants while Rurality in the developed world is reduced as a

consequence of urbanization. The UNDP‟s 2009 Africa Rural Population Report indicates that

the demand for rural education and teachers will increase with the growing rural population.

However, a number of teachers are refusing rural postings due to concerns about the quality of

accommodation, classroom facilities, school resources, access to leisure activities and health

facilities (Akyeampong& Stephens, 2002). Moreover, their reluctance to accept rural posting

stems from a profound fear among newly trained teachers with a modern individualistic outlook

that if you spend too much time in an isolated village without access to further education, you

become, a village man (Hedges, 2002).In addition, the absence of female teachers in a school is a

missed opportunity to provide meaningful professional female role models to young women and

men on a daily basis (Rihani, 2009).Besides, pupils in urban areas are very lucky to be exposed

to social life and can easily grasp what their teachers impart and simply pass their exams unlike

pupils in deprived communities. As a result, many countries report that teachers express a strong

preference for urban postings all because students‟ performance is measured largely by their

students‟ achievements and not the facilities available, the teaching and learning materials or the

location of the school (Ankomah, 2005).

Teacher Motivation

Teachers are always regarded as a powerful resource in any educational system; however,

teacher job satisfaction is rarely considered (Garrett, 1999). Incentives, which bring about job

satisfaction, are a key factor in teachers‟ quality and the commitment to the teaching

organization (Klecker & Loadman, 1996). In addition, teacher job satisfaction contributes not

only to teachers‟ motivation and improvement but also to students‟ learning and development

(Perie, Baker & Whitener, 1997). In any human resource management policy, employee

incentive and recognition schemes have become very significant elements (Yeboah, 2012).

One‟s choice to enroll and remain in the teaching profession can be highly influenced by a

change in teacher motivation, as well as performance in the classroom. Glewwe, Ilias and

Kremer (2003) opine that teachers in developing countries respond more positively to incentives.

The authors cite a study that evaluated the effect of a randomized teacher incentive programme

in Kenya in which financial bonus was offered to teachers whose students achieved higher scores

on a standardized examination. The results revealed that the teachers in the study increased their

effort to raise student test scores by offering more test-preparation sessions but once the

application of the financial bonus ended and the teachers had no chance of earning additional

money, their effort dwindled and the performance of the students also dropped. Adedeji and

Olaniyan (2011) have argued that a major incentive for teachers to be located in rural areas is the

provision of housing. Where teachers cannot live near the school, they are likely to spend a lot of


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



time travelling, often to the detriment of their school work. Mulkeen (2005) says that in 2005 in

Uganda, 15 percent of the school facilities grant was allocated to the construction of houses for

teachers. This helped by providing accommodation for many teachers and eventually motivated

them to stay in rural areas.

Teacher Retention

People will always join and leave organizations either voluntarily or against their wishes. As

such, what may motivate one to act in a particular way may not do same for another. No wonder

there is a rather large and growing body of research dedicated to exploring factors that predict

teacher retention. Collectively, the findings on teacher retention demonstrate the power of wage,

opportunity costs, non-wage attributes, and teacher characteristics in predicting teacher retention

no wonder individuals will become or remain teachers if teaching represents the one of the most

attractive activity to pursue among all activities available to them.

Today, most institutions, especially the private sector educational institutions are becoming

aware that they must become increasingly creative and innovative when it comes to retaining and

satisfying their teachers however, this is not the same in public schools. Most private sector

schools are offering several incentives packages to keep their members and to also perform

higher compared to government institutions. These include free transportation, mortgage

facilities, and free medical care as well as free teachers‟ child education (Acheampong and Ofei,

2003) no wonder their students normally perform better academically.

METHODOLOGY

A mixed method research design was employed in the study. The primary data were obtained

through interviews (one-on-one), questionnaire administration and observation from a purposive

sample of two public Senior High Schools located in rural areas in one district in Ashanti

Region, Ghana. Purposive sampling was also adopted to obtain a fair representation of student

respondents who have had enough experience and contact with their teachers, one Deputy

District Director in charge of Planning and Statistics, the two Headmasters and teachers of the

selected schools. 60% (120 teachers) from the two public Senior High Schools were deemed as

the accessible population to solicit relevant data. For reasons of anonymity and in line with much

qualitative inquiry, the sampled schools are only identified in this article as Schools A and B.


The demographic characteristics of the respondents were used because they could have some

influence on a person‟s behavior and their role in increasing teacher retention in rural areas. The

demographic characteristics considered for the study were sex, age and marital status.

Gender of respondents

Out of the 120 teacher respondents, only 19 (representing 15.8%) were females with 101 (or

84.2%) being males. Males clearly dominate the teacher population in the study schools. This

shows a clear gender imbalance in favour of male teachers. The dominance of male teachers in

the rural Senior High Schools, is a missed opportunity to provide meaningful professional female


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



role models for female students on a daily basis (Rihani, 2006).Again, the presence of female

teachers in a school can help make the school environment a safer place for girls. However, this

might have arisen because, posting unmarried women to isolated rural areas may be seen to limit

marriage prospects, as such women are normally not posted to rural areas as a matter of policy in

Ghana and other African countries (Hedges, 2002).In addition, Gaynor (1998) opines that in the

case of married women, a rural posting may mean separation from her family, as the husband

will not be willing to move for cultural or economic reasons.

Age of respondents

Age influences every aspect of human life. It helps to determine output in terms of employment,

fertility rates, retirement and benefit. The determination of the teacher‟s age was useful to

ascertain the nature of active working force and their relative economic contributions.

Table 3.1 Ages of Respondents

AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

20 -29 15 12.5

30 – 39 64 53.3

40 – 49 32 26.7

50 – 59 9 7.5

TOTAL 120 100

Table 3.1indicates that 15(12.5%) respondents were within the age range of 20-29 years, 64

(53.3%) were within 30-39 years, 32 (26.7) were within 40-49 whilst 9 (7.5%) of them belonged

to the age category of 50-59 years. Translating this into cumulative percentage terms, it is

inferred that the majority of the teachers (92.5%) were within the age range of 20-49 years. This

clearly exhibit a good and healthy blend of most experienced and long serving personnel and a

majority of young personnel who would take over the minority sample of teachers who will soon

go on retirement. Moreover, because rural settings have the ability of providing family-oriented

settings, lower crime rates, recreational access (Amoako, 2011), the marital variable was

important for the study in identifying teachers' willingness to stay in the rural area.

Table 3.2 Marital Status

Marital Status Frequency Percentage

Single 51 42.5

Married 68 56.7

Divorced 1 0.8

Total 120 100

From table 3.2, the study identified that (51) 42.5%of the respondents were single,(68) 56.7%

married, (1) 0.8% were divorced. The trend is indicative of the fact that about 56.7% of them

have an extra duty of taking care of their families which provides the opportunity for developing

their quality of love for children, honesty, compassion and fairness. These qualities according to

Strong et al (2011) are very vital in the determination of teacher quality.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



Available motivational incentives and teachers' level of satisfaction

The motivational incentives considered for the study were the additional available service

benefits in the rural areas which teachers were enjoying apart from their salary. These benefits

could attract andmake these teachers stay in spite of the attractions of urban areas which attract

others to leave. However, the term “Satisfied” been used in this contest means the feeling of

equity after comparing how an incentive is administered in their school with others and

“Unsatisfied” means the feeling of inequity or unfairness.

Table 3.3 Incentives and levels of satisfaction

Incentives

Satisfied

Percentage

of teacher

population

Unsatisfied

Percentage

of teacher

population

Free accommodation 36 30 97 80.8

Transportation by school 54 45 84 70

Free meals 63 52.5 36 30

PTA motivational allowance 84 70 57 47.5

Criterial for awards during speech and

prize giving days

38 31.7 82 68.3

Car maintenance allowance 23 19.2 66 55

Retention/professional allowance 105 87.5 15 12.5

Out of the seven incentive packages identified in table 3.3, it is evident that teachers were more

satisfied with the provision and administration of the financial bonuses which include

retention/professional allowance (87.5%) and Parents and Teachers Association motivational

allowance (84%). This revelation confirms Glewwe, Ilias and Kremer (2003) assertion that

teachers in developing countries respond more positively to monetary incentives. This also pre-

supposes that if the20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas which is yet to

be implemented (Adu-Gyamerah, 2011) becomes a reality, majority of teachers will be attracted

to rural areas and those who are already there will not be willing to leave. On the other hand, the

teachers were very unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for

awards during speech and prize giving days since they had to find their own accommodation and

also foot the bill, had to struggle with native over public transport coupled with the long distance

and favoritism, respectively.

Willingness to remain in school

To identify the teacher‟s willingness to remain at post when they compare their working

environment and conditions of service with their colleagues in urban Senior High Schools, 47

(constituting 39.2%) of the 120 teacher respondents said they would continue to work in the rural

area. On the other hand, 73 respondents (representing 60.8%) were not willing to continue

working in the rural area. From this response, it is clear that the majority of teachers sampled for

the study was not satisfied with their current location because of the differences in motivation

they perceive exist between their circumstances and their colleagues in the urban schools. This

finding confirms Adams (1962) Equity Theory, which states that “if workers perceive a level of

inequity or unfairness when they compare their work situations to that of others such as peers


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



and co-workers, they have the motivation to change the situation, in order to generate at least in

their mind a much better or more accurate sense of fairness”.

CONCLUSION

The study has focused primarily on rural Senior High School teacher‟s motivation and its effect

on their retention in the rural area. Although the study was done on a small scale, the evidence

provided indicates that majority of the teachers in both schools were males whilst females

formed the minority proving that female teachers are less willing to accept a rural posting. In

addition, out of the seven incentive packages been enjoyed by the rural SHS teachers as revealed

by the study, it is evident that teachers were more satisfied with the provision and administration

of the financial bonuses which include retention/professional allowance and Parents and

Teachers Association motivational allowance. On the other hand, the teachers were very

unsatisfied with their accommodation, means of transport and criteria for selecting award

winners during speech and prize giving days.

Therefore, governments and policy makers need to put in place strategies and also implement

policies (such as the 20 per cent allowance for teachers in rural and deprived areas) that will

serve to improve the working conditions of teachers teaching in rural areas. This will ultimately

help motivate them.If such measures are implemented for them to meet their expectations, they

can be retained and developed to constitute competitive assets for the Ghana Education Service

(GES). Therefore, there is the need for a spirit and philosophy of realism and optimism for all

stakeholders interested in rural education development to provide rural Senior High School

teachers with good quality motivational policies based on informed dialogue with the teachers.

REFERENCES

Acheampong, C. B. & Ofei S. B. (2003) Employee Work Engagement and Organizational

Commitment: A Comparative Study Of Private and Public Sector Organizations In Ghana.

www.eajournals.org/.../Employee-Work-Engagement-and-Organizational-Commitme

Adedeji, O. S. & Olaniyan, O. (2011). Improving the Conditions of Teachers and Teaching in

Rural Schools across African Countries. UNESCO-IICBA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Adu-Gyamerah (2011). Teachers in Rural Areas to Receive 20 percent Allowance. Daily

Graphic Publication on 7th July, 2011. Retrieved 4th October, 2013. http://www.

modernghana.com/news/338564/4/govt-to-implement-20-rural-allowance-for-teachers.html

Akyeampong, K. & Stephens, D. (2002). Exploring the Backgrounds and Shaping of Beginning

Student Teachers in Ghana: Toward Greater Contextualization of Teacher Education.

International Journal of Educational Development 22 (3-4): 262-274.

Amoako, P. (2011). Identifying Pull and Push Factors of Health Workers in Rural Ghana (A

Case Study – MpohorWassa East District in the Western Region), Master or Art Thesis,

KNUST.KNUST Space.

Ankomah, A. Y. (2005). The Success Story of Private Basic Schools in Ghana: The Case of

Three Schools in Cape Coast. Journal of Educational Management 4, 1-4.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



Atchoarena, D. &Sedel, C. (2003). “Education and Rural Development: Setting the Framework”;

in Atchoarena, D. & L. Gasperini (Eds.). Education for Rural Development towards new

Policy Responses. A joint study conducted by FAO and UNESCO.

Boateng, J. A. (2003). Factors Affecting the Academic Performance of Students in Some

Selected Senior Secondary Schools in the Kumasi Metropolis. M.ED Thesis, University of

Cape Coast.

Dankwa, K. D. (2011).Attracting teachers into rural areas, Ghanaweb.com http://

www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=256209

Donkoh, D. (2011). Motivation and Performance of Teachers: A Study of Secondary Schools in

EjisuJuaben Municipality. Master of Art Thesis, KNUSTspace, KNUST Library (PG

3102409).

Garrett, R. M. (1999).Teacher job satisfaction in developing countries.ERIC Clearinghouse on

Educational Management (ERIC Digest, No.ED 459 150).

Gaynor, C (1998).Decentralisation of Education: Teacher Management, The International Bank

for Reconstruction and Development. Washington D.C: World Bank.

Glewwe, P., Ilias, N. & Kremer, M. (2003).Teacher Incentives.NBER Working Paper

9671.National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass.

Hedges, J. (2002). The Importance of Posting and Interaction with the Education bureaucracy in

becoming a teacher in the Ghana‟s International Journal of Educational Development, 22,

353–366. http://un.org/undp/.

Imazeki, J. (2005). Teacher salaries and teacher attrition. Economics of Education Review,

24(4), 431-449.

Kashaa, N. (2012). Teachers In Deprived Communities: Is it a Punishment? Ghana

web.com.http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHome Page/NewsArchive/ artikel.php?

ID=220737

Klecker, B. &Loadman, W. E. (1996). Exploring the Relationship Between Teacher

Empowerment and Teacher job satisfaction. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational.

Lamptey, R. B., Boateng, M. S. &Antwi, I. K. (2013).Motivation and Performance of Librarians

in Public Universities in Ghana.Library philosophy and practice (e-

journal).http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2203&

context=libphilprac

Mulkeen, A. (2005). Report on Ministerial Seminar on Education for Rural People in Africa:

Policy Lessons, Options and Priorities. Teachers for Rural Schools: A challenge for Africa.

Opoku-Asare, N. A. A. (2000). “Using Non-Book Instructional Materials to Promote Quality

Teaching and Learning in Ghanaian Primary Schools – Rhetoric and Reality”.MPhil Thesis,

University Of Sussex, Brighton.

Otoo, D. (2007). Comparative Study of Academic Performance of Public and Private JSS

Graduate: A Case Study Of Four Selected Senior Secondary Schools in the Kumasi

Metropolis. M.ED Educational Administration and Management Thesis. Centre for

Educational Policy Studies, University of Education, Winneba.

Perie, M., Baker, D. P. & Whiterner, S. (1997).Job Satisfaction Among America‟s Teachers:

Effects Of Workplace Conditions, Background Characteristics, and Teacher Compensation.

Washington: U.S. Department of Education.

Rihani, M. A. (2009). Academy for Educational Development, Washington, D.C. (aed-

keepingpromisegirlsecschooledu.pdf-Adobe Reader).

http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features/artikel.php?ID=256209


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 84-92, October 2016



Riley, J. (2012).Theories of Motivation, Tutor2u.com.http://www.tutor2u.net/ business/

gcse/people_motivation_theories.htm

The Chronicle, (2013),We Can‟t Maintain Teacher Trainees‟ Allowance -

Mahamahttp://thechronicle.com.gh/we-cant-maintain-teacher-trainees-allowance-mahama/

Tomlinson, A. C. & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated Instruction andUnderstanding

by Design: connecting content and Kids‟, Association for Supervision and Curriculum

development, Alexandria, Virginia USA.

Towse, P. K., Osaki, D., Funja&Kirua, N. (2002). Non-graduate Teacher Recruitment and

Retention: Some Factors Affecting Teacher Effectiveness in Tanzania. Teaching and

Teacher Education 18, 637-652.

UNDP (2009). Revision of World Urbanization

Prospects.http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm

Yeboah, S. (2012). The Impact of Human Resource Management Practices on Teacher Retention

in the Ghana Education Service: A Case Study of schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis,

KNUST SPACE (thesis & dissertation).

http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49.htm


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


35


COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS OF CONFLICT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EBONYI STATE

Dr. Stella Ngozi Nduka-Ozo

Department of Educational Foundations, Ebonyi State University, PMB 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria

ABSTRACT: The study investigated the counselling implications of conflict and conflict resolution in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. Specifically the study assessed the extent to which school principals adopt dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction in conflict resolution in their schools. The population for this study consisted of all the principals of public Secondary Schools numbering one hundred and fourty-seven (147), and the entire population was used. Four research questions and one null hypothesis guided the study. The instrument for data collection was a four point modified likert-type questionnaire – conflict resolution assessment scale (CRAS), while the data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation for the research questions and t-test for the hypothesis. The findings showed that while sanction was used to a great extent, dialogue, arbitration and third party were used to a low extent. Again, gender of principals does not significantly influence the type of conflict resolution method used. The counselling implications of the findings were outlined including: the fact that people have problems which should not be taken for granted or sub-summed in their conflict. Recommendations were also made for example that Government officials who relate with the school authority should also be involved in dialogue, arbitration and third party methods of conflict resolution instead of just using sanction as the only option.

KEYWORDS: Conflict, resolution, counselling, dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction

INTRODUCTION

Conflict has been defined by Ezegbe (1997) as mutual hostility in inter-human relationships. Okoro (1998) identified intra-personal conflict – where an individual has two competing desires which he is unable to resolve, and inter-personal conflict – where two or more individuals or group of people are incompatible. He further observed that conflict is an obstacle in achieving desired goals, and if unresolved degenerate to enmity, clashes and wars. Conflict resolution as explained by Alu (2002) entails the use of various methods like dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction to bring about peace among organizations and between individuals. In sanction various bodies are made to impose sanctions on the conflicting parties unlike dialogue where the people in conflict are brought together to expose them to the issues of conflict with a view to helping them to understand the matters clearer.

Again in arbitration an arbitrator is invited to settle the conflict by appealing to the conscience of those concerned, this is similar to the third party where the conflicting groups are invited by a third party who urges them to open up and speak out their grievances. The problem of role conflict in the school system and strike actions by teachers; in addition to other problems like indiscipline, examination malpractice, drug abuse and cultism amongst students need proper approach in conflict resolution which in turn has counselling implication for effective school management.


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


36


Counselling as Mallum (1990) saw it is “an interpersonal relationship, usually between two individuals, a Counsellor and a Client, in which the principal objectives are the development of the client, the improvement of his welfare and the amelioration of his problems.” (Pg 14). School teachers and students need to resolve their intra-personal problems which could affect their self concept and perception with its concomitant interpersonal relationship with others. A counsellor could be that arbitrator or third party needed in conflict resolution or even the person dialoguing with the warring parties in conflicts.

THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

The Gestalt theory of Perls (1894-1970) works on the assumption that human beings always work as a whole. Each person is not a summation of parts, but a coordination of all parts. The idea of wholeness or gestalt controls the health of a person as an appropriate balance of the coordination of all of what we are. The ego boundary is the differentiation between self and others. A person is able to identity with his friends, colleagues and family members; which results in cohesion, co-operations and love. Alienation, on the other hand results in strangeness, unlikeness and conflict. Conflict has already been defined by Ezegbe (1997) as mutual hostility in inter-human relationships, and inter-personal conflict. This means that two or more individuals or group of people are incompatible. This incompatibility may arise as a result of compartmentalization of an individual instead of seeing the „gestalt‟ or wholeness that he embodies. Fundamental in the concept of gestalt therapy is the clash between social and biological existence. May people try to actualize what they „should‟ be like rather than actualize themselves as they are? Conflict arises due to this false self.

Purpose of the Study

The study sought to assess the extent to which school principals adopt dialogue, arbitration, third party and sanction in conflict resolution in their schools, and the counselling implication of neglecting these methods of conflict resolution.

Research Questions

Four research questions guided the study and they include, to what extent:

1. sanction is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution;

2. dialogue is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution;

3. arbitration is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution, and

4. third party is used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution.

Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution methods adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State.

METHODS

A descriptive survey research design was adopted to collect data from all the principals in the government owned secondary schools in Ebonyi State, and since their number is manageable the entire population of 147 was used. (Source: Planning and Research Statistics Unit of Secondary Education Board Ebonyi State - 2011). The instrument for data collection was a researcher made instrument named conflict resolution assessment scale (CRAS) which is a


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


37


four – point modified likert scale with four clusters (A - D) and 20 items. The instrument was subjected to face, content and construct validation by experts in the field. The reliability of the instrument was established for internal consistency using the Crombach Alpha which yielded reliability co-efficient of 0.69 after a test-retest carried out on some selected teachers in the state. The supervisor related factor variable was controlled by the pre-survey workshop for all research assistants

RESULTS

The results of the study were presented in tables 1 – 5 based on the research questions and hypothesis raised.

RESEARCH QUESTION ONE

To what extent is sanction used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?

Table 1: Mean rating of the extent to which sanction method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Items Methods related to sanction x

SD

1 Withholding the salary of principals and teachers by the Secondary Education Board

3.88 1.03

2 Denial of fringe benefits of conflicting parties by the principal 3.54 1.12

3 Denial of promotion of principals and teachers by the Secondary Education Board.

3.26 0.44

4 Demotion of principals and teachers by the secondary Education Board.

3.09 0.34

5 Suspension of students from school by the principal 3.45 0.34

Grand mean 3.46 0.65

Results of data analysis presented on Table 1 show that sanction is adopted to a great extent in resolving conflict in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. The grand mean for the responses is 3.46 and SD of 0.65 on a 4-point scale. The grand mean is above 2.5 decision rule; therefore it shows that sanction is used to a great extent.

Research Question Two

To what extent is dialogue used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


38


Table 2: Mean rating of the extent to which dialogue method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Items Methods related to dialogue x

SD

6 Dialogue between students and students 1.86 0.72

7 Dialogue between students and teachers 2.24 0.64

8 Dialogue between teachers and principals 2.32 0,57

9 Dialogue between school authority and Government 1.96 0.65

10 Dialogue between principal and community leaders 2.76 0.62


Results of data analysis presented on Table 2 shows that dialogue is adopted to a less extent in resolving conflict in secondary schools in Ebonyi State. On the 4-point scale grand mean responses is 2.13 which is below the 2.5 decision rule and hence it can be concluded that dialogue is not used to a great extent.

Research Question Three

To what extent is arbitration used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?

Table 3: Mean rating of the extent to which arbitration method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Items Methods related to arbitration x

SD

11 Round table discussion between staff and government officials 2.16 0.46

12 Intervention of the parents/teachers association (PTA) 2.23 0.57

13 Intervention of the clergymen in the community 1.86 0.62

14 Intervention of the community leaders 2.26 0.64

15 Joint arbitration conferences between community staff and conflicting parties

2.32 0.58


The summary of the results presented in Table 3 indicated that for arbitration the grand mean 2.16 below the 2.5 decision rule showing the arbitration is employed to less extent in Ebonyi State secondary schools for resolving conflicts.

RESEARCH QUESTION FOUR

To what extent is third party used by school principals in Ebonyi State to achieve conflict resolution?


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


39


Table 4: Mean rating of the extent to which third party method is adopted for conflict resolution is secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Items

Methods related to third party x

SD

16 Invitation of the principals and teachers by government officials for mediation

1.65 0.64

17 Invitation of students in conflict by teachers 2.67 0.62

18 Invitation of students and teachers by the principal 2.86 0.64

19 Invitation of the conflicting parties by the community association 1.76 0.58

20 Invitation of the conflicting parties by the stakeholders of the school

2.24 0.58


The result of the data analysis for table 4 also shows that third party is employed to less extent as a method of conflict resolution in Ebonyi State secondary school; since the grand mean for the items amounted to 2.23 which is also less than the decision rule of 2.25.

Hypothesis

Ho: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution method adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Table 5: t-test statistic table showing conflict resolution methods used by male and female principal of secondary schools in Ebonyi State

Item Variable x

SD t-cal Alpha t-

critical

Decision

1 Male

female

1.679

1.348

0.704

0.758

1.60 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

2 Male

female

3.692

3.511

0.817

0.616

1.88 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

3 Male

female

2.496

3.767

0.575

0.437

1.21 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

4 Male

female

1.274

1.224

0.599

0.362

0.74 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

5 Male

female

2.793

3.813

0.794

0.446

0.95 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

6 Male

female

3.830

3.476

0.377

0.577

6.60 0.05 1.96 Reject

Ho

7 Male

female

2.526

3.768

0.513

0.433

0.76 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

8 Male

female

1.076

2.377

0,712

0.486

6.37 0.05 1.96 Reject

Ho

9 Male

Female

2.427

3.273

0.668

0.828

1.04 0.05 1.96 Reject

Ho

10 Male

Female

3.071

3.391

0.704

0.578

3.30 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

11 Male

Female

1.467

1.332

0.215

0.533

0.14 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

12 Male

female

2.153

2.771

0.242

0.722

0.13 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


40


13 Male

Female

3.207

3.430

0.592

0.531

3.53 0.05 1.96 Reject

Ho

14 Male

Female

2.437

2.122

0.536

0.678

0.24 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

15 Male

Female

1.483

1.610

0.836

0.638

-1.51 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

16 Male

female

3.732

3.563

0.416

0.479

1.25 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

17 Male

Female

3.421

3.209

0.577

0.754

0.43 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

18 Male

Female

3.582

3.546

0.542

0.489

0.60 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

19 Male

female

3.124

3.295

0.634

0.657

1.32 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

20 Male

Female

3.365

3.487

0.587

0.657

-1.63 0.05 1.96 Accept

Ho

The summary of data analysis for table 5 indicates that for individual items 1,2,3,4,5,7,9,11,12,14,15,16,17,18,19 and 20 have their t-critical value greater than the t-calculated while only 6,8,10 and13 have their t-calculated greater than t-critical value – 1.96 at the 0.05 level of significance. Based on the decision rule the null hypothesis was accepted, hence it was concluded that there is no significant difference in the mean rating of the conflict resolution method adopted by the male and the female principals in secondary schools in Ebonyi State.

COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS

Perls (1971) saw the goal of Counselling/therapy as the client‟s maturation and the removal of “blocks that prevent a person from standing on his own feet.” The group leader/Counsellor in Gestalt therapy helps the members to make the transition from external to internal support by locating the „impass‟ - that is, the place where people get stuck – the point at which they avoid experiencing threatening feeling and attempt to manipulate others by playing the game of helpless, lost, confused and stupid. The Gestalt therapy will aid in making people to take responsibility for their actions instead of blaming others for their problems, which is what happens in a conflict situation. Again, the implication of Mallum‟s definition of counselling (1990) is that people have problems which should not be taken for granted or sub-summed in their conflict, they need counselling to be able to adjust in the „self‟ dominated societies that they find themselves. Another angle to the amelioration of their problems could also be in the counselling of significant individuals who relate with them in various ways and their attitude towards the needs of others.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the study have revealed that Ebonyi State Secondary School principals employ sanction more than dialogue, arbitration or third party in conflict resolution in the school system. It appears that many of them may not be aware of the various methods of conflict resolution. It is therefore recommended that:


Vol.4, No.11, pp.35-41, October 2016


41


1. Workshops or seminars be organized to train school teachers and head teachers on the various methods of conflict resolution to help them in resolving conflicts that arise in the course of their discharging their duties.

2. Government officials who relate with the school authority should also be involved in dialogue, arbitration and third party methods of conflict resolution instead of just using sanction as the only option.

3. Guidance counsellors should be posted as a matter of necessity to all the schools, since they are trained to use dialogue and to arbitrate between conflicting parties as significant third parties in resolving conflicts.

REFERENCES

Alu, I. (2002). Conflict and conflict management in secondary schools in Nigeria. Nigeria Research in Education, 7, 37-46.

Ezegbe, C. (1997). Management of conflict in Nigerian Education System. In A.N. Ndu, L.O. Ocho and B.S. Okeke (Eds.), Dynamics of Educational administration and management: The Nigerian perspective. Awka: Meks Publishers Ltd.

Mallum, M. (1990). Guidance and counselling in secondary schools. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Nigeria Publishers Ltd.

Okoro, B.U. (1998). Areas and sources of conflict between education officers and political appointees in primary school management. Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Perls, F.S. (1971) Gestalt therapy verbation. New York: Banton Books.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



TECHNICAL SKILLS REQUIRED IN COCOA PRODUCTION BY SENIOR

SECONDARY STUDENTS FOR PROMOTING FOOD SECURITY

J.U. Ndem PhD

Department of Technology and Vocational Education,

Faculty of Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki

Aneke, C, U; PhD.

Department of Technology and Vocational Education,

Faculty of Education, Enugu state University of Technology, Enugu. Phone: 08035494630.

ABSTRACT: This study was carried out to determine the extent of technical skills acquired in

cocoa production by senior secondary students for promoting food security in Cross River State.

The study adopted survey research design. Four purposes of study and four corresponding

research questions, as well as two hypotheses guided the study. The instrument used for the study

was a structured questionnaire which has four points rating scale of Highly Acquired (HA),

Acquired(A) Rarely Acquired(RA) and Not Acquired (NA) with their nominal values of 4,3,2, and

1 respectively. The instrument which contains 27 items was validated by three experts from the

university of Calabar. The specialists’ observations and corrections were incorporated at the

final stage of the production of the instrument. The reliability of the instrument was determined

by using cronbach alpha to analyse the result of the preliminary test, and 0.92 was obtained as

the reliability coefficient. The data collected with the instrument were analysed using mean and

standard deviation for the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses

formulated. The result of the analysis revealed that the senior secondary students of agricultural

science in Cross River State acquired technical skills in pre-planting operations, post-planting

operations as well as harvesting and post-harvesting operations. On the basis of the findings, the

following recommendations among others were that in the teaching of crop production the

teachers should lay more emphasis on those skills in cocoa production that the students do not

have.

KEYWORDS: Technical skills, cocoa production, food security.

INTRODUCTION

There is a high level of unemployment in Nigeria among the graduates (Okoro,2006). Ozoro in

Okoro (2006) reported that the graduates unemployment could be attributed to lack of saleable

technical skills and knowledge that will enable them take up the jobs that are available. He

further explained that graduates who possess skills have many jobs waiting for them, especially

in agricultural sector. Nigeria is agrarian society and as such needs people who possess technical

skills in the area of agriculture in order to take up jobs in agro industries.In Nigeria, farmers

produce food crops such as rice, cassava, maize, yam, potato, and many others as well cash crops


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



like cocoa, coffee, palm oil and kernel, coconut and many others. These crops require special

skills for their production.

Allen (2000) defined skill as a special ability in a particular field, especially acquired by learning

and practice. Delacroix (2000) explained skill as the ability to do something well after learning

and practicing it. Turnbull (2010) stated that skill is the ability to do something well.

According to Okeme (2014), skill is a well established habit of performing task in a manner

acceptable in a particular profession. Ben (2010) explained skills as ability and capacity acquired

through deliberate systematic and sustained effort. Skill is the manifestation of acquired

knowledge, it is a knowledge that is translated into practical use. In the context of this study;

skill means the ability to do anything well and expertly. Technical skill on the other hand is

referred to as the knowledge and abilities needed to accomplish mathematical, engineering,

scientific or computer-related activities or duties, as well as other specific task (Beatrice and

Owusu, 2002). They further explained that technical skill is a talent and expertise a person

possess to perform a certain job or task. Technical skills are the knowledge and capabilities to

perform specialized task. In another way, it is referred to as the skills that is required for the

accomplishment of a specific task. Technical skills need to be developed in individual for

performance of specific tasks. Technical skills are very important for a nation’s natural resource

and for promoting economic stability. The wealth of a society is determined to a large extent by

the development of technical skills in such a society. The behavior of a nation in the comity of

nations may be influenced by the technical skills possessed by that nation. It is also important for

its agricultural values, because most of the agricultural machines require some level of technical-

know-how in their operations (Ben, 2010). Technical skills are required for proficiency in almost

all areas of agricultural production and should be identified and emphasized during training.

Technical skills are required by the senior secondary students for production of crop such as

cocoa. Anochili (2010) identified the following technical skills in cocoa production such as skills

in site selection, skills in pre-planting operations, skills in post-planting operations, skills in

harvesting, processing, preservation and storage.

The agricultural science teachers train the students on the production of crops such as cocoa and

others. The teachers expect that on graduation, the students should be able to acquire adequate

skills in cocoa production. Cocoa belongs to the family of Malvaceae and genus is theobroma.

Cocoa was discovered in the 18th

century at the Amazon basin and later spread to other tropical

areas of South America and West Africa (Opeke, 2007). The cocoa trees seldom reach a height

of 7.5 meters. To flourish well, it needs to be shaded from direct effect of the sun and wind

velocity particularly in the early growth stages. The cocoa tree has broad dark leaves about 25cm

long and pale in colour.

Cocoa can be cultivated in many tropical locations around the world now. (Falusi, 2010). Cocoa

(Theobroma cocoa) was introduced into Nigeria from the American continent in 1874 and was

first planted in Cross River State, but commercial planting began when the crops was re-

introduced into western Nigeria. (Opeke, 2007). Cocoa farming gained prominence in Nigeria in


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



1965, by then Nigeria was recognized as the largest producer of cocoa world wide. According to

Amalu (2000), Nigeria is the fourth largest producer of cocoa world wide, after Cote D’voire,

Brazil and Ghana. In Nigeria, Etung Local Government Area in Cross River State is the second

highest producer of cocoa which made it possible for the federal government to establish cocoa

research institute of Nigeria at Ajassor in Etung Local Government Area in Cross River State.

Etung in Cross River State ranks the second largest producer of cocoa after Ondo State in

Nigeria. Cross River State produces not less than 30,000,00 kilogram of cocoa annually which is

the best grade in the world in terms of flavor and quality (Amalu, 2000).Cocoa is one of the main

cash crops exported to earn foreign exchange in Nigeria. Cocoa production provides employment

opportunity and generates income for the up keep of the farmer and his family. Cocoa is used to

produce numerous consumer products. However, the decline in cocoa production was attributed

to the discovery and exploitation of petroleum in the 1970s. Nigeria has for years over depended

on the exploitation of crude oil as a main source of foreign exchange earnings and thereby

neglecting agriculture as a versatile renewable and sustainable avenue for generating foreign

exchange and employment (Nwuzor,2009). Among other factors responsible for the decline in

cocoa production in Nigeria and Cross River State in particular is the gap created by the

extermination of cocoa marketing board, old age of cocoa farmers, rural-urban drift by the

youths who would have been cocoa farmers, high cost of farm labour and most importantly lack

of technical skill, (Nwuzor,2009).

Cocoa production is one way to enhance food security, Food security is explained as a condition

of assuring the availability of food, price stability of basic food stuffs at the local, national and

international levels. Furthermore, Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (2006) reported

that food security is a situation when all people at all times have both physical and economic

access to the basic food that they need. In the context of this study, food security is

conceptualized as a situation whereby every individual at all times have physical and economic

access to the right type, sufficient and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for a healthy

life. Realizing the importance of agriculture in the economy of Nigeria, the Federal Republic of

Nigeria under the auspices of Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre (CESAC,

1985) incorporated Agricultural Science in the curriculum of secondary schools with the aim of

developing technical skills in crop and animal production.

Cocoa is one of the crops being studied at the senior secondary school. The students who offer

Agricultural Science should be able to show possession of technical skills in cocoa production.

This expectation is based on the general objectives of agricultural science in senior secondary

schools curriculum which includes; to stimulate and sustain students interest in agriculture, to

enable students acquire useful knowledge and practical technical skills in agriculture, to prepare

students for further learning in agriculture and to prepare students for occupation in agricultural

science (CESAC, 1985). It is expected that the students should be able to produce at least two

crops and also rear two animals of their choices. Then, through close observation, it appears that

the senior secondary school graduates cannot manage cocoa farm due to lack of technical skills

required in the establishment and management of cocoa. The need arises for identifying the


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



technical skills required in cocoa production by the senior secondary schools students in Cross

River State for promoting food security.

Statement of the Problem

Nigeria is the fourth largest producer of cocoa in the world after Cote’ voire, Brazil and Ghana

and Cross River State ranked the second largest producer of cocoa after Ondo State in Nigeria,

(Andrew, 2009). However, realizing the importance of agriculture in the economy of Nigeria, the

Federal Republic of Nigeria, under the auspices of Comparative Education Study and Adaptation

Committee (CESAC, 1985) incorporated Agricultural Science in the curriculum of secondary

schools with the aim of developing technical skills in crops and animal production.Cocoa is one

of the crops being studied at the senior secondary school level. Therefore, it is expected that the

senior secondary school students who offer Agricultural Science should be able to show

possession of technical skills in cocoa production on graduation. Students, on graduation from

secondary school should be able to produce at least two crops and also rear two animals of their

choices; but through close observation, it appears that the senior secondary school graduates

cannot manage cocoa farm due to lack of technical skills required to enable them establish cocoa

farms and manage it. It is on the basis of these that it becomes necessary to identify the technical

skills acquired in cocoa production by the senior secondary school students in Cross River State.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study is to determine the extent of technical skill acquired in cocoa

production by the students of agricultural science in senior secondary schools in Cross River

State for promoting food security. Specifically the study sought to

i. determine the technical skills acquired in pre-planting operation in cocoa production by

the SS III students for promoting food security;

ii. determine the technical skills acquired in planting operations in cocoa production by the

SS III students for promoting food security;

iii. determine the technical skills in post planting operations in cocoa production; and

iv. determine the technical skill acquired in harvesting and post-harvesting operation in

cocoa production for promoting food security.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study

1. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in pre-planting

operations in cocoa productions for promoting food security?

2. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in planting

operations in cocoa production for promoting food security?

3. To what extent are technical skills acquired by secondary school students in post-planting

operation cocoa production by the SSIII students for promoting food security?

4. To what extent have the students acquired the technical skills in harvesting and post-

harvesting operation in cocoa production?


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested in the course of the study.

H01: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the agricultural science

students and agricultural science teachers on the technical skills required in pre-planting

operation in cocoa production for promoting food security.

H02: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of the agricultural science

students and agricultural science teachers on technical skills in post-planting operation in cocoa

production for promoting food security.

METHODOLOGY

The study adopted a survey research design; and was carried out in Cross River State of Nigeria.

Cross River is one of the 36 states in Nigeria and situated in the south-south geo-political zone in

Nigeria with Calabar as its headquarters. The state comprises of three(3) senatorial districts

(Cross River south, central and north). The state has eighteen local government areas.

The population for the study was 723 which comprised of 21 agricultural science teachers and

402 senior secondary school (SS III) students in public secondary schools in Cross River State. A

total of 402 students were randomly sampled while all the 21 agricultural science teachers were

used for the study. Therefore, the sample for the study was 423. A structured questionnaire was

used as the instrument for data collection. The questionnaire which contained 28 items were

constructed on four points rating scale of highly acquired (HA), acquired(A), rarely acquired,

and not acquired (NA) with their nominal values as 4,3,2 and 1 respectively.

The reliability of the instrument was determined by carrying out a pilot study using 20

agricultural science teachers and 25 SS III students. The data collected were analyzed using

cronbach alpha to determine the internal consistency of the items which yielded 0.92. The data

for the study were collected by the researchers by administering the instruments to the

respondents. A total of 423 questionnaire were administered while 408 were retrieved which

represents 96.45% retrieval. All the data collected were analysed using mean statistics and

standard deviation for the research questions and the hypotheses formulated were tested using t-

test statistics. In taking decision, a cut off point of 2.50 was used as bench mark for decision

making. Any item in the questionnaire with mean score of 2.50 and above was regarded as the

skills acquired by the senior secondary students in cocoa production and any item with the mean

score less than 2.50 was regarded as skills not acquired by the senior secondary students in cocoa

production. In testing the hypothesis, the t-calculated was compared with t-table and if the t-

calculated was less than the t-critical value, the null hypothesis was accepted and if the t-

calculated was greater than the t-critical, the null-hypothesis was rejected at 0.05 level of

significance.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016




Research question 1: What are the technical skills in pre-planting operation in cocoa production

acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?

Table 1: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills

acquired in pre-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.

SN Item statements X SD Remarks

1 Technical skills in site selection for cocoa farm. 1.89 0.94 Not acquired

2 The technical skills in nursery preparation for planting

of cocoa seeds

2.93 0.92 Acquired

3 Technical skills in land preparation for planting of cocoa

seedlings

2.57 1.15 Acquired

4 Technical skills in selecting appropriate varieties of

cocoa seeds for planting.

2.85 0.99 Acquired

5 Technical skills in soil testing to determine the fertility

of the soil on the cocoa farm

2.29 0.97 Not Acquired

6 Skills in dressing the cocoa seed before planting 2.84 0.95 Acquired

7 Technical skills in identifying healthy seeds of cocoa for

planting

3.04 0.92 Acquired


The table 1 above revealed that items 2,3,4,6 and 7 had their mean scores above the cut off point

which ranged between 2.57 and 2.04 with their corresponding standard deviations, this implies

that the respondents agreed that the students acquired the technical skills in pre-planting

operations those items but items 1 and 5 had their mean score below the cut-off point. This

implies that the respondents disagreed with the two items on selection and determination of

fertility of the soil.

Research question 2: What are technical skills in planting operation in cocoa production

acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



Table 2: Mean ratings and standard deviation of the respondents on technical skills acquired

in planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.


1 Technical skills in inter-cropping of cocoa with other

crops.

2.75 1.03 Acquired

2 Technical skills in marking of the planting holes 2.65 0.99 Acquired

3 Technical skills in determining the depth of planting of

cocoa seeds

2.76 0.98 Acquired

4 Technical skills in determination of planting distance of

cocoa on the field.

2.69 1.01 Acquired

5 Technical skills in seed rate determination in cocoa

planting

2.68 1.07 Acquired

6 Technical skills in the replacement of vacancies after

planting.

2.64 1.03 Acquired


Table 2 above revealed that all the items had their mean scores above the cut –off point of 2.50

with their corresponding standard deviations. This signifies that the respondents agreed that the

students acquired technical skills in planting operations in cocoa production.

Research question 3: What are the technical skills in post-planting operation in cocoa

production acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?


in post-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security


1 Technical skills in mulching the cocoa seedlings after

planting.

3.31 1.05 Acquired

2 Technical skills in provision of shade for the young

cocoa seedlings

3.10 0.87 Acquired

3 Technical skills in pruning of the cocoa plant. 3.09 0.89 Acquired

4 Technical skills in pests and disease control of cocoa. 2.86 1.19 Acquired

5 Technical skills in mixing and spraying agro-chemicals

on the cocoa plants.

2.56 0.97 Acquired

6 Technical skills in determining fertilizer type to be

applied to the cocoa plant.

2.88 0.93 Acquired

7 Technical skills in applying fertilizer using appropriate

methods

2.91 1.08 Acquired


Table 3 showed that all the items had their mean scores above the cut-off point of 2.50 with their

corresponding standard deviations ranging between 0.87 and 1.19. This showed that the senior


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



secondary schools students required he technical skills in planting operations in cocoa

production.

Research question 4: What are the technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting operation

in cocoa production acquired by the senior secondary students for promoting food security?


in harvesting and post-harvesting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security. SN Item statements X SD Remarks

1 Technical skills in recognizing matured and ripe cocoa pod 3.26 0.97 Acquired

2 Technical skills in harvesting cocoa using appropriate techniques. 2.89 1.11 Acquired

3 Technical skills in breaking cocoa pods 2.93 0.92 Acquired

4 Technical skills in fermentation of cocoa seeds. 2.90 1.03 Acquired

5 Technical skills in determining appropriate fermentation method 2.83 1.12 Acquired

6 Technical skills in drying of cocoa seeds 3.01 1.01 Acquired

7 Technical skills in winnowing to remove debris from the cocoa

seeds.

2.83 1.12 Acquired


Table 4 above revealed that all the items in the table had their mean scores above the cut-off

point of 2.50 with their corresponding standard deviations. This implies that the respondents

agreed that the students acquired the technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting of cocoa

in cocoa production.

Table 5: t-test analysis of the mean responses of the students and the teachers on technical

skills acquired in post-planting operations in production for promoting food security in

Cross River State. SN Item statements

Students X

S21

Teachers

X S21

t-cal t-critical Interpretation

1 Technical skills in mulching the cocoa

seedlings.

3.31 0.83 3.14 0.91 -0.39 1.96 *

2 Technical skills in provision shade for

the young cocoa seedlings

3.10 1.05 2.90 0.82 0.43 1.96 *

3 Technical skills pruning of the cocoa

plant.

3.09 0.75 2.59 0.85 0.49 1.96 *

4 Technical skills in pests and disease

control of cocoa.

2.86 0.97 2.76 1.41 0.75 1.96 *

5 Technical skills in mixing and

spraying agro-chemicals on the cocoa

plants.

2.56 0.75 3.28 0.95 -6.89 1.96 *

6 Technical skills in determining

fertilizer type to be applied to the

cocoa plant.

2.88 0.96 3.00 0.89 -5.23 1.96 *

7 Technical skills in applying fertilizer

using appropriate methods

2.91 1.09 2.95 1.07 -0.33 1.96 *

N1 = 387, N2 = 21, *= No significant difference, ** = Significant difference, df = 406


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



Table 5 above revealed that all the items had their t-calculated less than the t-critical with degree

of freedom of 406 at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the null-hypothesis was accepted. This

signifies that the students and the teachers had the same opinion on the technical skills acquired

in post-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food security in Cross River State.

Table 6: t-test analysis of the mean responses of the agricultural science teachers and students

on technical skills acquired in pre-planting operations in cocoa production for promoting food

security in Cross River State.

SN Item statements Students

X S21

Teacher

s X

S21

t-cal t-critical Interpretation

1 Technical skills in site

selection for cocoa farm.

1.84 1.02 1.95

0.86

-0.57 1.96 *

2 The technical skills in

nursery preparation for

planting of cocoa seeds

3.06 0.75 2.80

1.08

0.13 1.96 *

3 Technical skills in land

preparation for planting of

cocoa seedlings

2.72 1.19 2.66

1.15

-6.84 1.96 *

4 Technical skills in selecting

appropriate varieties of

cocoa seeds for planting.

3.05 0.70 2.85

1.06

0.14 1.96 *

5 Technical skills in soil

testing to determine the

fertility of the soil on the

cocoa farm

3.08 0.91 2.14

1.10

2.79 1.96 *

6 Skills in dressing the cocoa

seed before planting

3.19 0.97 2.90

0.88

1.21 1.96 *

7 Technical skills in

identifying healthy seeds of

cocoa for planting

2.98 1.08 2.80

1.03

0.78 1.96 *

1 = 387, N2 = 21, * = No significant difference, ** = Significant difference, df = 406

Table 6 above revealed that all the items had their t-calculated below the t-tabulated of 1.96 with

degree of freedom of 406 at 0.05 level of significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis was

accepted. This implies that the opinions of the students did not differ from, that of the teachers

on the technical skills acquired in pre-planting operation in cocoa production for promoting food

security in Cross River State of Nigeria.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



Major Findings

Based on the analysis of the data, the following findings emanated;

1. Students acquired technical skills in pre-planting operations except the skills in site selection

and the skills in soil testing to determine fertility of the soil.

2. Students acquired the technical skills in planting operations in cocoa production.

3. Students acquired technical skills in post-planting operations

4. Students acquired technical skills in harvesting and post-harvesting operations in cocoa

production.

5. The null-hypotheses formulated were accepted meaning that the opinions of the two groups of

respondents, the students and the teachers did not differ in the pre-planting and post-planting

operations in cocoa production for promoting food security.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The work found that the senior secondary students acquired the skills in pre-planting operations,

planting operation, harvesting and post harvesting operation; but lacked the skills in site selection

and skills in soil testing to determine the fertility of the soil. These findings are in line with

(Beatrice and Owusu, 2002) who reported that graduates of secondary schools can confidently

establish and manage cocoa farms.

CONCLUSION

This study was carried out in Cross River State using the agricultural science students and

agricultural science teachers as the subjects of the study. A survey research was adopted for the

study. The study used structured instrument for data collection and the data collected were

analysed using mean and standard deviation. The finding revealed that the students possessed the

technical skills in pre-planting operations, planting operation, post-planting operations as well as

harvesting and post harvesting operations. The study also revealed that the students lack the

skills in site selection and testing of the soil to determine the fertility of the soil. This study is

concluded by recommending that the government of Cross River State should improve the

welfare of the agricultural science teachers in the state in order to motivate the teachers to

continue to carryout effective teaching in the school, so that the students will be skillful in not

only in cocoa production but in other crops and fields of agriculture.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made;

1. The agricultural science teachers should continue to improve on their efforts in teaching the

students in order to ensure that students continue to acquire the technical skills in cocoa

production.

2. The teachers should drill the students more on the skills in cocoa production in which the

students lack.


Vol.4, NO.11, pp. 59-69, October 2016



3. The Cross River State government should ensure that the teachers welfare are taken care of, so

that the teachers will continue to do their best in teaching the students.

4. The graduating students of senior secondary schools should be encouraged by the Cross River

State government to engage in cocoa production as one of the ways of reducing unemployment

and promoting food security in the state.

REFERENCES Adams, S.O. (2010). Precision farm labour supply for effective cocoa production in Nigeria.

Medwell journal 3(4) 130-200.

Allen, R. (2000). The New Peguin English Dictionary. Finland: Bookwell publishers.

Amalu, U.C. and Abang, S.O. (2000). Survey and constraints analysis of Yam-based cropping

practices in two rainforest communities of south east Nigeria. Journal of agricultural

Economics 2(3) 45.

Andrew, Z. (2009). Producer networks and technology adoption in Ghana. Paper presented at

the 6th

mid-west international economic development conference.

Anochili, B.C. & Tindall, H.D. (2010). Tropical agricultural handbook. Cash crop: Cocoa

Research Institute.

Beatrice, P. & Owusu, G.K. (2002). Towards an integrated pest management of sustainable

cocoa production. Ghana: Macmillan Publishing Ltd.

Ben, C.B. (2010). Vocational technical education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Elsumme Educational

Book Ltd.

Delacroix, L. (2000). Longman Active Study Dictionary. New York: Longman Publishers.

Falusi, A.O. (2010). Economy of cocoa production the future of cocoa industries in Nigeria.

Ibadan: A spirit and park publishers.

Isamgedighi, N. (2004). Determination of training needs of cocoa farmers in Ikom Local

Government Area of Rivers State. Unpublished B. Sc project, Department of agricultural

economics, university of Calabar.

Nwuzor, B.A. (2009). Agricultural extension, its contrietention to agricultural development in

Nigeria. Enugu: Snaap Press Nig. Ltd.

Okeme, I.; Alawa,A.D. & Akwagiobe, C.U. (2014). Entrepreneurial skills required by secondary

school graduates for economic success in cocoa production in Ikom local Government Area.

Journal of education and practice. 15(16) 200-210.

Okoro, O.M. (2006). Principles in vocational technical education. Nsukka: University Trust

Publishers.

Opeke, L.K. (2007). Tropical tree crops. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Turnbull, J. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. 8th

Ed. New

York: Oxford university Press.


Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


11


TEACHERS PERCEPTION AND PRACTICE OF AUTOMATIC PROMOTION

IN ENGLISH SPEAKING PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN CAMEROON

ENDELEY Margaret Nalova

Department of Curriculum Studies and Teaching

Faculty of Education,

University of Buea, Cameroon

ABSTRACT: Differences in the perception and outcomes of automatic promotion may

be due to discrepancies in its implementation. Automatic promotion was conceived in

Cameroon to be accompanied by support mechanisms and it is necessary to find out

teachers’ perceptions and practice of automatic promotion especially against a backdrop

of the inability of many primary school pupils to read and write. Teachers have a

firsthand experience about the outcomes of automatic promotion. Their perception and

practice may provide a basis for improving quality. Thus the study was a survey that

incorporated a 15-item closed ended questionnaire and an interview. 275 primary school

teachers and examiners of the First School Leaving Certificate Examination took part.

Data were analyzed descriptively using frequencies and means. Findings revealed a

negative perception of automatic promotion and discrepancies between the conception

and implementation of automatic promotion which may explain the drop in quality.

Implications and recommendations are discussed.

KEYWORDS: Teacher perception1, Automatic promotion2, Implementation3, Practice4

Primary schools5

INTRODUCTION

Automatic promotion is the practice in primary and secondary schooling of advancing

pupils from one grade to the next higher grade at the end of the school year regardless of

the educational attainment of the pupils (Dictionary of Education as cited in Mehndiratta,

2000). Automatic promotion has polarized education development stakeholders along the

lines of those in support and those against (Okurut, 2015). Opponents of automatic

promotion state that it negatively affects the overall quality of education since it

eliminates competition, de-motivates students and teachers alike hence lowering teaching

and learning outcomes (Koppensteiner, 2014; Taye, 2003; and Chohan & Qadir, 2011).

By contrast, grade retention is viewed as leading to an improvement in cognitive learning

outcomes (Brophy, 2006; Roderick et al., 2002; and King et al., 1999). These arguments

only reveal the fact that the implementation and outcomes of the automatic promotion

policy may be different in various contexts. There are many instances where the scheme

of automatic promotion is uniformly practiced but evaluation aimed at constant

improvement of learning is either totally neglected or paid inadequate attention. As a

result, children often remain weak in the basic skills of reading, writing and computation



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


12


besides other aspects of achievement improvement of learning is either totally neglected

or paid inadequate attention.

Contextual Background

Fonkeng, (2006) reports that in Cameroon the school system continues to suffer from

inefficiency witnessed in the repetition of classes, poor pass rates in official examinations

with large differences in performance between urban and rural schools. Indeed, many

studies (UNICEF, 2001; Amin M.E. 1999) reveal high repeating rates (more than 40%) at

the level of primary schools in Cameroon. To confront this problem, the government of

Cameroon through the former Ministry of National Education initiated with the

assistance of the African Development Bank, the Education project II. This project had as

a main objective, to experiment on the reduction of repetition to about 10% through the

introduction of compensatory or remedial education, competency-based teaching and

automatic promotion in some selected primary schools in the country. Compensatory

teaching within the context of Education Project II refers to any supplementary teaching

outside the official school time (MINEDUC, Education Project II, 2011). The strategies

in compensatory/remedial education proposed by Biehler and Snowman in Fonkeng,

(2006) are as follows: Group work, individual teaching, material for extra and further

teaching, provision for alternative material, re-teaching and re-education

Promotion is based on a policy upon which children change from an inferior class to a

superior class irrespective of the child’s average score. In Cameroon, the primary school

system is divided into three cycles: Class I and II form cycle I; Class III and IV form

cycle II; Class V and VI (VII for Anglophone system) form cycle III. This division into

cycles is based on the fact that the curriculum of each cycle is similar and connected.

Automatic promotion is conceived to be within a cycle. That is, from class I to II, class

III to IV, or class V to VI or VII and not class II to III or IV to V since later promotion

require changing the cycle. Weak pupils who are automatically promoted are given

remedial/compensatory education to reduce deficiencies in preparation for promotion

(through normal examinations) to next cycle. Repeating is thus significantly reduced

because the number of promotion examinations is reduced to three

Generally, in this approach there is adjustment of learning time to the capacity of the

learner. This strategy was experimented in some pilot schools and the outcome was

positive. It was envisaged that should the experiment attain its objective, compensatory

education, competency-based teaching and automatic promotion will be generalized to all

primary schools in the country as a measure to reduce repetition. Currently, collective

promotion is practiced in primary schools in Cameroon but remains a source of debate

especially against a backdrop of the falling standards of basic education.

Teachers are the key players in the implementation process and their beliefs, practices

and attitudes are closely linked to teachers’ strategies for coping with challenges in their



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


13


daily professional life and so are important for understanding and improving educational

processes. Thus the study aims at investigating teacher attitudes and practice of the

automatic promotion strategy in Cameroon.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Repetition and wastage could be curbed and automatic promotion practiced while

ensuring that learning is taking place. Mastery learning uses differentiated and

individualized instruction, progress monitoring, formative assessment, feedback,

corrective procedures, and instructional alignment to minimize achievement gaps

(Zimmerman & Dibenedetto, 2008). The strategy is based on Benjamin Bloom’s Mastery

model, in which following initial instruction, teachers administer a brief formative

assessment based on the unit’s learning goals. The assessment gives students information,

or feedback, which helps identify what they have learned well to that point (diagnostic)

and what they need to learn better (prescriptive). Students who have learned the concepts

continue their learning experience with enrichment activities. Students who need more

experience with the concept receive feedback paired with corrective activities, which

offer guidance and direction on how to remedy their learning challenge. To be effective,

these corrective activities must be qualitatively different from the initial instruction by

offering effective instructional approaches and additional time to learn (Centre on

Instruction).

In order to curb repetition and practice automatic promotion while ensuring learning,

mastery learning is essential because automatic promotion effected in isolation and in the

absence of complementary and more systematic changes may diminish repetition and

drop out but may not necessarily ensure learning (Torres in Taye, 2003).

Findings from a study carried out in Afghanistan by Mansory (2007a) reveal that teachers

are concerned about the low level of achievement in lower primary grades due to

automatic promotion which according to them is due to the high prevalence of repetition

in grade 4.Bonvin et al, 2008, Witmer, Hoffman and Nottis, (2004) found out that

teachers believe in retention but the authors argue that past inquires have found that

teachers' beliefs about retention are influenced by peers rather than by research. Burkam

et al, 2007, Cannon and Lipscomp, 2011 and Range et al., believe that this has caused

teachers to recommend retention for students who have similar characteristics such as

being male, minority and from low socioeconomic backgrounds. According to a study by

Witmer et al. (2004) 77% of respondents who were teachers believed that grade repetition

is an effective way of preventing students’ future academic failure and 94% of the

respondents disagree with the statement that students should never repeat.

Wynn (2010) presented findings from a study conducted among Middle School teachers

in a Florida school district and tried to glean their perceptions about the practice. Survey

responses of 326 teachers in five selected middle schools in Florida and ten interviews

clearly indicated that teachers believe children should be retained. A majority, nearly



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


14


83% disagreed that students should not be retained. Over 65% of teachers indicated that

grade retention allows students who are behind academically to-catch up with peers. In

addition, nearly 39% disagreed that retention is harmful to a child's self-concept / self-

image. However, nearly 80% of teachers agreed grade retention affects a child's self-

esteem.

Jimerson (2002) found that teachers perceived repetition as a successful educational

policy for learning improvement. However, some teachers were not supporting the

former view point of repetition as motivating incentive but think by repeating, children

lose self-esteem and that repetition hinders students’ development. However, the authors

argue that most of the teachers were unaware of the research results on grade repetition.

They had limited knowledge on the long term effects and based their arguments on the

immediate outcomes generated from repetition. In line with this argument Pettay (2010)

gathered evidence which presented a conflict of sorts. Firstly, she stated that her results

revealed that the teachers’ attitudes about grade retention were significantly changed

when they were presented with a research-based article entitled 'Grade Retention and

Promotion'

Halverstadt (2009) in her research found that teachers either agreed or strongly agreed

that a student's maturity level, academic performance and date of birth are factors they

used to determine whether a student should be retained. They also strongly agreed that a

student's maturity level and academic performance are outcomes associated with grade

retention.

Another study undertaken by Range (2009) revealed female teachers and principals

agreed more strongly than males that 'Retention is an effective means of preventing

students from facing daily failure in the next grade level. Furthermore; 58.2% primary

grade teachers reported that the most important factor when considering a student for

retention was, School Academic Performance. 20.4% rated 'Ability' second and 16.3%

gave 'Emotional maturity' as a third reason.

Bowin as cited in Ede (2004) stated that even second grade teachers in Fribourg,

Switzerland who valued achievement as a decisive criterion were also found to utilize

retention if academic objectives were not met. Further to this Troncin (cited in

Ndaruhutse, 2008) reported that there was a generally positive attitude to repetition

among French teachers, with the view that it is a preventative measure helping children to

succeed later on. This research found that teachers believe repetition has a positive

impact on learning outcomes, that the negative psychological impacts on children are

limited and that there are not really any alternatives.

Another study carried out by Crahay (2003) on the views of Belgian and Genevan

teachers found that they had divided views on the entire phenomenon. Some teachers felt

that repetition gives some children the chance to mature and be better prepared for their

future schooling; others felt that making weak children repeat exactly the same



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


15


curriculum seems wasteful. The teachers didn't generally believe that repetition reflected

a failure in their teaching or was an unjust practice. Additionally, the majority of primary

teachers didn't think that repetition has a negative impact on children or on their

confidence but rather they saw it as a way of providing remedial support to weaker

students.

African teachers who were spoken to regarding retention had favourable views and saw it

as an essential tool to assist weaker children by giving them a chance to improve their

knowledge and be more prepared for the higher levels of schooling. (Ndaruhutse, 2008).

CONFEMEN, (2003) reports that nearly 80% of Senegalese teacher thought repetition

was an 'efficient' measure and 18% thought it was 'extremely efficient'. Only 2% believed

that repetition was 'totally inefficient alternative to automatic promotion. It would seem

that most research findings on teachers’ perception on automatic promotion reveal

negative perceptions.

Statement of the Problem

In Cameroon like in many other countries, there is a debate on the effects of automatic

promotion on the quality of basic education where many primary school leavers can

neither read nor write. Even though there are many factors that may account for this,

there seems to be lapses in the implementation of automatic promotion which may be

affecting quality. Automatic promotion was well conceived yet changes in the school

environment have not taken place to support its implementation. Teachers are key actors

in the implementation process. As such they constitute a primary source of data. Research

has revealed that teachers who are positive about retention are unaware of research

results on grade repetition (Jimerson, 2002; Pettay, 2010). However, they have a first-

hand experience. They have observed children go through automatic promotion

throughout primary school and from what they practice and have observed over the years,

they are in a better position to make an assessment of the outcomes of this policy. Their

perception is important for policy makers as a basis to monitor, modify or change the

implementation of the policy to ensure quality.

Purpose of the study

The study aimed at finding out primary school teachers’ perception and practice of

automatic promotion in English-speaking schools in Cameroon.

Research Questions

What are the perceptions of English-speaking primary school teachers about

automatic promotion?

Does supplementary teaching accompany automatic promotion in English-

speaking primary schools in Cameroon?

METHODOLOGY

This research incorporated a mixed method research approach which applied both the

qualitative and quantitative approaches. A total of 275 primary school teachers from the



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


16


two English-speaking regions of Cameroon participated. They were selected using the

purposive and convenience sampling techniques. Experienced teachers who had been

selected as examiners of the First School Leaving Certificate Examination were targeted

and their participation was voluntary. The study made use of a questionnaire which was

administered to 260 participants and an interview involving 15 teachers. The

questionnaire was a 15-item closed ended instrument where participants had to rate items

on the effect of automatic promotion on a four-point scale which required them to

strongly agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree to items most of which were stated

in the negative form. The interview was aimed at complementing data from the

questionnaire as well as finding out from teachers about the practice of automatic

promotion as well as proposals to hierarchy. Data were analyzed descriptively using

frequencies and means. The cutoff point was 2.5. The higher the mean for negatively

stated items, the more negative the perception of the teacher and vice versa.

RESULTS AND FINDINGS

PERCEPTION SA A D SD

Mean Std.

Deviation

Collective

promotion creates

problems for the

next class because

pupils do not fulfill

the basic

requirements of the

current class.

207 43 10 4 3.7159 .60947

Collective

promotion improves

students'

achievement in the

next class.

12 13 144

96 1.7774 .73820

Pupils who were

automatically

promoted catch up

with their peers in

the next level.

9 57 124 69 2.0232 .79207

Collective

promotion enhances

failure rate in the

certificate

examination (e.g

FSCL).

121 80 41 21 3.1445 .95811

Collective

promotion does not 83 123 32 19 3.0506 .86228



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


17


actually reduce

repetition because

pupils end up getting

stuck at the end of a

level.

Collective

promotion does not

help the teacher in

easily identifying

pupils' problem

areas.

97 90 47 26 2.9923 .97850

Collective

promotion results to

a drop in standard of

education.

152 81 13 15 3.4176 .83085

Collective

promotion still leads

to wastage of

resources because

the end of levels is

always crowded.

90 105 47 16

3.0426 .88333

Collective

promotion

encourages students

to work harder.

29 38 108 84 2.0463 .95934

Collective

promotion does not

help students to

struggle to catch up

in areas where they

are weak.

115 101 31 13 3.2231 .84529

Collective

promotion reduces

the probability of

dropping out.

69 126 47 21 2.9240 .87038

Collective

promotion is not the

best way of

improving students'

achievement.

118 112 17 18 3.2453 .85071

Collective

promotion does not

provide enough time

143 95 20 7 3.4113 .74408



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


18


for pupils to catch

up with what they

have not grasped.

The policy of

collective promotion

needs to be revised.

202 58 2 5 3.7116 .57776

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Teachers’ Perception of Automatic Promotion

Research Question One sought to find out the perceptions of teachers on automatic

promotion. Out of 15 items only 1 (Collective promotion reduces the probability of

dropping out) scored a positive mean. Results of the other 14 items all indicated negative

perceptions leading to the conclusion that teachers generally have a negative perception

of automatic promotion. Specifically, the table above reveals that automatic promotion

creates problems in the next class; does not improve pupils’ achievement, enhances

failure in the First School Laving Certificate Examination; does not actually reduce

repetition or minimize wastage because pupils still get caught up at the end of the cycle,

rendering it over crowded; it does not help the teacher of the next class in identifying

students’ problem areas; it results in a drop in educational standards; it does not

encourage students to work harder; it does not provide enough time for pupils to catch up

with what they have not learnt and the policy needs to be revised .

FINDINGS FROM THE INTERVIEWS

Most of the teachers did not think automatic promotion had a positive effect on the

quality of education. This finding corroborated that of the questionnaire. Eleven out of

fifteen teachers expressed this view. Some of the teachers gave the following as reasons

for their opinion: “Many pupils end up unable to read and write,” Pupils are not

motivated to work hard and teachers are tempted not to pay attention to weak students

because they will eventually be promoted, whether they pass or not.” So teachers

generally have a negative perception of automatic promotion

Research Question 2 aimed at finding out if supplementary or remedial teaching

accompanies automatic promotion. Findings from the interview reveal that there are no

laid down regulations on having remedial classes or supplementary teaching outside the

school hours to help slow pupils in classes1-5 and no individualized instruction for pupils

who need it. Teachers use their discretion to help slow pupils for the most part. However,

after the regular sequential assessment (formative evaluation) all participants said they

would revise the test but no special classes are given to slow pupils after that point. As a

strategy to help slow pupils some of the teachers said, “We encourage slow learners by

giving them extra work and home work and mark.” Another said, “I pair the slow and fast

learners in class.” Therefore, generally schools do not have remedial classes or

supplementary teaching for pupils who are not performing well. Only class six pupils are

given extra classes to prepare them for end-course examinations. Also, there is no



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


19


provision for more material for further reading or alternative material. No changes have

taken place in schools to facilitate the implementation of automatic promotion.

As far as suggestions to hierarchy are concerned, participants had the following to say

about automatic promotion, “It should be supervised and monitored. Teachers must be

motivated;” “The concept of the Competency Based Approach has not been mastered by

many teachers and it is supposed to be a component of automatic promotion;” “Slow

learners should not be promoted automatically. They should be given time to assimilate

what they were taught.” “Collective promotion should only be effected if a pupil has

passed in two terms.”

DISCUSSION

There are discrepancies between the conception and implementation of automatic

promotion. Automatic promotion was conceived as a package that involved remedial

teaching, individualized instruction and the competency based approach. Findings reveal

that these elements are not being implemented which could lead to a drop in quality.

Automatic promotion effected in the absence of remedial teaching, a key component of mastery is learning

may diminish repetition and dropout, but not necessarily ensure learning (Torres, 1995). Research reveals

that in Cameroon a 2010 study conducted by the Ministry of Basic Education

(MINEBUB) among primary school students confirms this finding: 49% of Cameroonian

children in the third year of primary school struggled to read, while 27% could not read at

all, demonstrating the urgent need for Cameroon to improve the quality of its education

(World Bank, 2014). The fundamental goal of Basic education is for people to acquire

literacy, numeracy and essential life skills and a lack of literacy and numeracy is strongly

correlated with poverty – both in an economic sense and in the broader sense of a

deprivation of capabilities. Literacy strengthens the capabilities of individuals, families

and communities to access health, educational, political, economic and cultural

opportunities and services (EFA Monitoring Report, 2006) without which Cameroon

cannot attain its vision of becoming an emerging nation by 2035.

Amongst other factors automatic promotion is perceived to be a key factor. If

experienced teachers who have firsthand experience have a negative perception of

automatic promotion, then there is a probability that automatic promotion has negative

consequences. The above perceptions are in line with some of the perceptions of teachers

in literature. Arguments against automatic promotion state that it negatively affects the

overall quality of education since it eliminates competition, de-motivates students and

teachers alike hence lowering teaching and learning outcomes (Koppensteiner, 2014;

Taye, 2003; and Chohan & Qadir, 2011). Teachers believe that grade repetition is an

effective way of preventing students’ future academic failure. (Brophy, 2006; Roderick et

al., 2002; and King et al., 1999). Witmer et al. (2004). However, there is also substantial

research findings that contradict the above assertions.



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


20


IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

Automatic promotion as a policy may have positive or negative outcomes depending on

its implementation. Even though many studies have addressed perceptions of automatic

promotion very few have dwelled on models of automatic promotion which may affect

one’s perception. A closer look at how it is implemented in various contexts may provide

clues to the outcomes. Many developing countries may not set the stage for the

implementation of automatic promotion but anticipate successful outcomes. In Cameroon

there is a discrepancy between the conception of automatic promotion and the

implementation. This may account for the negative perceptions and outcomes. Changes

were not made at the school level to enhance the effectiveness of automatic promotion.

Even though automatic promotion is aimed primarily at minimizing wastage it also calls

for a lot of investment by way of human and material resources especially in countries

which are grappling with large class sizes and low socio-economic background of pupils.

Therefore, a clear distinction needs to be made between the philosophy of automatic

promotion and actual practice. Contextual factors must come into play and so this calls

for various models of automatic promotion which can be successfully applied in various

contexts

CONCLUSION

Teachers’ perception of collective promotion is generally negative because they believe

that it negatively affects quality. However, the key factor in automatic promotion is its

implementation. Automatic promotion should not be done in isolation. In Cameroon

automatic promotion was conceived to be accompanied by the mastery learning approach

which required remedial and individualized instruction, alternative resources the

competency based approach and the new pedagogic approach, but these components are

not applied for the most part and that is affecting quality. As a proposal to hierarchy on

how to improve quality, participants interviewed said, it should be supervised and

monitored, teachers must be motivated, the concept of the Competency Based Approach

needs to be mastered by many teachers, slow learners should not be promoted

automatically; Pupils should be given time to assimilate what they were taught and

automatic promotion should only be effected if a pupil has passed in two terms or it could

be stopped completely. Conclusively there is need for more human and material

resources and a standard model for the implementation of collective promotion which is

monitored to ensure quality.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Based on the discussion above, there is a need to identify models of automatic promotion

of countries recording good performances against those recording poor performances in

order to identify a standard model for certain contexts.



Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


21


REFERENCE

Amin, M. E. (1999) Trends in the Demand for Primary Education in Cameroon,

UPA, lnc, Boston.

Bielker and Snowman (1986), Psychologv Applied to Teaching, Houghton Mifflin

Company; Boston.

Bonvin, P., Bless, G., & Schuepbach, M. (2008). Grade retention: decision-making and

effects on learning as well as social and emotional development. School

Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19(1), 1–19

Brophy, J. (2006). Grade repetition. International academy for education (IAE) and

UNESCO international institution for educational planning (IIEP). Education

Policy Series 6, 1-33. Retrieved from:http://www.unesco.org/iiep/PDF/Edpol6.pdf

Burkam, D. T, LoGerfo, L., Ready, D., & Lee, V. E. (2007). The differentials effects of

repeating kindergarten. Journal of Education for Student Placed At Risk, 12(2),

103–136.Cameroon Economic Update, (2014). Retrieved from

http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/cameroon/publication/camer oon-

economic-update-reexamining-sources-of-growth-the- quality-

CAMEROON, (2001), Education Project 11: Compensatory Teaching, Yaounde,

MINEDUC

Center on Instruction. Applying Mastery Learning Techniques. Retrieved from

http://www.centerii.org/handbook/resources/8_f_applying_mastery

_techniques.pdf

Chohan, B. I., & Qadir, S. A. (2011). Automatic promotion policy at primary level

and MDG-2. Journal of Research and Reflections in Education, 5(1), 1-

20.Committee for Afghanistan (SCA).

CONFEMEN (2003 c) : Le redoublement: pratiques et conséquences; résultats de

l'analyse des pays participant au panel PASEC concernant le Sénégal, Dakar

(Version de février, en cours). Cultural Organization, Paris.

Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2006). Literacy: the core of Education for

All.Retrieved from

http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/full/chapt1_eng.pdf

Fonkeng, E. G. (2006). Strategies to reduce repetition in Cameroon primary

schools. The University of Yaounde I, Faculty of Arts, Letters and Social

Sciences, Department of Psychology, pp 1-19. Retrieved from:

http://www.saga.cornell.edu/saga/educconf/fonkeng.pdf

Halverstadt, L. (2009). Elementary Retention: Factors, Outcomes and Alternatives

Perceived by Elementary Teachers, Kindergarten through Fifth Grade. Retrieved

from March 29, 2014, from

http://www.bakeru.edu/images/pdf/SOE/EdD_Theses/Halverstadt_ LuAnn.

pdf

Jimerson, S. R., Anderson, G. E., & Whipple, A. D. (2002). Winning the battle and

losing the war: Examining the relation between grade retention and dropping out of


http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/cameroon/publication/cameroon-economic-update-

http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/cameroon/publication/cameroon-economic-update-



http://www.unesco.org/education/GMR2006/full/chapt1_eng.pdf

http://www.bakeru.edu/images/pdf/SOE/EdD_Theses/Halverstadt_LuAnn


Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


22


high school. Psychology in the Schools, 39(4),

441457.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pits.10046

Karanezi, X and Rapti, E. (2015).Teachers’ Attitudes toward Traditional and Modern

Teaching Methodology According to RWCT as Well as Teachers’

Perceptions for Teaching as a Profession. Retrieved from

http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.66061

King, E. M., Orazem P. F., & Paterno E. M. (1999). Promotion with and without

Learning: Effects on Student Dropout impact evaluation of education reform.

Paper no.18; the World Bank.knowledge about grade retention: How do we know

what they know? Education, 125,173-193.

Koppensteiner, M. F. (2014). Automatic grade promotion and student performance:

Evidence from Brazil. Journal of Development Economics, 107, 277-290.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.12.007

Mansory, A. (2007 a) A Study of the Drop Out Rate in Afghan Schools. Kabul:

Swedish

Mehndiratta, M. ( 2000). Dictionary of Education. KS Paperbacks, New Delhi.

Ndaruhutse, S. (2008). Grade repetition in primary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa:

An evidence base for change.Center for British Teachers (CfBT) Education

Trust, pp 1-76. Retrieved

from:http://www.consultasrodac.sep.gob.mx/cartilla/pdf/Grade%20

Repetition_FINAL_8 FEB08.pdf

Okurut, J.M. (2015). Examining the Effect of Automatic Promotion on Students’

Learning Achievements in Uganda’s Primary Education. Retrieved from

http://wje.sciedupress.com

Pettay, B.L. (2010). Grade Retention as perceived by kindergarten through Third

Grade Teachers. Theses, Dissertations and Capstones.Paper 785. Retrieved March

22, 2014, fromhttp://mds.marshall.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1790&con

text=etd

Psychology in the Schools, 45 (3), 206-216.

Range, B. G. (2009). The perceptions of primary grade teachers and elementary

principals on the effectiveness of grade level retention: A case study. Unpublished

Doctoral Dissertation, University of Arkansas.

Taye, D. (2003). Automatic promotion practices in the first-cycle of primary

schools in west Gojjam zone. Addis Ababa University, School of Graduate

Studies, pp 1–123. Retrieved

from:http://www.academia.edu/2446791/Automatic_Promotion_Pra

ctices_In_The_FirstCycle_Of_Primary_Schools_In_West_Gojjam_ Zone

Witmer, S.M., Hoffman, L.M., & Nottis, K.E. (2004). Elementary teachers‟ beliefs

and knowledge about grade retention: How do we know what they know? Education,

125,173-193.

Wynn, J. L. (2010). A study of selected teachers’ perceptions of grade retention in a

Florida School District. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of

South Florida.


http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ce.2015.66061


Vol.4, No.11, pp.11-23, October 2016


23


Zimmerman, B. J., & Dibenedetto, M. K. (2008). Mastery learning and assessment:

Implications for students and teachers in an era of high-stakes testing.


a review of educational assessment ... - ppbbk.unimed.ac.id

Documents